MIA 320

CHAPTER1 Engineering in history and Engineering in the modern era

A. The technical formation of human society

Early technologies
Hunter gatherers based in East Africa (+-2 000 000 years ago):
- Portable tools from wood and stone
- Knives
- Carrying yoke
- Axe and spear
- Controlled use of fire
- Clothing, utensils for domestic use and early art forms

Agricultural Revolution (Neolithic Revolution)

Development of agriculture was a critical turning point:
- Agricultural/Neolithic Revolution +- 10 000 – 7000 years ago
- Fertile river valleys provided favourable conditions; examples: Mesopotamia, Tigris &
Euphrates and Nile.
- Neolithic age is generally considered to be the last part of the stone age

Early Engineering – Mesopotamia and Egypt

• Leaver and balance beam in Egypt and 5000BC
• Wheel in Mesopotamia @ 3500 BC. [Mesopotamia = Modern day Iraq]
• Writing around 4000 BC
• Building technology advanced quickly from 3000BC.
o Bricks in Mesopotamia
o Egyptian stone for pyramids (2650 – 2190 BC).
o Great pyramids of Giza were commissioned by pharaoh Cheops around 2600BC

Africa
Metallurgy
- Kushites mined iron ore
- Yoruba fine bronze busts using lost wax method
- Golden Rhino of Mapungubwe
- Benin – bronze sculptures

Building technology
- Ruins of Kush
- Great ruined mosque and palace of the city of Kilwa,
- Granite ruins at Zimbabwe

India
- Dravidian civilization in the Indus valley (2600-1750BC).
- Bronze tools, irrigated cotton farming (4000BP)
- 300BC – India produced crucible steel (Damascus steel)
- 9th century AD – India used the number zero as a number
- Indian numbering system 1-9
China
- Water powered mills and bellows – 100BC
- Silk weaving machinery and rotating winnowing machine – 1BC
- Printing technology by Buddhist monks
- Compass, gun powder, pyrotechnics, horse collar, stirrup, stern –post rudders
- Great wall of China
- Ceramics 5000BC @ 1400degC (7000BP)
- Chinese invented gun powder, silk weaving technology etc etc

Americas
- 1200BC – American pyramids
- High quality ceramics
- Mayan calendar and numbering system
- (Base 20 – Zero 36BC)

Middle East
- 9500BC – Earliest known metal artefacts in Iran (11500BP)
- 5000BC – Copper mace head cast in turkey (7000BP)
- 3500BC – Discovery of Bronze (5500BP)
▪ 10-18% tin
▪ Possibly discovered after careless reduction of ores
- 1500BC – Usable quantities of Iron were 1st smelted

Greeks
- Thales attempted to explain the world based on rationality rather
than myth (624-546 BC)
- Greek mathematics have developed out of political and legal
discourse rather than practical crafts
- Greeks considered the foundation of European knowledge:
Focused on liberal arts, not mechanical ones

Romans:
- With the rise of the Roman Empire (27BC) engineering practices became more clearly recognisable.
- Road building with attention to alignment, foundations, drainage and wear surfaces.
- Roman engineers marched with roman armies. Their job was to build bridges and solve technical
problems.
- The term engineer comes from the Latin term “ingeniator” meaning ingenious person
- Romans (743 BC) inherited Greek knowledge, focused more on practical outcomes
• Wars, roads, Colonization of Europe
 B. The scientific revolution and rise of capitalism
• Beginning of the 17th century (1600’s)
• In Europe, the Renaissance ushered in the Scientific Revolution
• Observation and Experiment began to challenge existing dogma
• The rise of capitalism in the 17th century bought about a renewed interest in the
practice of the trades and a more practical orientation towards knowledge.

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

o Developed the telescope, experimental work on dynamics and strength of beams.
o Galileo discovered that Jupiter had satellites and concluded that the earth revolved around the
sun in the same manner.
o His ideas were renounced by the Church as hearsay, he was imprisoned and forced to recant

Francis Bacon (1561 – 1626)

o First major figure in modern science in Britain
o Enthusiast for industrial science with practical issues
o Inductive, working towards conclusions from experimental data.
o Obsessed with institutionalising science – this dream laid the foundations for the Establishment of
the royal society

Rene Descartes (1596 – 1650)

o Emphasised a deductive approach
o “I think therefore I am”
o “Of all things, good sense is the most fairly distributed: everyone thinks he is so well supplied with
it that even those who are the hardest to satisfy in every other respect never desire more of it
than they already have”
o United algebra and geometry
o Made a division between the purely mechanical animal and the spirit dwelling within – this
allowed scientists to sidestep some moral issues

The rise of capitalism in the 17th century bought about a renewed interest in the practice of the trades and
a more practical orientation towards knowledge.

Robert Boyle (1627-91):

o “experimental philosophy may not only itself be advanced by an inspection into trades, but may
advance them too”

Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) (Newton’s laws of physics)

Exploration, empire and the accumulation of capital

o Europeans set out to explore and seize new resources
▪ 1000’s – Norse explorer Leif Ericson in Vinland and Canada
▪ 1271 – Marco Polo et al. sets of on a 24-year journey into Asia
▪ 1492 – Christopher Columbus (Spain) reaches the Bahamas
▪ 1488 – Bartolomeu Dias (Portugal) Sailed around the Southern tip of Africa
▪ 1497 – Vasco da Gama (Portugal) sails from Portugal to India
▪ 1652 – Jan van Riebeek (Dutch) landed at the Cape
o Spain and Portugal led the way in the 16th century.
o The main economic centres moved away from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic seaboard.
o By the early 17th century the Netherlands dominated world trade
 C. The industrial revolution
• Started in Britain in the mid eighteenth century
• Coalbrookdale
▪ Abraham Darby (1677-1717) discovered how to use coal to smelt iron in
Coalbrookdale
▪ Coalbrookdale was a centre for innovation for nearly 100 years

• Enclosure of common land forced people into towns where they lived by the clock
rather than hours of daylight – they survived by selling their labour power to factory
owners
• Early 18th century Britain ran on wood
• Transport & communication improvements (+ external wealth) transformed Britain
into an industrial society

River improvements (18th century)

• The Duke of Bridgewater built a canal (competed 1761) which reduced the cost of coal in
Manchester by 50%
• By 1858 the last canal was competed. Total length of the canals in Britain was over 6800km
• Downfall of canal was because they were built narrow and small to maximize short term profit.
• From the 1830’s railways began to replace canals

Railway age
• Wrought Iron rails (1825)
• George Stephenson’s Rocket (1829)

Social and economic impact of the industrial revolution:

• Population of England and Wales: 1750: 6 million; 1800: 9 million; 1850: 18 million…
• Decline in death rate, better transport improved food procurement, provision of clean drinking
water and sanitation

D. Innovation and steam power

Steam power

• Thomas Savery: Patented a primitive (pistonless) steam engine in 1698 (the miners friend)

• 1712 Thomas Newcomen developed a practical atmospheric engine to harness steam power.

• James Watt (an instrument maker at the Glasgow university)

He realised that it is wasteful to reheat and cool the same cylinder – he introduced a separate
condenser maintained permanently at the lower temperature. It dramatically improved efficiency
when compared to the Newcomen engine
o He more than doubled Newcomen engine efficiency
He started a partnership with Matthew Boulton. By the end of the 17th century 500 of their
engines were used in Britain

• Richard Trevithick (England 1801) and Oliver Evans (US in 1802)

- They overcome some of the high-pressure difficulties.
- Evans promoted the use of scientific principles
- Trevithick used a new boring machine which permitted a tighter fit
 E. The spread of industrialization
British loss of technical leadership (from 1850 onwards)
o Complacency and conservatism of its society
o Undervaluing and neglecting practical and commercial applications
o Preoccupation with individually fitted final products discouraged standardisation
o Dominance of steam engine delayed the development of other forms of power.
o Restrictions by railway lobby on road transport (including a law that required a man
with a flag to walk in front of any road vehicle)
• Customers willingness to buy standard items (especially in the US)
• Automatic lathes were in the US by 1873
• Increase in gross income (from 1850-1900 average income per head in England increased by
more than 2c/annum)

Germany:
- Bismarck (1815-1898) created a state owned national railroad
- Push to expand foreign trade and emphasis on exporting industrial products
- Promote education relevant to industrialisation
- Manufacturers set up their own industrial research laboratories

Japan
- Latecomer
- The thread displayed by US Commodore Matthew Perry in 1853 forced political acceptance of
the need for rapid technological and social change
- Meiji restoration (1868) saw Japan move from a Feudal society to a market economy.

The steam engine was important but the interplay between new means of production in terms of
machinery, engines, materials, technology expertise and growing requirements of industry and commerce
really drove the industrial revolution

F. Social impacts of the industrial revolution

Social and economic impact of the industrial revolution:

• Population of England and Wales:

▪ 1750: 6 million
▪ 1800: 9 million
▪ 850: 18 million
o Decline in death rate
o Better transport improved food procurement
o Provision of clean drinking water and sanitation
• CHILD LABOUR
• Automation and subsequent job losses
Engineering in the modern era
A. The automobile industry and changes in production
• Internal combustion engine
o Most common in vehicles and portable machinery
o 4 stroke engine: Conceived by Beau de Rochas (1862)
o 4 stroke engine: 1st made to work by Nikolaus Otto (1876)

• Gotlieb Daimler 1st motorcycle 1885

• Karl Benz 1st Automobile 1885
• William Maybach 1st carburettor (Patent 1909)
• Charles Kettering Electric starter (1912)
• Rudolph Diesel Compression engine

• Difficulty with fuel injection

• Diesel powered ships from world war 1

Early automobile industry:

- Initially we had highly skilled craftsmen
- Parts were hardened and had to be manually filed to fit
- Automobile were made to custom order

Ford
- Introduced the moving production line (1913) (said to have been adapted from Chicago meat
works chain conveyors (1890’s)
- Used common gauging system throughout the manufacturing process
- Model T was designed for ease of assembly
- To start with labour turnaround was as high as 380%
- Ford doubled pay rates and held on to his workers but there were little intrinsic satisfaction in
their work

Impact of the automobile

- Started as a toy for the rich but as it became cheaper it gave the middle class the freedom to
travel when they wanted
- It reduced the need for people to live near railway lines and stations as long as there were roads
to connect them
- This expanded the road network
- It created mobility on a scale never seen before (Modern endurance horseback riding = 80-160km
in a day (single rider, no wagon)
- Changed city life and accelerated the expansion of cities into suburbs
- New jobs were formed due to the impact of the automobile
- Expanded the use of credit
- Development of motels and drive-in business
- Negative impact: Traffic congestion, Atmospheric pollution, Fatalities and injuries

Social impacts
Collingridge (1980) –initial understanding of any new technology is so limited that control can only be
arbitrary

Automobile
o Early control measures for dust, frightening horses and scaring cows
o But missed the problem of road toll
o By the year 2000 automobiles killed 25-30million people approaching that of the 2 world wars)
 B. Taylor scientific management
Scientific management and organized labour in the automobile industry
Developed by Frederick Taylor, pursued by Henry Ford
- Aimed to maximize management control and labour productivity
- Base for mass production of many standard items
- Takes away control from the shop floor and people doing the work.
- Despite de-motivating workers it was successful in increasing production
- Ford initially used OEM components but moved rapidly to complete vertical integration (even
had his own steel mill) – this nearly bankrupted him
- US remained wary of organized labour – In contrast Japanese government strengthened union
rights.
- Japanese workers refused mindless jobs – the Toyota production system
- Division of labour to a level of minute detail, allowing just those amounts of skills to be
purchased as were needed for each subdivided element of the overall task
- Separation of planning and execution with planning completely removed from the shop floor
- Time & motion study to find best & quickest way of doing work & to allocate time for doing it
- Payment by piecework, later replaced by machine pacing.

C. Modern manufacturing
• Manufacture: “The making of goods or wares by manual labour or by machinery,
especially on large scale” (Marquarie Dictionary)
• 1890 - 1900 Manufacturing replaced agriculture as the leading source of economic
growth in the US
• In 2010 China contributed 19,8% of world's manufacturing output. It became the
largest manufacturer in the world that year, a position the US held for about 110 years.

• Computer aided machinery

• CNC milling/turning
• CNC EDM machinery (spark eroding, wire cutter)
• CNC 2D Manufacturing (Plasma cutting, Laser cutting, wire cutting, Waterjet
cutting)
• Rapid prototype and 3D printing.
• 3D printing, sintering in power metallurgy, lost wax casting

4th Industrial Revolution

o 1st : Steam Power
o 2nd: Electric Power to create mass production
o 3rd: Digital Revolution
o 4th: Embedded Technology
▪ Artificial Intelligence
▪ Biotechnology
▪ Nanotechnology
 D. Engineering and infrastructure
• Infrastructure: Modern term for a traditional focus of engineering activity
• The larger a project, the wider its consequences.
• NB: Engineers are being drawn into debates on social topics and the answers
often depend more on political, cultural, social aspects than on what the
engineers think is best practice.

Railroad
• Speed changed their perception of distance.
• With steel wheels and steel rail remains very effective

Roads
• Good road systems allowed the automobile to dominant mode of transport
• Building of the interstate highway in the USA took 40 years and was one of the largest engineering
projects ever.

Water
• Desalination? Larger Dams?
• Cross Border Deals: Lesotho Highlands Water Project

Electricity
• Source?
▪ Fossil: Nuclear vs Coal vs Gas
▪ Renewable? : Solar, Wind

E. Case Studies
Edison vs. Tesla: Contrasting styles while bringing us electricity
Edison
1. Edison – Tireless tinkering by trial and error
2. Array of machinists in his lab
3. Lab similar to Guild system
4. Stressed the importance of craftmanship
5. Learning from others was highly valued
6. Free and easy communication in lab
7. Agile businessman
8. Great ability to obtain financial backing
9. Founded businesses to apply his inventions
10. Lab left room for tinkering but workers were
largely unskilled
11. Disliked mathematics and theory
“I was almost a sorry witness of his doings, knowing
that just a little theory and calculation would have
saved him 90% of the labour... The truly prodigious
amount of his accomplishments is little short of a
miracle.” - Tesla
Tesla
1. Tesla - hardly ever made mistakes
2. Few workers in his lab.
3. He was well educated – replaced guesswork
with scientific reasoning
4. Amazingly vivid imagination What Edison did
in his lab, Tesla did in his mind
5. Media and society was unsympathetic to Tesla
6. Came from Eastern Europe
7. Germ phobia/ no social life/ avoided the
distractions of female company till he died /
plagued with misunderstanding
8. Tesla worked for Edison but left after not
receiving a claimed $50 000 that was
apparently verbally promised to him by
Edison.
9. Tesla’s value to Edison was minimised
because his system didn’t allow Tesla’s genius
to be applied outside Edison’s goals.

These different approaches provide some valuable questions w.r.t. Our own approaches to research and
innovation? (See p 62)
 Coalbrookdale to Silicone valley
1. What conditions are conductive for innovation and what makes an area thrive?
2. Valleys that have been associated with technological development (bulk transport/power
generation) was a major contributor as to why Coalbrookdale can be seen as the birth of the
industrial revolution. 200 years later we have the “information revolution” – Silicon Valley is an
obvious example of this.
3. Is it coincidence that both these revolutions took are based in valleys?
4. What can we learn from them about the common factors that will be essential to the success of
future industrial developments?

Coalbrookdale Silicon Valley

1. Coking: Process to eliminating sulphur
from coal.
2. Patent granted in 1620
3. In 1707 Abraham Darby patented a
method for casting iron pots in sand
4. In 1708 he moved to Coalbrookdale and
took over a site with an existing blast
furnace
5. By transferring technology from the
brewing industry - He build a blast
furnace running on coke.
6. The iron produced was ideal for cooking
utensils and pots.
Coalbrookdale developed rapidly – Darby
developed additional blast furnaces, added
forges, rolling mills, foundries and 32km of
wagon track.
Furnace site was ½ way down a slope, with
coal mines at the top and River Severn at
the bottom.
• Industrial concentration consisting largely of
electronics and information corporations in San
Francisco area
• Since before WW2 fundamental research into
semiconductors @ Stanford University
• Profesor Terman (Dean Engineering) dedicated
Stanford and the industry in tandem as a
“community of scholars”
• Fairchild semiconductor was founded
• 31 semiconductor companies were started in the
Valley
• “it wasn’t enough to start a company; you had to
start a community, a community in which there
were no social distinctions.

Furnace was powered by waterwheels

Common threads between Coalbrookdale and Silicone valley:

1. The informal channels of information exchange seem to be as important as the formal channels
2. Sense of community
3. It inhibits the spread of population
4. Inhibits constraints and limits urban sprawl
5. And underpinning common purpose may develop – you work for the valley
6. Puts people in touch with their basic communal feelings
7. The valley physically locates and concentrates people
Bonus Slides
Feudalism in Europe
• Craft based technology in Europe:
A craft is a pastime or a profession that requires particular skills and knowledge of skilled work
• Relative Chaos followed the collapse of the roman empire
• By the 9th century (800’s) feudalism was emerging
o Dominant social system in medieval Europe (Nobility held lands from the
o Crown in exchange for military service; Vassals were tenants of the nobles; Peasants
(villeins or serfs) were obliged to live on their lord's land (homage, labor, and a share of
the produce) in exchange for military protection
o Political sovereignty was dispersed that allowed the growth of free cities
o Commodity production and the rise of the medieval craft guilds occurred in these towns

• Major social changes began to occur at the hand of technological innovation

o Nailed horse shoe, iron ploughshares, wippletree
o Water mills, wind mills lead to specialized millwrights
o The stirrup had a big influence @ the Battle of Hastings in 1066
o 1500 introduced the musket and cannon – a heavily-armed knight could be killed by a
musket and the feudal order started to fold.
o Riffled gun barrel increased accuracy (Germany/Austria)
o 1456 Johannes Gutenberg introduced movable type for printing.
o Bible printing in the local languages provided part of the basis for reformation: “each
man his own priest”
o Over 8 million books printed by 1500 for a European population of 45million.
o Printing greatly accelerated the transmission of ideas – this made it necessary for
craftsmen to be literate – by the 18th century 2/3 of the adults in England could read

Black Death
• started to spread in 1348 causing a net 40% loss of population
• resulting labour shortages lead to better working conditions and a move away from feudalism

The industrial revolution

• Started in Britain in the mid eighteenth century
• Coalbrookdale
▪ Abraham Darby (1677-1717) discovered how to use coal to smelt iron in Coalbrookdale
▪ Coalbrookdale was a centre for innovation for nearly 100 years
• Enclosure of common land forced people into towns where they lived by the clock rather than
hours of daylight – they survived by selling their labour power to factory owners
• Early 18th century Britain ran on wood
• Transport and communication improvements (+ external wealth) transformed Britain into an
industrial society

The automobile industry and changes in production

Toyota production system (1948-1975)
• Main objectives: Design out overburden, inconsistency and eliminate waste
• Largest automotive producer in 2010 by revenue
• 7 types of waste:
▪ Waste of overproduction, time on hand, transportation
processing itself, stock at hand, movement
making defective products
From early flight to the space program
• Three central problems – power, lift and control
• 17 December 1903 – 1st powered flight Wright brothers
• Jan 1905 –Wright brothers’ flyer III were rejected by the military
• Flight across the English Channel – 25 July 1909
• 1st jet powered airplane - Heinkel he 178 – just before the start of the 2nd world war (1939)
• Bell X1 – rocket propulsion – 1st aircraft to break the sound barrier – 14 Oct 1947

• Havelland DH106 Comet – 1st commercial jet airliner (1952)

• Concorde – 1969 (came into service 1976)
• Boeing 747 – 1968 (technology push)
• Antanov AN-225 Mirya (1989) – world largest and heaviest conventional aircraft (600tons loaded
weight)
• German V2 rocket @ the end of the 2nd world war
• Sputnick 1957
• Apollo moon landing 1969 (Fuel Cells)

System theory and system engineering

• We use systems engineering on projects that are too complex for a single engineer or specialist
to work on.
• When human behaviour is involved – problems become much too complex to solve completely –
for this we need a multidisciplinary soft systems approach.
• A systems approach guides us to address all the aspects of the problem in a structured and
organized way

Development in systems engineering

1. Systems may be assembled from smaller less complex elements

2. Testing at each level of assembly is necessary because the properties are likely to be different
than those predicted simply from studying the elements that make up the system
3. A consequence of this is that complex systems can fail in ways that can only be discovered after
very extensive testing – it might also imply that complex failures can occur after the system has
gone into service
4. NASA skipped the final total system test on Hubble - as a result they failed to realize that the
primary mirror was ground to the wrong shape…

• No point in using a systems approach unless the object is reasonably complex

The object of study should:

1. Have a purpose and performance
2. Include a decision-making process
3. Have components which are themselves systems that are connected and interact
4. Exist in a wider system or environment with which it interacts
5. Be bounded
6. Have resources and some degree of continuity and stability

• The complexity implies that they will have emergent properties (see Challenger example)
• We draw the system boundaries and choose what may pass through the boundaries
• To get good answers we need to ask good questions and draw good system boundaries
• Need to simplify the system to a level we can analyse – in doing this we might lose essential
detail
CHAPTER2 Innovation, development and technology transfer

A. The innovation process

Innovation:

• Process of developing new ideas and inventions to the point at which they are ready for
commercial and public-sector use.
• Purpose: To create new technology
• Plays a principle role in creating real wealth

B. Invention
• The original concept or discovery: The 1st idea sketch of a new product, process or system.
• Suggestions to sum up invention
o It cannot simply be ordered to happen.
o Invention can be encouraged by a sympathetic social attitude and an awareness of the
fields that are most in need of new discoveries
o Invention is not always dependent on advanced technological training but it is more
likely to emerge from such a background
o Invention is only weakly dependent upon the particular phase of the economic cycle,
but encouragement for and exploitation of the invention is more likely if times are
favourable

• The personality traits that make someone a good inventor do seem to be opposite of those
that are easiest to assimilate into industrial and production organizations.
• The inventor often need to look for someone else to fund, produce and market his
invention – i.e. a product champion

What are inventors like?

✓ Intelligence (but not genius)
✓ Burning curiosity
✓ High degree of autonomy and self sufficient
✓ Tendency to introversion, but open to stimulation
✓ Resilience and non-conformism
✓ Willingness to take risks and work hard
✓ Intuition and creativity
✓ Not afraid of apparent contradictions
✓ Not predisposed to reach premature conclusions

Intellectual property rights: who owns an invention?

▪ Novel ideas can be patented

▪ Designs and trademarks can be registered
▪ Copyright exists on drawings, film, audio and video tape.

Why don’t all inventions become innovations?

▪ The idea may not be good enough;

▪ Not enough resources are available to develop the idea;
▪ Well-established comparable or competing solutions already exist.

How does an invention become an innovation?

C. Innovation 10 steps

1. Identify a need.
2. Produce an original and creative solution; you now have an invention!
3. Check for originality (patent and literature searches).
4. Don’t upset the apple cart (like trying to alter the way a keyboard is arranged).
5. Build a working model (both to check out the idea and to demonstrate it to others).
6. Learn the patent system and protect the invention (not too early or too late).
7. Decide how to produce it; be realistic about demand and costs.
8. Sell yourself with the invention.
9. Find yourself a product champion (inventors don’t usually have the skills, authority or capital
to make their invention a success).
10. Persevere! Successful innovation requires exceptional commitment and effort.

Innovation
o process of developing the original concept/invention through to the economic deployment of
the result – comprising those technical, industrial, commercial, etc. that lead to the successful
commercial use of the product.
o Entrepreneurship: Shifting economic resources out of an area of low and into an area of hi
productivity and greater yield. (Ends of entrepreneurship is economical and does not need to
involve technology)

Linear model of innovation:

Technology push: Invention provides the stimulus for innovation (example: compact disk)
Market pull: Customer need is the stimulus for innovation
 Chain linked model of innovation:

Product innovation Process improvements System innovation

Includes progressive
improvements and
introduction of new products
Introduction of new processes
– incremental character, risk
and returns are substantially
within the control of the
company
Developing all the elements
needed to carry out the
function – turnkey project.

D. Design
• Stimulus for innovation may come from invention or market demand but the link between
the stimulus and the final product will involve design.
• Social, cultural and other perspectives are involved in shaping the choices made in the
design process – i.e. design is a value-laden process
• Traditionally designing was not separated from making – new technologies and mass production
separated these activities – design must be completed before production can begin.
• Design is the process of converting an idea into a form – it’s a creative and disciplined
problem-solving process which involves defining and resolving the problem
• The design process needs to include input from the likely users

• It’s a central engineering activity. Often accomplished despite huge gaps in knowledge.
• Koen: The design process involves so much iteration and feedback that any model of it
should be seen more as a guideline than a rule.
• Engineering method: The use of engineering heuristics with the purpose of causing the
best chance in a poorly understood situation within the available resources (Koen)

• Heuristics: Procedures used for discovery. “rule of thumb” approaches that may solve a
problem but no certainty. Depends on induction and previous experience
o Approach based on experience that may solve a type of problem but offers no
guarantee (example: rule of thumb)

• Characteristic features of heuristics

o It does not guarantee a solution
o It may contradict other heuristics
o It reduces the search time to solve the problem
o Its acceptance depends on the immediate content instead of absolute standards

• Categories of engineering heuristics

o Simple rules of thumb and orders of magnitude
o Factors of safety
o Engineering attitudes for example: “the best you can with resources available”
o Keeping risk acceptable by making small changes in the state of the art
o Rules of thumb in resource allocation. Resources must be allocated as long as the
risk of not knowing exceeds the cost of finding out
E. Research and development (R&D)
1. Pure Basic Research
2. Directed Basic Research
3. Project Applied Research
4. Operational Applied Research
5. Component Development
6. Systems Development

F. Effects of trends and cycles

• If parameters such as GNP per capita/energy requirements/ research funding is plotted
over time certain trends become apparent. Exponential growth as a secular trend is useful.

• Individual product life: The sigmoid curve

• Cyclic behaviour

• Long cyclic behaviour

It can be argued that most innovation occurred in times of prosperity that afforded freedom
to invent. If this is true then it might be an explanation for the average two generation
gestation period between a major invention and the associated economic return.

• Clustering of innovation
o The introduction of innovation was bunched into periods of rapid expansion
o As a technology comes of age it tends to become specialised, over-organised and
unprofitable
G. Consumer rights and product liability
• Major purpose of Engineering is the creation of new technologies and to innovate – right?
• Two US judges concluded that engineering is an exact science and proceeded to specify
damages accordingly for an engineering failure.
• This view has gained widespread acceptance and has stifled the development of new
products in certain areas.
• One of the implication is that we as engineers should be more open to the possibility of
failure and the acceptance of risk.

• Do we need consumer protection and regulations?

Conspiracy by motor vehicle/tyre/petrol cartel
▪ General motors, firestone and Standard oil developed a market for their product by
destroying public transport.

▪ They bought the electric trolley network in 45 US cities and replaced them with
busses, then ran the service down forcing the public to buy their products

• Do we need consumer protection and regulations?

o Ralph Nader – Unsafe under any speed (1965)
▪ He successfully challenged the worship of the automobile and dramatically
exposed some of the shortcomings of the American Automobile

o Chevrolet Covair.
▪ “...had such poor suspension geometry that it could roll over if it hit a bump
going around a moderate curve at 60km/h. The irony of the Covair was that
the problem could be corrected by simply fitting a stabilizer bar.

o Swing axel suspension

▪ Great amount of single wheel camber change.
▪ Rebound on suspension unloading causes positive chamber which can
overturn the car
▪ Reduction in cornering force due to camber change can lead to over steer

o Ford Pinto
▪ Tests showed that the fuel tank could be punctured in a rear end collision
▪ The cost to prevent this was around $11/vehicle
▪ Ford decided against it because its costs would be significantly higher than
likely compensation claims for deaths and injuries

• Is someone always at fault?

o Attitude arose that the hazards, injuries and deaths on the road were all caused
by the manufacturers
o This attitude is remarkably similar to some tribal societies that all illness is
caused by the ill-will of some other person
o The problem has been compounded by exaggerated claims for the safety,
reliability and social benefit of all sorts of extreme technologies.
o Such claims fed the unfortunate notion that engineering is an exact science
o One result of these developments has been the rapid increase of government
regulations
o In the US the cost of litigation has become a major constraint on the
introduction of new products and processes
o The expected cost of litigation is said to be ½ the cost of a motorcycle helmet.
• Legislation and innovation
o We do need to consider how the law affects product commercialization
o There is an increased recognition of the need to protect consumers from
products that can harm them
o Design and manufacturing need to produce safer products
o Wrt. liability a few things you can consider are:
o Packaging, labelling and warnings (The Coviar was sensitive to rear tyre pressure
- proper warning could have reduced the risk for rollover)
o The effect of the manufacturing process and risk associated with changing it
o Intended use and possible misuse scenarios
o List of accessories that can be used with the device and there interaction

• Standard Bodies
o Have promoted a uniform approach to product development
o ISO is a nongovernmental society established in1947 for the purpose of
developing worldwide standards, improving international communication and
collaboration, promoting smooth and equitable growth of international trade

• Two main approaches when it comes to liability: Negligence and strict liability
Negligence:
▪ The injured party must show that there was a defect in the product and that
that defect caused him/her injury or loss
▪ 2ndly he/she must show that the defect resulted from negligence of the
designer/manufacturer in that they failed to exercise a reasonable duty of
care in the design/manufacture of the product
▪ 1st step of duty from designer/manufacturer would be to ensure that the
product met the relevant statutory requirements

• Increased emphasis on „safety‟

o When hazards cannot easily or inexpensively be removed by good design, the inherent
risks must be communicated clearly to those responsible for preparing product warnings
and instructions
o A comprehensive hazard assessment is essential.
o The requirement to prove misuse can be costly and a constraint on product development

• Consumer protection in South Africa.

The Consumer protection act, No 68 of 2008 (dti.gov.za / info.gov.za)
o It aims to:
▪ Promote a fair, accessible and sustainable marketplace for consumer
products and services;
▪ Establish national norms and standards to ensure consumer protection;
▪ Make provision for improved standards of consumer information, to
prohibit certain unfair marketing and business practices;
▪ Promote responsible consumer behaviour;
▪ Promote a consistent legislative and enforcement framework, related to
consumer transactions and agreements;
▪ Establish the National Consumer Commission; and
▪ Replace, in a new and simplified manner, existing provisions from five
acts, including the Consumer Affairs (Unfair Business Practices) Act of
1988; Trade Practices Act of 1976; Sales and Service Matters Act of 1964;
Price Control Act of 1964; and Merchandise Marks Act of 1941
(specifically Sections 2-13, and 16-17).
 o It applies to the following:
Every transaction occurring within the Republic of South Africa;
• Promotion or supply of any goods and services occurring within the Republic;
• Goods or services that are supplied or performed, in the Republic, in terms of
transactions mentioned in the Act

o The Act is not applicable in respect of:

▪ Goods or services promoted or supplied to the state;
▪ Industry-wide exemption being granted to regulatory authorities;
▪ Credit agreements, in terms of the National Credit Act, but not goods
/services;
▪ Services under employment contracts;
▪ Agreements giving effect to collective bargaining agreements; and
▪ Agreements giving effect to bargaining agreements (Section 213 of the
Labour Relations Act).

o What are consumer rights?

▪ The Bill of Rights enshrines the rights of all South Africans – including
consumer rights.
▪ The Consumer Protection Act further outlines these key consumer rights,
of which all
▪ South African consumers should be aware. These include the following:

1) Right to Equality in the Consumer Market
and Protection Against Discriminatory
Marketing Practices;
2) Right to Privacy;
3) Right to Choose;
4) Right to Disclosure of Information;
5) Right to Fair and Responsible Marketing;
6) Right to Fair and Honest Dealings;
7) Right to Fair, Just and Reasonable Terms
and Conditions;
8) Right to Fair Value, Good Quality and
Safety;
9) Right to Accountability by Suppliers.
 H. Development and technology transfer case studies
a. Case studies: The Triton work centre
• Converting a good idea into a multi-million-dollar
company:
o Originated in 1975
o George Lewin (26) built a homemade device
to help him cut square table legs.
o He realized that he needed to turn the saw
upside down to cut the table top and
modified his invention to permit this
o When some friends asked for replicas he
knew he had an invention
o He took out a provisional patent and started
to look for a product champion – nobody was
interested
o Decided to have a small qty manufactured
and to sell it himself.
o Marketing breakthrough when he got a 4min
spot on “the inventors”
o His lack of technical background was
problematic
o Every component had a problem
o When he started shipping he discovered
other problems…
o The detail design changed from
batch to batch
o “After 18 months, I was ready to
crack, I was averaging 2 or 3
hours of sleep a night. My house
looked like the local tip”
o He launched a Mk 2 version in
1979
o The Mk3 was launched in 1983 –
it was designed to be
internationally acceptable.
o By the early 90‟s it was
estimated that there was a
workstation in 5% of Australian
households.
o Triton was putting 10% of
turnaround into R&D because
the market was beginning to
saturate and they needed follow-
on-products.
o Next step was quality assurance
(ISO9001)
o In 1997, they launched the
updated series 2000
o One of the side products was the
super jaw. Victorian inventor.
o Spent $1mil developing it, in
1993 got a $30mil order
 b. Case studies: Iriri micro-hydroelectric power in the Solomon Islands
• Successful example of technology transfer
• They refused to allow logging
• Its commendable that they could take such
a stand against the logging company
• Respect traditional leadership of Joseph
Ghemu and Solomon Kana
• Leaders were determined to find ways in
which the community could become and
interesting and satisfying place for
youngsters
• Developed a community development
strategy that (among other things)
maintain control of the forest
• Electrification of the village was a key
requirement
• Rather than become dependent on Diesel
they decided to acquire a small
hydroelectric power system
• Technical assistance was required from
APACE (an Australian non-governmental
society that was working with small-scale
appropriate technology
• A number of Australians (including staff,
students and graduates from University
of Technology, Sydney) worked to see
that the necessary technology was
developed.
• All 120 villagers were involved in the
decision-making process
• Training was done under UTS in Sydney
and Iriri
• Village control of the project was
essential
• The limit of the power capacity is that in
the driest months the year capacity of
the nearby stream is only 3kW
• This is enough to light the city hall,
provide one light in each of the homes,
operate some machinery.
• Community participation in fund raising
before the installation in deciding how
the power should be used, and in the
training, are all essential
• Thi Iriri project highlights the potential
for effective co-operation in technology
transfer between NGO’s and well –led
local communities
 c. Case studies: Mae Chaem: Technology transfer in rural Thailand
• How do newly transferred technologies affect
traditional village life?
o Economy based on rice growing.
o Villagers live in wooden homes with only
two or three rooms.
o Cooking still done on open fire
o Television –By 1980 nearly ¼ of the
o At the same time:
▪ Power lines cut through the trees
▪ Cars travel over dirt roads
▪ From inside the wooden houses you
can hear the sounds of radio and
television
▪ Modern machinery replaced the
water buffalo and artificial
fertilizers became the norm.
o What technologies are appropriate and
beneficial for a developing nation?
o Technology assistance in Thailand was
commonly been for communication and
transportation
o Modernisation of Thailand began in 1962
with the 1st of 5 five-year plans for
economic and technical development.
o The 2nd called primarily for the building
of rural roads and electrification of the
villages
o Electrification caused a great change in
the social life of the villages.
o Movie going became a popular pastime
introducing the villagers to production
goods they never known they wanted.
o Electrification began in 1960-70
o Fluorescent light – being able to see and
do work after sunset has advantages but
are they outweigh by the disruption
caused to the daily schedule?
▪ Normally – roosters started to
crow @ 4:30 signalling the start
of the day – and allot of work
was done before breakfast. (day
was divided in before breakfast
and after breakfast activities)
▪ Shifted the traditional concept of
day affecting some of the folklore.
Electric light demystified the
darkness and the beliefs in night
spirits and deities
village had a black and white TV and
16.6% had a colour TV. This had cultural
influences on the society
▪ Television watching became a
popular night time activity
replacing the sharing and
interaction of villagers
▪ Villagers became more separated
and village life less communal –
disrupted the intimacy of the
village – Families turned on the TV
instead of walking to their
neighbour for a visit
▪ Far more disruptive – TV
introduced them to material
consumerism as portrayed by the
characters in shows
▪ This moved them more from a
barter to a monetary system.
▪ Farmers who used to save their
surplus now spend it on luxury
items and consumer goods.
▪ Increased focus on material wealth
encouraged many youngsters to
leave the village – leaving the
village as a shell of the old and the
young
 d. Case studies: Motor vehicle imports in Papua new Guinea
• One of the major technology transfers into o Few other observations:
PNG was associated with transport. ▪ Average retail price of slow
o This technology transfer took place in a moving parts must be 6-7
chaotic fashion times the landing cost
o Before 1975 (independence) it was ▪ VW advised 50 000 to 100 000
common for an ex-pat to take up the vehicles in one place to
agency for a specific make of vehicle and provide reasonable service
import relatively small number of units + and spare parts (This was
min spare parts. When he went home he more than all the vehicles in
sold the agency. the country!)
o By 1974 there were 16 000 cars and 24
000 utility vehicles in PNG – this included o The scale of motor vehicle sales was
at least 117 makes and 250 size too small for vehicle assembly
combinations. o Thriving business in building PMV
o Terrain is extremely rugged, internal (Public motor vehicles) – 1 to 2-ton
transport is difficult thus most of the chassis with a rear compartment to
districts needed to be self-sufficient. transport people and goods
o In over 600 cases there were less than 10 o The royal commission improved
of a particular vehicle in a district. PMV’s (Registration requirements
o This led to major problems in: ROPS etc.)
▪ Spare parts supply and cost o Due to political pressure, fear of
▪ Training of mechanics, drivers and empire building and threat to trade
spare parts staff links some of the commissions more
▪ Maintenance and servicing extensive solutions were not
accepted by the PNG cabinet.
o Problems were increased by the lack of
expertise of the local owners. This
resulted in: High running costs, short
vehicle life, serious waste of foreign
currency
o In 1974 a royal commission was formed
with the focus on “standardisation of
selected imports”
o Created political flack.
▪ The prospect of restraint of Merc.
and VW apparently upset the West
German government – to avoid
trade retaliation against PNG coffee
the commissions brief was changed
from “standardisation” to
“rationalization” (Interestingly the
Honorary Consul of West Germany
was the VW and Merc. Dealer.
However, these vehicles were
imported from Brazil and not West
Germany)
 e. Case studies: Bringing the semiconductor industry to Singapore
• This case study describes a planned,
deliberate approach to technology
transfer.
o Since independence in 1965
industrialization aimed to improve the
national standard of living and
resulted in the birth of the local
electronics industry.
o 1st investors were Texas Instruments
in the 1960’s
o Part of a concerted plan to tap into
the flourishing world’s electronics
market and usher the country into an
era of value added manufacturing
activities.
o Initial focus on importing advanced
technologies – drive to create a
unique institutional network involving
public + private sector.
o Network designed not only to receive
the technology but to absorb, adapt,
diffuse and later improve it.
o This approach differs from traditional
more passive technology transfer
because it was initiated by the
developing country itself
o Through statutory boards (EDB/NSTB
etc) the government continues to play
a major role
o Assisted by the US and Taiwan
the EDB established an industrial
culture that is semiconductor
friendly.
o Heavy investment in wafer
fabrication facilities.
o Other improvement plans include
a $200 million semiconductor
process capability development
scheme aimed to improve the
process of wafer manufacturing
and the “semiconductor
manpower development
initiative” aimed to encourage
local graduates to pursue an R&D
career.
o This type of technology transfer
fitted the industrial and social
culture of Singapore
o The same model cannot be
readily duplicated by other
developing countries
 f. Case studies: General motors venture into rural China
• Describes some of the challenges in operating
a plant in China
o Delphi-P was the 1st GM division to
launch in China (of the 4 plants Hebi (in
the heart of China) had the most
challenges
o The Chinese government played a large
part in the joint venture
o Hebi plant manager was a German.
o He was faced with countless challenges
due to Chinese
culture/infrastructure/communication
o 2nd language for both plant manager and
Chinese employees
o Public wash houses, most people didn’t
have refrigerators, one telephone / block,
few locals have ever seen a foreigner,
coal was primary fuel for cooking, power
and water stoppages were common.
o Old style nationalist and communist
tendencies - locals disliked idea of foreign
firm
o Delphi-P brought new technologies.
There was an enormous Technology gap
between Hebi and the rest.
o An intense training program was
launched.
o There was a need for the basic
understanding and fundamentals of the
technology.
o The plant was equipped with high-
powered PC’s but next to every PC in the
finance department there was still an
abacus.
o Successful adaption of new technologies
was a major challenge.
o Language barrier offered significant
delay and confusion. Average board
meeting took 3x longer than normal
and normally ended in chaos.
o The engineering skills of most of the
local engineers were insufficient for
the new technologies
o The lack of specialized engineers
made it necessary for the engineers
to take on responsibility outside their
scope.
o Availability and quality of raw
materials were problematic
o Varied equipment levels
o Equipment poorly laid out
o Major challenge was to change the
old habits of doing things
o Conclusion:
▪ It is possible to run a successful
plant in China
▪ The plant manager had to be
more resourceful
▪ Strategy @ Herbi was:
• Improve plant facilities
• Invest in equipment
• Invest heavily in
employment training
▪ The goal was to make the plant
competitive in the global market
and eventually self-sufficient, run
by locals capable of maintaining
and improving the plant.
 g. Case studies: Personal transport in China
• Until 1990’s most cars in china belonged to companies/government and driven by
professionals

• By 1998 China produced 1.5million vehicles a year – more than 2.5million private car
owners (26% increase annually)

• 3000 driving schools - 1 million drivers enrolled

• Chinese government planners saw development of the motor vehicle industry as providing
badly needed jobs

• Costs:
o Chinese road toll in 1997 was estimated at 66 000 deaths and 174 000 injuries
o Five Chinese cities are on the list of the smoggiest cities
o More than 1 million deaths a year from urban pollution

• There seems to be every prospect that China would simply repeat the mistakes made by the
West and would move quite rapidly to gridlock

h. Case studies: International engineering

• IBM Decided to automate instead of
moving offshore like the competitors
• The market started to explode!
• Fierce competition for market share drove
prices down and IBM needed to re-
evaluate its manufacturing strategies
• IBM looked at expanding into the
developing world.
• By this time its competitors have been
manufacturing offshore for some years
• Still a huge task to choose a location and
set up operations
• Unskilled labour rates in the 2rd world are
1/10th or less of rates in the US
• Things often taken for granted in the US
should be considered
• Much of the knowledge required in
industry is “tactic” knowledge –
knowledge that is implied or
understood but not specifically
expressed. It is not easy to document
or teach in the classroom and is taught
through experience.
• Good example of tact knowledge is
riding a bicycle – one can read books
and observe others and still have
problems to start with.
• Mexico was finally chosen.
• Success requires good working
relationships and communications at
all levels and between all sectors of
the company.

• Obtaining a facility, supplying equipment, • Today's engineers need language,

dealing with customs, taxes and shipping people and communication skills.
and training personnel were projects in
their own right. • More and more engineers will find
themselves in unexpected situations in
• Varying background knowledge, cultural interesting parts of the world
issues, and language barriers can offer
interesting challenges
CHAPTER3 Air Pollution

In General
• Major environmental risk to health:
- Stroke, heart disease, lung cancer, and both chronic and acute respiratory diseases,
including asthma

• The lower the levels of air pollution:

- Cardiovascular and respiratory health of the population improved

• 3.7 million premature deaths worldwide in 2012 (estimate due to air pollution)

• Majority of premature deaths:

- Low- and middle-income countries
- Western Pacific and South-East Asia regions

• Indoor smoke is a serious health risk for some 3 billion people who cook and heat their
homes with biomass fuels and coal

Emissions
Primary Pollutants
- Directly released into atmosphere, i.e. NOx’s

- Created by:
▪ Combustion Burning of a fuel - #1 Source of primary pollutants
▪ Evaporation: When volatiles such as gasoline or paint evaporate into atmosphere
▪ Grinding and Abrasion Dust from ploughing, flaking of paint or asbestos

Secondary Pollutants
- Created due to physical processes and chemical reactions, i.e. Ozone

Anthropogenic – Man made

Air quality standards
- Acceptable concentrations of pollution

Emission standards
- Allowable rate at which pollutants are released at the source

Perfect combustion of pure methane (CH4) in oxygen (O2) results in Carbon Dioxide and Water
- Not a problem, right? What can the accumulation of CO2 do to the atmosphere?
- Enhances the Greenhouse Effect
- Has air pollution caused the Greenhouse Effect?

IN REALITY, there is never “perfect” combustion, nor is the fuel “pure” either!

Most fuels contain any number of elements such as:

1. Nitrogen
2. Sulphur
3. Lead (from petrol)
4. Mercury (from coal)
Sources of Air Pollution
Mobile Sources responsible for most of CO and almost half of NOx’s
1. Highway Vehicles (Cars and Trucks)
2. Railroads
3. Aircraft
4. Farm Vehicles
5. Boats and Ships

Stationary Sources responsible for most of the SOx’, Hg, PMs VOCs and the other half of the NOx’s
1. Fuel combustion from electrical power plants
2. Fuel combustion from industrial energy systems
3. Industrial processes (refining, chemical production etc.)
 1. Criteria Pollutants
1. Carbon Monoxide (CO)
• Colourless
• Odourless
• Tasteless
• Less than perfect combustion – Carbon Monoxide
o Insufficient O2
o Combustion temp too low
o Gas residence time at ++T
o Combustion Chamber Turbulence

• So, would Fossil Fuel Power Stations produce the most CO?
o Think about fuel efficiency and the volume of fuel being
burnt…
o 30% of fossil fuel

• Perfect combustion – CO2

• 80% of all CO emissions: Transport sector
• Exposure to CO
o Cab Drivers, Police and parking lot attendants ++ exposure

• As car sales increase, what is happening to CO levels?

o Increasing or decreasing?

• CO reductions are at the expense of NOx i.e. as CO levels drop in transport emissions, NOx’s increase

• CO is an asphyxiant
o Interferes with your body’s ability to carry oxygen in the blood stream
o Binds with Haemoglobin
o Haemoglobin has a greater AFFINITY for CO
o Rather “pick up” CO from lungs vs O2
o You become hypoxic
o %𝐶𝑂𝐻𝑏 = 𝛽(1 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑡 )[𝐶𝑂]
 2. NOx’s
• Thermal NOx’s
o N and O heated ++ to oxidize N

• Fuel NOx’s
o Oxidation of N compounds that are chemically bond in fuel molecule

• 95% of manmade emissions are NO

o No known adverse health effects

• HOWEVER, NO oxidises to NO2

o Irritates lungs, causes bronchitis and pneumonia, lowers resistance to respiratory infections

• NOx’s also reacts with VOC’s in sunlight

• NO2 also reacts with OH in environment to form HNO3 – Nitric Acid
o Corrodes metal surfaces (Industrial fall out)
o Acid Rain

3. VOCs
• Volatile Organic Compounds
• Enter the atmosphere by evaporation

• Include volatiles from:

1. Solvents
2. Fuels
3. Other Organics

• Also include unburned and partially burned hydrocarbons

• Anthropogenic sources
• Natural Sources from Oaks, Spruce, Citrus trees etc
o Bigger source than man made pollution
 4. Smog and O3
• Secondary pollutant:
o Not possible to determine point source or level of emission
• Ozone at ground level:
o Main constituent of photo- chemical smog
o Formed by the reaction with sunlight (photochemical
reaction) of pollutants such as nitrogen oxides (NOx) from
vehicle and industry emissions and volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) emitted by vehicles, solvents and industry.
o Highest levels of ozone pollution occur during periods of sunny weather.
• NOT to be confused with the ozone layer in the upper atmosphere
o This is used to protect the biosphere of the earth

• O3 Smog causes harm to human life:

Chest constriction, Coughing, Headache, Irritation of the mucous membrane etc.
• Permanent scarring of lung tissue has been observed in animal studies
o Loss of lung function
o Reduced lung elasticity
• Ground level ozone also shown to damage tree foliage and reduce growth rate of certain tree types
• Other components of photochemical smog include:
1. Formaldehyde
2. Peroxybenzoyl Nitrate
3. Peroxyacetyl Nitrate
4. Eye irritation
5. PM’s
• Categorization of PM’s
1. Aerosols (liquid or solid, dispersed in atmosphere)
2. Dusts (solid, grinding or crushing)
3. Fumes (solid, vapor condensation)
4. Mist or Fog (liquid vapour)
5. Smoke or Soot (carbon particles, incomplete combustion)
6. Smog: Smoke and Fog

• Complex mixture of solid and liquid particles of organic and inorganic substances suspended in the air.
• Size ranges from 0.005μm to 100μm (size of human hair)
• Health-damaging particles ≤ PM10
o Penetrate and lodge deep inside the lungs.
o Chronic exposure to particles contributes to the risk of developing cardiovascular and
respiratory diseases, as well as of lung cancer.
• Major components:
1. Sulphates
2. Nitrates
3. Ammonia
4. Sodium chloride
5. Black carbon
6. Mineral dust
7. Water

• PM affects more people than any other pollutant.

• Large organic molecules stick to surfaces of soot (adsorption)
o Benzene-like hydrocarbons: Polynuclear (or polycyclic) Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH‟s) ++
HARMFUL!

6. SOx’s
• 15 M tons of anthropogenic Sox’s emissions yearly
• 86% result of FOSSIL FUEL combustion of Stationary Sources
o Coal Fired Power Stations
o Massive drive to reduce Sox’s at Power Stations
• 5% Mobile vehicles
• Non-combustion sources
1. Petroleum refining
2. Copper smelting
3. Cement Manufacturing
• Coal contains 1 – 6% sulphur
o Half is organic sulphur
o Remaining half is “trapped” in the coal
o A good portion can be removed by pulverizing and washing the coal before combustion
o RSA predominantly uses coal as fuel source for electricity production

• Petroleum products tend to have very little sulphur

o Diesel 50ppm, 5ppm (Europe: 0,5ppm)
• Sox’s can react in air to form ACID RAIN
• SO2 highly water soluble:
o Absorbed by moist upper respiratory passages
o Less long-term damage

• Aerosol form:
1. Deeper into lungs
2. Combo with PM‟s
3. Excess morality observed
 7. Pb
• In the past – Leaded vehicles
o Antiknock additive Tetraethyllead
o Prevented misfire in Octane automobiles
o Major source of lead as a pollutant

• In a quest for better efficiencies and lead reduction:

Catalytic converters
o Lead + catalyst = Issues
o “Design” = lead free fuel

• Inorganic particulate

• Settles very quickly, near to the source

• Soils can become very contaminated
• Lead paint in old homes – Lead poisoning of babies

• Lead poisoning very dangerous to human life:

1. Aggression
2. Destructive behaviour
3. Seizures
4. Brain Damage

Pollution in Megacities
• Megacity = Population of more than 10 million people

• 1970 – 4 Megacities
• 2014 – 30 Megacities
• South Africa - 0
• Principal source of pollution
1. Motor Vehicles
2. Unpaved roads
3. Traffic Congestion
Motor Vehicle Emissions
• Significant fraction of criteria pollutants except SOx’s
• Developing countries:
o Car growth OUTSTRIPS Population growth rate
o Urban congestion
o Unhealthy Air Quality
• China
o Predicted growth of 30M (2005) to 180M (2030)
o Estimated to cause in order of 400 000 respiratory attacks and 50 000 infant deaths per year

• 4 Stroke IC Engine

Rich Mixture Lean Mixture Initial emission limitations

▪ <14,5 ▪ >14,5 ▪ Redesign to run on a
▪ More petrol ▪ More air leaner mixture
▪ More CO and unburned ▪ Spark plug ▪ HC, CO decreased but
HC‟s ▪ Can misfire NOx’s increased

o Maintenance, timing, CR, duty cycle of engine all factor in on emissions

2 Stroke IC Engine
o Motor Cycles, lawnmowers, outboard motors
o Smaller, lighter, less expensive
o Emits ++ pollution
▪ While exhausting, “fresh fuel” pushed out as well
▪ Petrol/Oil mix for lubrication purposes
▪ Oil, smelly exhaust fumes
▪ Misfiring

• Diesel Engine
o Direct fuel injection (atomise fuel into cylinder)
o CETANE
o ++ CR
o VERY LEAN MIXTURES as they do not rely on spark
▪ CO and HC emissions inherently low

o CR high, Temp high, NOx’s relatively high

o Carbonaceous soot particles
▪ 40 cancer-related substances
▪ Emissions thought to be carcinogenic

Emission Controls for Automobiles

• Two sources of emissions from automobiles: Exhaust Pipe & VOC‟s from the fuel tank

• Three Way Catalytic Converter (in exhaust)

o Handles three pollutants on same catalyst bed
1. CO
2. HC
3. NOx’s

o Only effective if air/fuel ratio is close to stoichiometric point else operation is compromised
Catalytic Converters
• No lead
• Only effective once warmed up
o Cold
o Sudden acceleration
o Sudden deceleration
▪ ++ pollution

• Emit N2O
o Potent Greenhouse gas

• In Diesels
o Can control soot
o Excess O2
▪ Work in a O2 deprived environment
▪ NOx control ineffective
 Alternative Fuels
1. Ethanol 2. Methanol
• Grain alcohol • Wood alcohol
• Reduced CO emissions • High octane rating compared to petrol
• Lower energy density as compared to o Higher CR ratios
petrol • Lower flame temp
• Materials used in fuel lines, tanks and o NOx’s reduced
pumps need mod’s
• Lower volatility
o Difficult to cold start
o Invisible flame
• Lower energy density
• ++ formaldehyde: Eye irritant, suspected carcinogen
3. Biodiesel
• Vegetables oils, animal fats, recycled restaurant greases
• Net CO2 emissions ¼ that of standard diesel
• O2 allows for more complete combustion
• Lower SOx’s, HC’s, CO, PM, PAHC’s
o NOx’s INCREASED

• B20 can be used in conventional diesel engines with no mod’s

• Transesterification: Removal of unwanted glycerine or fat

Electric Drive Vehicles

• HEV: Hybrid Electric Vehicle
o IC Engine and Electric Power (Generator, Electric Motor and Battery Storage)
o Uses the battery for bursts of power (buffer, not energy source)
o Regenerative braking to charge batteries

• PHEV: Plug in Hybrid Electric Vehicle

o Similar to a HEV
o Larger battery storage
▪ Drive on battery power alone
▪ Charge using national grid
▪ Charge at night?
▪ Shift in emission types
• EV: Electric Vehicle
o Tesla Motors
o Pure battery power, no IC engine
o Electric motor, battery bank, transmission and power electronics
o Ballast
o 90% efficient
o Very low driving range
o Charging time?

• FCV: Fuel Cell Vehicle

o Electrochemical process
o Convert hydrogen carrying fuel to electricity using a catalyst

o Use pure H2, only by-products heat and water

▪ Conventional PEMFC (Polymer exchange fuel cell)
• Load following
• Very quick start up
• Light weight
• Size appropriate

o Energy density of compressed H2 poor

o Supply of H2 needs to be considered
o Alternative fuels
▪ Methanol/Water Mix
▪ Some emissions
Stationary Sources
• Coal Fired Power Plants
• Combined Cycle Power Plants
• If we can control the combustion process, we can reduce emissions

Pre-combustion Switch to less S or N bearing fuels

Combustion ▪ New burners
▪ Fluidized bed boilers
Post-combustion ▪ PM collection devices (ESP’s & Bag filters)
▪ Flue-gas desulphurisation

Point Source Gaussian Plume Model

• Good first order estimation of pollutant concentrations in fall out of source
o Allows a pollutant production facility to rate of emissions to ensure pollutant
concentration x meters away is acceptable

• Assumptions:
o Rate of emissions from source is constant
o Windspeed is constant with time and elevation
o Pollutant is conservative
o Not lost to decay, chemical reaction or deposition
o Terrain is flat open country

• Ground level pollution concentration is directly proportional to source strength

• Higher your stack, less ground level pollution
Atmospheric Stability Classifications
• Surface windspeed measured 10m above ground
• Insolation refers to day time conditions
o Strong: Clear summer day, sun higher than 60° on horizon
o Moderate: Summer day, with some clouds, sun 35° or higher
o Slight: Autumn afternoon, or cloudy summer’s day

• Class D conditions assumed for overcast conditions, day or night

Changes in Wind Speed Due to Elevation

• Normally an anemometer, set a certain distance from ground is used to measure wind speed
(10m)
• This is NOT equivalent to the wind speed at the effective stack height H.
Plume Rise and Effective Stack Height
CHAPTER4 Water Pollution

Water Properties
• ¾’s of the surface of the world is covered by water

• Unusual properties of water:

1. Dipolar 2. Density
Capillary action Expands when freezes, Ice floats, thermal
stratification
3. Melting and Boiling points 4. Specific Heat
Exist as a gas if similar to other H2X Very high heat capacity: Long to heat and cool
substances
Appears in all 3 states in normal ranges of
temperature
5. Heat of vaporization 6. A solvent
Need a LOT of energy vaporize it! Effective medium from transporting dissolves
nutrient's
7. Greenhouse effect
Absorbs solar energy, infrared radiation

Water resources
1. Hydrologic Cycle
• 97%: Oceans
• Salts render it useless as a source of water for municipal, agricultural and most industrial needs
• What about desalination?
o Countries do rely on this
o Very, very expensive
o Small scale
• What about the sun?
o Evaporation from wet surfaces
o Transpiration from leaves of plants
o Energy equivalent to approx. 4000 times the rate we use energy to power our societies!
• 1 m layer if water per year
o 88% ocean evaporation
o 12% land evapotranspiration
• Freshwater lakes, rivers and streams: 0,0072% of “world’s stock” of water
 2. Water Usage
• 10% of annual runoff is withdrawn for human use
• Therefore, water supplies aren’t a problem?
o Some areas have a lot of water
o Some have very little water
o Some have sufficient precipitation averages, however chaotic variations year on
year
▪ Sufficient storage to cover dry spells
o Distribution of water availability to population density not a good match!

• Function of the rising demands for water:

1. Increasing populations
2. Increasing developmental needs

• Many countries rely on river water

o CONTROLLED BY ANOTHER COUNTRY!
▪ Egypt needs 97%, Ethiopia controls flow of Nile
▪ Turkey, Syria and Iraq share Euphrates
▪ Bangladesh replies on Ganges, controlled by India
▪ Israel and Jordan share Jordan River

• What is the knock-on effect?

o Upstream pollution in one country can potentially cause a epidemic in another.

• Cooling water for power plants effectively returned “unpolluted” back into water cycle
o Thermal pollution?

• Agricultural use
Water pollutants
1. Pathogens
• Contaminated water known to be responsible for many contagious diseases
• Pathogens: Disease causing organisms that grow and multiply host
• Infection:
o Bacteria (Cholera, Dysentery,
Typhoid)
o Viruses (Hepatitis)
o Parasitic worms (Bilharzia)
• Waterborne: Cholera, ingested
• Water washed: Scabia, cleanliness
• Water based: Bilharzia, contact
• Water related: Malaria, carries host

2. Oxygen demanding wastes

• Quality of water measure: DO (Dissolved Oxygen content)
• 8 to 15mg per litre
o Fish need between 5mg/l to 8mg/l
• Oxygen demanding wastes use the available DO and decrease available concentrations
o Lead to aquatic life being threatened or killed
o Undesirable odours, tastes and colours
• COD: Chemical Oxygen Demand
o Required O2 to chemically oxidize waster
• BOD: Biological Oxygen Demand
o Required O2 by microorganisms to degrade the waste

3. Nutrients
• Chemical such as nitrogen, phosphorus, carbon, sulphur and calcium
• Pollutants where their concentrations are HIGH enough to allow EXCESS growth of aquatic
plants, specifically ALGAE
o Blooms of algae
o Die and decompose
o Remove DO from water during decomposition
• Add colour, turbidity, odours and tastes to water
• Eutrophication (Nutrient enrichment)

• Algal growth rates controlled by:

o Nitrogen
o Phosphorus
• Additional run-off
o Unbalance
 4. Salts
• Naturally accumulated
o Soils and rocks
o Sodium, Calcium, Magnesium and Potassium

• Salinity:
o Total Dissolved Solids (mg/l)
o Fresh < 1500
o 1500 < Brackish < 5000
o Saline > 5000
o 30000< Seawater < 34000
o Drinking water < 500

• Removal of fresh water causes salinity issues

o Dilution is not a cure for pollution!
o Irrigation water used to “flush” accumulated salts in soil
▪ Also contains fertilizers and pesticides - ++ pollution!

5. Thermal
• Power Stations require excessive amounts of cooling water to remove latent heat from the Turbine
Steam.
• Generally, this results in power stations using rivers or the sea as the source of this cooling water.
• It is returned to the source “clean” but about 10°C warmer.
• This Thermal Plume affects life in the vicinity of the plume
o Metabolic rates increase by a factor of 2 with each 10°C rise
o Waste assimilation quicker
o DO drops quicker
o DO also drops as water carrying capacity drop with an increase in temperature

6. Heavy metals
• Most important of concern:
1. Mercury
2. Lead
3. Cadmium
4. Arsenic
• Affect kidney function in humans
• Non-degradable
• Enters the blood stream, very dangerous!
o Brain damage

7. Pesticides
• Term used to cover a range of chemicals used to kill organisms we consider “undesirable”
1. Insecticides
2. Herbicides
3. Rodenticides
4. Fungicides

• Predominantly used in agricultural industry

 8. VOC’s
• Common contaminant in groundwater
• Solvents used in industry, either known or suspected to be carcinogens or mutagens
• Surface water concentrations very low due to volatility
• Ground water very high due to leaching through soils (Love Canal, Hickley)
• Central nervous system damage, liver damage, kidney damage
3. Biochemical oxygen demand
• Surface water high susceptible to contaminants
• “Sewer” for municipalities and industry
• Biodegradable organic matter
o Organisms feed on this & break them down into simpler organic & inorganic substances
o AEROBIC: In presence of oxygen, stable, non-objectionable
▪ CO2, SO4, PO4 and NO3
o ANAEROBIC: Insufficient oxygen, highly unstable, objectionable
▪ H2S, NH3, CH4
▪ Methane stable but potent greenhouse gas
1. Swamp gas
2. Landfills
3. Energy source

4. Nitrification
• Oxygen demand is associated to oxidation of:
carbonaceous portions of waste nitrogen compounds
1. Convert organic carbon to CO2 1. Convert ammonia to nitrate
2. CBOD 2. NBOD
3. N2 unusable by plants
Transformed into NH2 or NO-3

• Important to note that NBOD only exerts itself after 5-8 days

5. Effect of oxygen demand waste on rivers

• DO is the most common indicator of a rivers health
• DO < 5 mg/l = lower chance for life to be sustained
• Anaerobic conditions, higher forms of life killed off

• DO availability is a function of a number of things:

1. Oxygen demand waste removes DO
2. Photosynthesis adds DO daytime, remove at night
3. Respiration of organisms remove DO
4. Rising temps reduces solubility of oxygen in water (summer)
Etc.

6. Point source plug flow model

• Two key processes:
1. Removal of oxygen by microorganisms during biodegradation
▪ DEOXYGENATION

2. Replenishment of oxygen through aeration at the interface between the

river surface and atmosphere
▪ REAERATION

• Assumptions:
1. Continuous discharge of waste at given location
2. Uniform mix of water and waste at any given cross section
3. No dispersion of waste in direction of flow
7. Oxygen sag curve: Streeter-Phelps
Effect on temperature also NB to curve
1. Wastes decompose quicker due to metabolic
rate increase
2. Saturated value of DO drops so reaeration
slows
3. Other factors as well such as:
1. Sludge
2. Tributaries
3. Load on river

8. Water quality in lakes and reservoirs

• Lakes and reservoirs “age” with time
o Natural process known as eutrophication

• Young lake: Low nutrient content, little plant life

o Oligotrophic (Clear water, Little sediment,
Excess oxygen)

• Lakes and reservoirs “age” with time

o Natural process known as eutrophication
o THOUSANDS OF YEARS

• Old lake: High nutrient content, excess plant life

o Eutrophic
▪ Murky water
▪ Sediment build up
▪ Depleted oxygen
▪ Lake becomes shallower
• Marsh or bog

• Accelerated eutrophication: Cultural eutrophication

1. Decades
2. Municipal waste water, industrial wastes, agricultural run off
3. Stimulate algae growth and diminish water quality
4. Anaerobic conditions at the bottom of the dam
▪ Toxicity of water increases due to H2S and heavy metal leaching

• Eutrophication only one of the risks to lakes/reservoirs

1. Think inlet and outlets vs fixed volume
2. Acid rain
9. Controlling factors of eutrophication
• Eutrophication = algae growth
o Sunlight
o Nutrient concentration
• Oligotrophic lake: Photosynthesis at deep depths of lake
• Eutrophic lake: Photosynthesis at shallow depths of lake

• Sunlight not used as controlling factor

• Nutrient addition to lake/reservoir
o Simplified to nitrogen and phosphorus addition

• Determine the LIMITING nutrient

o Slow the algae growth

• Blue-green Cyanophyta: Lakes

o Obtain N directly from atmosphere
o Fallout N from combustion sources
• Rough guideline freshwater:
o N concentration (mg/l) 10 times that of phosphorus: P limited
o N concentration (mg/l) less that 10:1 of P: N limited
• Rough guideline marine:
o N/P < 5: N limited

10. Thermal stratification

• Density of water “max’s” out at 4°C
o Therefore, ice floats as the water surrounding it is slightly warmer

• Summer: Layer of warm water

• Winter: Ice forming with more dense “warmer” water blow
• THERMAL STRATIFICATION
11. Stratification and dissolved oxygen
• Dissolved oxygen affected by thermal stratification and eutrophication
• Epilimnion DO rich
o Reaeration and Photosynthesis
o Ice forms, reaeration and photosynthesis may not provide DO
• Hypolimnion DO poor
o Cut off from the epilimnion due to stratification
o Only have photosynthesis in a clear oligotrophic lake
o Anaerobic in summer months due to lack of DO
12. Aquifers
• Ground water volumes recharged by rainwater, snow melt, etc.
• Water in unsaturated zone: vadose water (not available for human use)
• Water in saturated zone: ground water
• Upper boundary of saturated zone: water table
• Transition area: capillary fringe
• Saturated geologic layer permeable for easy flow of water: aquifer

• Unconfined aquifer: between capillary fringe and aquitard (confining layer)

o Pumped well

• Confining aquifer: between two aquitards

o Under pressure
o Artesian well
▪ Flowing if below water level

• Water storage in aquifer function of aquifer porosity

13. Contaminants in groundwater
• Considered surface water contamination
o Controlling spread of infectious disease
o Reducing BOD wastes
o Removal of nutrients causing cultural eutrophication

• Groundwater contamination principal concern:

o Toxic chemicals

• Non-aqueous-Phase Liquids (NAPL’s)

o Do not dissolve well in water
o Dense
▪ Chlorinated solvents (dry cleaning, metal degreasing)
o Light
▪ Fuel hydrocarbons (crude oil, benzene)

• LNAPL’s
o Unsaturated zone
▪ Dissolve into water in pores
▪ Volatilize with air in pores
▪ Absorbed into soil
o Saturated zone
▪ Form a layer of contaminant that floats on the water
• DNAPL’s
o Unsaturated zone
▪ Same as LNAPL’s
o Saturated zone
▪ Sink to form a relatively impermeable layer at bottom of aquifer
▪ Slowly dissolve into passing groundwater
14. Examples of how engineering activity affects society
1. Itai-itai disease (spinal/joint pain, kidney damage, bone softening)
o Cadium poisoning from mining operations
o 1910 discharge
o 1912 disease identified
o 2012 final clean-up of Jinzū River Basin concluded

2. Soil Fumigant Metam Sodium

o Train carriage derailed in Dunsmuir, California
o 1991
o 19 000 gallons
o 1 Million fish died
o Trees lining river died
o 41-mile plume of contaminant

3. Love Canal
o Originally built for hydroelectric electricity generation in 1890
o 1,6km long by 15m wide by 12m deep
o Filled with water, clean
o Became a dumping site for municipal refuse in 1920
o 1942 canal drained and lined with clay
▪ Hooker Electrochemical Company dumped chemical waste
▪ Caustics, alkaline, chlorinated hydrocarbons
▪ 1953, filled with sand and vegetation

4. 1954: site for schools, low cost housing

5. 1962: Clay layer cracked
6. 1976: Sumps showed high levels of toxins
o Birth defects, epilepsy, miscarriages
o 1974-1978: 56% of children born had at least 1 birth defect
o 1979: 33% population had chromosomal damage

7. Ghost town
CHAPTER5 Water Quality Control

1. Municipal water and wastewater systems

• Two points of reference that will be discussed:
1. Collection, treatment and distribution of water that provides safe drinking
water or potable water
▪ MUNICIPAL WATER

2. Collection and treatment of wastewater before it is released back into the

local stream, lake or coastal waters
▪ WASTEWATER

• As the population grows, the source of water for potable water systems is becoming
closely linked to the discharge point of wastewater systems.

• Think about the point source plug flow model…

o Need time for the contaminant to disperse/biodegrade

o Time before treated (untreated!) wastewater is taken up for potable water

production is getting shorter and shorter!

• Primary responsibility of these two systems:

1. Kill pathogens before and after water usage
2. Reduce the BOD in the water
3. Reduce the nutrient loading to protect the ecological
health of the receiving water
4. Removal of other toxins such as industrial solvents,
heavy metals and pharmaceutical products
 2. Water treatment systems
• Purpose: Raw water (from a water source either surface or ground) to Potable water
• Treatment of surface water is different to ground water
1. Particle removal
2. Microbial contamination
3. Dissolved inorganics

1. Surface water
Typical sequence of events
1. Screen and grit removal
2. Primary Sedimentation (Clarifier)
3. Mixing and Coagulation
4. Flocculation
5. Secondary Settling
6. Filtration
7. Sludge processing
8. Disinfection contact

2. Groundwater
Typical sequence of events
1. Aeration
2. Flocculation
3. Sedimentation
4. Re-carbonation
5. Filtration
6. Sludge processing
7. Disinfection contact

3. Sedimentation
• Simplest form of water treatment
• Literally allow the particles to “settle out”!
• The longer the detention time, the more effective the sedimentation process
o HOWEVER, this means you need a bigger tank and more time
o Expensive!

• Can remove particles that are contaminants

• Flip side, can harbour other contaminants such as pathogens and absorbed metals
 4. Coagulation and flocculation
Coagulation is a chemical treatment
o Destabilizes the particles (colloids, 0,001 to 0,1 μm)
▪ Too small to settle out by gravity within a reasonable time (sedimentation)

o Normally repel each other

▪ Coagulant neutralized their surface charge to form larger particles
▪ Soda ash and lime normally added with the coagulant to form a light fluffy floc that
absorbs the destabilised colloids’
▪ Aggregate and grow

o Added to a rapid mix tank with quickly rotating impellers to mix the chemicals
o Detention time in this tank is minimal

Flocculation follows this

o Gentle agitation to encourage floc growth but prevent floc breakage and settling

5. Filtration
Removal of small particles from water
o Includes pathogens

Common technique
1. Rapid depth filtration
▪ Layers of filter media
▪ Sands, coal, earth and gravel

2. Pore opening allow water to pass through while “catching” some of the unwanted particles

3. Other particles are removed by adsorption, continued flocculation and sedimentation in pore
spaces

Backwash the filters to remove unwanted particles

o Brine
 EFFECTIVE FILTRATION RATE: NB!

6. Disinfection
Primary disinfection: Kill any pathogens in water

Secondary disinfection: Prevent pathogen regrowth (Residual)

Free chlorine used

1. Cheap
2. Reliable
3. Residual effect very good, especially if ammonia is added
4. Can cause taste and odour issues
5. Not as effective against viruses and protozoan cysts
6. Can create halogenated disinfectant by-products if in contact with natural organics:
DANGEROUS!

Ozone
1. +++ powerful
2. N taste or odour issues
3. No residual time
4. Expensive
 7. Hardness and alkalinity
• Ca and Mg ions: Hardness
• Reaction between hardness and soap
o Sticky gummy deposit call soap curd
• Hard water and heat
o Scaling
o CACO3 and Mg(OH2) precipitate out of hard water when heated

• Increased maintenance costs, less effective equipment, poor heat transfer, prone to failure
• Value above 150 mg/L of CaCO3 noticed by people

• Alkalinity: measure of water’s ability to absorb hydrogen ions without pH change

o Acid buffering capacity of water

• Nearly neutral water (6 and 8,5)

8. Softening
• Hard water
o Scaling of pipes
o Laundry becomes a nightmare!
• Surface waters not normally hard
• Groundwater normally is!
• You can “soften” water
o Lime-soda ash addition
o Ion-exchange process

9. Lime soda ash process

• Hydrated lime added to water to raise pH
o 10,3
o Calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide insoluble
o Ca and Mg ion precipitate out as solids
▪ OH- ions promote this action

• Readjust the high pH

o Re-carbonation
▪ Bubble CO2 gas into the water
▪ Decreases pH
▪ Cause residual calcium hardness to precipitate out of the water

10. Ion exchange process

• Exchanges your unwanted ions in a solution of ions of another type that are attached to a resin

• VERY EXPENSIVE
o Deionized water
o Laboratory usage
o Not used for day to day water softening
 11. Membrane process
• Address almost all contaminants in water
o Pathogens, hardness, dissolved solids, organics, metals etc.
• Semi-permeable
o Microfiltration
o Ultrafiltration
o Nanofiltration
o Reverse Osmosis
• Purified water: PERMATE
• Influent water (inlet water): FEED
• Waste-stream water: CONCENTRATE
• Particulate separation
o Micro and ultra
o Up to 98% recovery of water
• Solute separation
o Nano and RO
o Up to 90% recovery of water

• Force the water into the membrane and leave the undesirable particles on the outside of the
membrane

• Backwash to clean membrane and maintain efficiency

Waste water treatment

• Municipal waste water typically 99,9% water
• Characteristics differ dependent on point source of waste water
• Composition of untreated domestic waste water includes
1. BOD’s, COD’s, TDS’s, SS’s, TKN’s and TP’s

• Primary and secondary advanced treatment available

o Primary uses physical processes (settling, filtering)
▪ 35% BOD and 60% SS removed
o Secondary uses chemical processes (removes BOD’s)
▪ 55% BOD removed

• After primary and secondary treatment waste water still contains nutrients, dissolved
metals and salts and biologically resistant substances
o EUTROPHICATION!

• Advanced treatment very specialised

o Based on type of waste and receiving body of water
 1. Primary treatment
• Purpose of primary treatment is to screen the water, remove the grit, allow for particle
settling, disinfection and release
o Screening:
▪ Large floating objects

o Grit removal:
▪ Detention time very quick
▪ Allows sand, grit and other heavy materials to settle
▪ Non-offensive sludge's, easy to dispose

o Sedimentation
▪ Particle settling, 1,5 to 3 hours
▪ 50 – 65% of SS and 25 – 40% BOD removed
▪ Primary sludge as well as floating oils and scum processed in secondary treatment

o Disinfection
▪ Chlorine or UV
▪ Kill pathogens, control odours

EXAMPLE 8 NB!
 2. Secondary (biological) treatment
• Purpose is to provide additional BOD and SS removal
• Rate of consumption of BOD function of the microbes used during the treatment
• Organic matter that microorganisms consume defined as the substrate

• Need to determine the microorganism concentration to effective treat the waste water
o Three mass balances: Water, Substrate, Microbe mass
o All interrelated
o One is “out of balance”…. ISSUES!

• Biological reactor

3. Suspended growth treatment

• Activated Sludge
o Injection of extra O2 to reactor facilitates rapid microbial decomposition of organic
matter
o Also, artificially increase the microbial mass in reactor
o Allow for a greater contact between microorganisms and waste water within a given
space
o Speed up the process
o Need a secondary clarifier to remove sludge

• Membrane Bioreactors

• Aerated Lagoons and Oxidation Ponds

o Similar to that of a eutrophic lake, nature does its thing
o Slow process
o Lots of algae growth

4. Attached growth treatment

• Pre-treatment step for activated sludge process
• Low-maintenance, low-energy, easy to construct
o Trickling Filters
▪ Spray waste water over bed of plastic packing or other coarse materials
▪ Sufficient airflow for oxygenation of microbes
▪ Packing is coated in a layer of biological slime and it absorbs and consumes the
BOD’s in the water

• Rotating Biological Contactors

o Similar concept to above
o Biological slime on rotating discs
o Water, then air, then water again…
 5. Sludge treatment
• Quantity only about 2% of the original volume of wastewater
• Consists of about 97% water
• Separate as much water from the solids as possible to reduce the cost of processing the
sludge
• Anaerobic digestion
o Organics converted to CO2 and Methane gas
o First phase: complex organics converted to simple organics, acid formers
o Second phase: methane formers digest the simple organics to produce stable end
products

Hazardous wastes
o List of substances and Industrial processes that are designated as hazardous
o Any substance with the following four characteristic attributes:
▪ Ignitability: Easily ignited, burn vigorously and persistently

▪ Corrosivity: pH less than 2 or more than 12,5, those that are capable of
corroding metal containers

▪ Reactivity: Unstable under normal atmospheric conditions, can cause explosions

and/or liberate toxic fumes, gases and vapours when mixed with water

▪ Toxicity: Harmful or fatal when ingested or absorbed

3. Hazardous waste treatment technologies

• Different techniques that are used to approach hazardous waste

• Chemical, biological and physical processes:

1. Most commonly used
2. Chemical transforms
3. Biological uses microbes
4. Physical uses sedimentation, adsorption, aeration

• Thermal destruction process:

o Incineration, burn the wastes

• Fixation/Stabilization techniques:
o Removal of excess water, addition of stabilizing agent to create a solid
substance
4. Physical treatment
• Sedimentation: Gravity and natural flotation

• Adsorption:
1. Physical adhesion of chemicals to a surface of a solid
2. Remove organics via adsorption
3. Granular Activated Carbon (GAC)

• Aeration:
1. Volatiles
2. Drive the contaminants out of the water
3. Air stripper
4. Can combine GAC with this to remove more
contaminants at once

• Other Physical Processes

1. Reverse osmosis
2. Ion exchange
3. Electrodialysis

5. Chemical treatment
• Used to convert to less hazardous forms and possible produce useful by-products

• Neutralization:
1. Corrosive pH <2 and pH >12,5
2. Acid: Slaked Lime
3. Alkaline: Add acid or bubble CO2
• Chemical Precipitation:
1. Remove heavy metals via precipitation and pH control
2. Settling and Filtration
• Chemical Reduction-Oxidation (redox reaction)
1. Electrons removed, oxidation
2. Electrons added, reduction
3. Convert toxic substances to less toxic, easier to handle
• Ultraviolet Radiation/Oxidation
1. An approach to the destruction of dissolved organic compounds is oxidation

6. Biological treatment
• Used to decompose organic waste

• Rely on living organisms (microbes)

1. Conditions conducive to life
2. Need a source of carbon and energy
3. Sensitive to pH and temp
4. Some need O2

• Microbes sensitive to toxic substances however, most hazardous organics are

amenable to bioremediation assuming you get the balance right!

• Aqueous Waste Treatment:

1. Carefully control characteristics of waste to ensure microbes can work
2. Further sedimentation and clarification is required after bioremediation
7. Waste incineration
• Effective for organic wastes in soils, solids, gases, liquids and slurries
• Carcinogens, mutagens, teratogens and pathological wastes
o Detoxified in properly operated incinerator

• Ash as by-product can be effectively transported and disposed of properly.

• DRE: Destruction Removal Efficiency
o Measure of how much waste is released into air for amount entering
incinerator

• Critical factors of complete combustion:

1. Temp of chamber
2. Time that combustion takes place
3. Turbulence and degree of mixing
4. Amount of O2

• Liquid Injection and Rotary Kiln

• Potential to release noxious gases

8. Land disposal
• 23 M tons of hazardous
• Disposal techniques
o Landfills
o Surface impoundments
o Injection Wells

• Poorly engineered in the past

• Remediation of these sites costly

• Hazardous Substances Restrictions:

1. Ban liquids from landfills
2. Ban underground injection of hazardous waste within ¼ mile of drinking well
3. Stringent structural and design conditions
4. Require cleanup in case of leaks
5. Require information from disposal facilities re waste pathways
9. Landfills
• Class III – Hazardous Waste

• Different cells to segregate wastes so that

compatible wastes are disposed together

• Double liner system to prevent leachate

contamination
o Upper layer: Plastic or rubber
(0,25mm to 2,5mm thick)
o Lower Layer: Plastic, rubber or clay
(0,91m)

• Leachate is pumped to the surface for

treatment

10. Surface impoundments

• Excavated or diked areas that serve to store liquid hazardous wastes

• Normally a temporary arrangement unless designed to be a landfill

• Popular as the waste remains accessible for treatment during storage

1. Neutralization
2. Precipitation
3. Settling
4. Biodegradation

• Design is critical
o Leachate to groundwater contamination

11. Underground injection

• Popular method to dispose of liquid hazardous wastes.

• Make use of an injection well

• Force the liquid waste more than 700m below the surface of the ground
o Prevent groundwater contamination
CHAPTER6 Solid Waste

1. Municipal solid waste

1. Solid wastes
Not gaseous or liquid such as durable and non-
durable goods, containers, packaging, food
scraps, yard trimmings etc
3. Garbage or Food Wastes
Animal and vegetable residue from prep,
cooking and serving of food. DOES NOT
INCLUDE processing facilities i.e. slaughter
houses
5. Trash
Combustible portion of rubbish
7. Materials Recovery
• Removal of materials from the waste
stream for purposes of recycling or
composting
Waste generation = Materials Recovered + Discards
2. Municipal Solid Wastes
Solid waste from residential, commercial,
institutional and industrial sources. DOES NOT
INCLUDE construction waste, automobile
bodies, municipal sludge's, combustion ash and
industrial process waste
4. Rubbish
Old tins cans, newspapers, tires, packaging
materials, bottles, yard trimmings, plastics
etc. Rubbish DOES NOT INCLUDE garbage
6. Generation
Amounts of materials and products that
enter the waste stream
8. Discards
• Solid waste that remains after materials
are removed for recycling or
composting
• These materials are either buried or
burned

2. Solid waste management

• Integrated Solid Waste Management Plan
1. Source Reduction 2. Recycling 3. Disposal
• Reduce toxicity • Collection • Combustion with
• Less packaging • Processing energy recovery
• Product re-use • Reuse • Landfill
• More durable • Composting • Incineration
• On-site composting
3. Source reduction
“Garbage that is not produced does not have to be collected.” - Green Product Strategies

YOU AS THE ENGINEER HAVE A MASSIVE IMPACT

1. Material Selection 2. Product System Life Extension

• More materials to choose form • Make the product “hardier” so it lasts
• Critical stage of product development longer!
• Cost and lifecycle choice • Kettles and irons?

3. Material Life Extension 4. Reduced Material Intensiveness

• Once a product has reached the end of
its useful life, can that material be reused
without being disposed?
• Legislative mandates to take back the
product
• Electronics?
• Look at the design of your product and
see how you can reduce the amount or
toxicity of the materials
• Eg: Lead car batteries and mercury cell
batteries

5. Process Management 6. Efficient Distribution

• How do you efficient produce this • How do you distribute the product
product as cheaply as possible, keeping quickly, with minimal transport
the environment firmly as a priority? emissions, reduce the packaging but keep
• Eg: Electric Motors the product safe?

4. Waste management, energy and GHG’s

• Lifecycle analysis of GHG emissions covers a long series of steps from extraction and
processing of raw materials to the manufacture of products, transportation to
markets, consumer choices, waste collection, recycling or composting and finally the
discards

• Factors of GHG’s
1. Fossil fuel combustion emissions (making, transport, using and discarding)
2. Non-energy related manufacturing emissions (such as non-combustion air
pollution)
3. Methane (from landfills)
4. Methane, CO2 and nitrous oxide (from waste incineration)
5. Carbon sequestration (materials that are stored for a long time in landfills)

5. Solid waste management ND GHG’S

• Translate emissions and carbon sinks into equivalent greenhouse gases
• Consider the Global Warming Potentials (GWP’s) of a product
• Equate to metric tons of carbon equivalent (MTCE)
• 1-ton CO2 = 0,273 MTCE
• Savings when looking at waste management is very high!
EXAMPLE 1 VERY NB!
6. Energy implications of solid waste management
• Source reduction and recovery translate to less garbage going to incinerators and
landfills
o Less air pollution
o Less water contamination

• Complete lifecycle analysis complex array of environmental pro’s include:

1. Energy savings
2. Reduced water usage
3. Changes air and water pollution constituents

7. Recycling
• After source reduction, this is the highest priority

• Resource recovery or recycling means that the materials must not only have been
removed from the waste stream but in essence must be purchased by an end-user as
well

• Process includes the collection, separation and processing of waste stream products into
new forms that are sold to manufacturers and finally purchased as a new product with
reprocesses materials

• Pre-consumer:
o Scrap that is recycled without ever having been turned into a useful product
▪ Foundry and metal cut-offs that are re-melted

• Postconsumer:
o Products that are used as originally intended and then form part of waste stream
before being recovered
 1. Paper board recycling
• Largest single category of waste generation and waste recovery
• 2005 84M tons generated
• 50% recovered
• Must consider that the recycle life of paper is not infinite
o Losses
▪ Fibres break down and can’t bond
▪ Not as strong

• Mostly used to make products were “whiteness” isn’t an issue

• Else you add to “Virgin” materials

2. Recycling plastics
Significant increase in plastics in MSW
o 0,4M tons per year in 1960
o 18M tons per year in 1993
o 29M tons per year in 2005

12% of weight of MSW

3. Glass container recycling

• Decreased over time as plastic and aluminium has been used as drinks containers
• Stabilized at 13M tons per year
• Recovery rate in USA is 22%

4. Aluminium recycling
• Most valuable collectable
• Worth much more than plastics
• Compromises of only 2 to 3% of total tonnage of recyclables collected
o Generates in order of 20 to 40% of total revenue

• Estimated that 95% of recovered Al goes back into the generation of new can

5. Other metals
Nonferrous: Al, Cu, Pb, Zn

Ferrous: Metals with Iron in them

• MSW: discarded refrigerators, stoves, water heaters etc.

• Only 37% of metal generates recovered from waste stream
• 98% of battery lead recovered
 8. Construction and demolition debris
• Consists of residues from building sites

• Includes: Wood, Metals, Gypsum

Wallboard, Roofing, Concrete
Trees, Earth, Rock

• Considered to be separate from MSW but most ends up in a MSW landfill

9. Composting
• Yard trimmings and food waste account for ¼ of the mass of MSW in USA

• “FORCED” to regulate that yard trimming now have two routes:

o Backyard composting (SOURCE REDUCTION)
o Municipal composting (RECYCLING)

• Composting:
o “… aerobic degradation of organic materials under controlled conditions
yielding marketable soil amendment or mulch.”
o Fine soil conditioner
o Cannot be compared with commercial fertilizers

• Two processes
1. Window
2. Biological Reactor
o Combo of these
Composting process
1. Temperature 2. pH
• Mesophilic: 25 to 45°C Fluctuates based on stage of composting
• Thermophilic: 45 to 70°C
• Pile kept above 55°C for more than 72
hours: Pathogens & Weed Seeds destroyed

3. Nutrient Levels 4. Oxygen

• C for energy, N for protein synthesis, Ph
and Potassium for cell reproduction and
metabolism and trace nutrients such as Ca,
Cu, Mg etc.
• C:N ratio
• Aerobic microbes remove O2 from waste
• Reach anaerobic conditions if O2 not
supplied
o Slow process
o Produce undesirable odours

• Simply turn the pile every so often to add

O2
o Manage this as you do not want to
lose the heat within the oil
10. Waste to energy combustion
• Incineration of MSW has favourable and unfavourable attributes

PRO’s CON’s
1. Volume reduction 1. If poorly operated, can release toxic
2. Immediate disposal without having to wait for substances in air
slow biological processes 2. Ash from process needs special
3. Less land area requirements handling
4. Destruction of hazardous materials 3. Public buy-in
5. Possibility of recovering useful energy

11. Energy content of MSW

• Dependant on mix of materials in MSW
• High heating value or gross heat value
o HHV
o Includes energy required to vaporize the moisture
o Based on paper, food, plastic, leather and rubber

• Low Heating Value or net energy

o LHV
o Excludes the energy required to remove moisture

EXAMPLE 11 NB! 20

12. Environmental impact of WTE

• Associated environmental impacts due to solids and gases from waste combustion
o Dioxins and Furans
1. Highly Toxic by-products of incineration, chemical processing etc
2. Cause cancer, defined carcinogen without known dose

o Heavy Metals
1. Lead, zinc, cadmium, mercury etc
2. Gases and particles, air and water impact

o MSW Incinerator Ash

1. Fly ash and bottom ash
2. Fly becomes airborne: PM’s
3. Disposed, exposed to acid environment: dissolves into leachate
• Lead and Cadmium
13. Landfills
1. Class I or Secure: Hazardous materials
2. Class II or Mono-fills: Designated wastes (special handling)
3. Class III or Sanitary: Municipal Solid Waste

• MSW disposal sites reducing due to three “R’s”

1. Reduction
2. Reuse
3. Recycle

14. Basic construction and operation

• Moisture plays NB role
o Decomposition

• Moisture in water dissipates

quickly

• Water that percolates through the

surface, sides and bottom that
dominates the water balance
o Leachate
o Collection and treatment
ESSENTIAL
o Why?

• RCRA Subtitle D regulations:

1. Composite liners and leachate collection systems
2. Cover over completed landfill to minimise water infiltration
3. Methane gas collection network
SIZING A LANDFILL: EXAMPLE 13

15. Decomposition in landfills

• MSW deposited, microbial decomposition
1. CO2, Methane, VOC’s
• Lechate
• Methane Gas capturing

• Four stage Process:

1. Aerobic Phase (O2 conditions) - DAYS
2. Acid Phase (Anaerobic conditions) - DAYS
3. Methanogenesis, Unstable – MONTHS
4. Methanogenesis, Stable – YEARS
CHAPTER7 Ethics and Professionalism

What are Ethics?

• Centring on systems of moral principles and rules of conduct for the behaviour of groups
• grouping of engineers: Ethics = referring to right and wrong in the workplace

• Presenter notes on slide:

o Note the definition of ethics.
o Ethics and Morals are two very similar terms, often used interchangeably.
o The definition for ethics itself also differs, but this is the definition we will be using for this
course.
o We are in fact focussing on Normative Ethics, which is the investigation into how groups
or people ought to act and the development of standards of right and wrong.

1. Ethics vs Morals vs Law

Morals Ethics Law
o Person’s own principles o Correct conduct for a o Rules laid out by
regarding right or wrong group of people government/ruling body
o Influence by o Professions have o Often the bare minimum
religion/personal guidelines on ethics in terms of acceptable
philosophy etc conduct, so to speak

• We should be aware that none of these concepts are fixed

.
• All 3 have changed dramatically over the past millennia, centuries and even decades and will
continue to change as we discuss, argue and develop our understanding of right and wrong.

Do we, as engineers, need ethics?

• What responsibility do engineers have for the changes we and our artefacts make?
• Can and should we try to lay down rules for engineering behaviour?
• Should we refrain from an action because we can’t foresee the consequences?
• Can we make value-free judgements?

Value judgement: If your own value system plays a part in the decisions you make.
Value free judgement: Your own value systems doesn’t play a part in the decision you make

We cannot ignore the consequences of our technology

• You cannot claim to have personal morals, but not require ethics
• You cannot completely detach yourself from
o the actions you take at work
o The products you produce

• Society, and life on earth, need engineers to act ethically

• E.g. Knowingly emitting dangerous toxins from a plant

Manufacturing a seatbelt that is faulty
What are our ethical responsibilities as engineers to society?
• Responsible engineers cannot sit back and claim that
they are detached from other human concerns.

• Engineers should practice their trade in a socially

responsible and moral manner

• The role of engineers is and always was to “meddle” –

however, our meddling must be beneficial and not
harmful.

• Harm must be mitigated

2. We need to ensure out technology is Human-centred

• Huge responsibility on those developing technology to do so thoughtfully

• It cannot be assumed that technology itself is ethically neutral, or that it is only its
use that raises ethical issues.

• Machines serve people, not vice versa. (Rosenbrock)

• Machines are designed to MEET a purpose, doesn’t HAVE a purpose on its own.
o Each individual has a concept and an idea to put into that machine–in the
end it is about enhancing human skills, not take them away.

How should ethical judgements be made?

Each person most likely has their own personal hierarchy of authority that they use to make moral,
and thus ethical, decisions.
 3. Code of Ethics
Codes of ethics (ecsa.co.za)
1. Competency
3(1) Registered Persons: -
a) must discharge their duties to their employers,
clients, associates and the public effectively with
skill, efficiency, professionalism, knowledge,
competence, due care and diligence;
b) may not undertake or offer to undertake work
of a nature for which their education, training
and experience have not rendered them
competent to perform;
c) must, when carrying out work, engage in and
adhere to acceptable practices.
2. Integrity
3(2) Registered Persons: -
a) must discharge their duties to their employers,
clients, associates and the public with integrity,
fidelity and honesty;
b) must not undertake work under conditions or
terms that would compromise their ability to carry
out their responsibilities in accordance with
acceptable professional standards;
c) must not engage in any act of dishonesty,
corruption or bribery;
e) may not, either directly or indirectly, receive any
gratuity, or commission or other financial benefit on
any article or process used in or for the purpose of
the work in respect of which they are employed,
unless such gratuity, commission or other financial
benefit has been authorised in writing by the
employer or client concerned;
 3. Environment
3(4) Registered Persons must at all times -
• a) have due regard for, and in their work,
avoid, adverse impact on the
environment; and
• b) adhere to generally accepted
principles of sustainable development.
4. Public Interest
3(3) Registered Persons: -
a) must at all times have due regard and priority to
public health, safety and interest;
b) must when providing professional advice to a
client or employer, and if such advice is not
accepted, inform such client or employer of any
consequences which may be detrimental to the
public health, safety or interests and at the same
time inform the Council of their action;

c) must without delay notify Council if they become

aware of any person who has been declared
medically unfit by a registered medical practitioner
to practise as a Registered Person.

5. Dignity of the Profession 6. Administrative

3(5) Registered Persons: -
a) must order their conduct so as to uphold the
dignity, standing and reputation of the
profession;
b) may not, whether practising their profession or concerned;
otherwise, knowingly injure the professional
reputation or business of any other Registered
Person;
c) must provide work or services of quality and
scope, and to a level, which is commensurate
with accepted standards and practices in the
profession
4. Registered Persons: -
a) may not without satisfactory reasons destroy or
dispose of, or knowingly allow any other person to
destroy or dispose of, any information within a
period of 10 years after completion of the work
b) may not place contracts or orders, or be the
medium of payments, on their employer’s or client’s
behalf without the written authority of the
employers or Clients

4. Ethics and the role of the expert

• To what extent is experts removed from the problems on which they advise –to
what extent can they make value-free judgements?
• Should we see each expert as an advocate for a particular position?
• What if two experts disagree?

• Presenter notes on slide:

o Engineers will often take the role of experts, especially as they progress in
their careers.
o Experts are meant to be impartial with no vested interests – is that a realistic
concept of their role?
• Part of an expert’s job is to collect data –they do have to make judgements on what
is of central importance and what can be neglected.
 • If much of their working lives have been committed to mastering an advanced
speciality, some degree of commitment to a particular position is almost inevitable.

• This does not mean that the expert will act unprofessionally, but it does mean that
an expert with an alternative approach is needed.

5. Understanding the context of differing expert’s advice

• Unfairness in debate is probably inevitable if:
• Unequal funding for opposite sides
• Domination of research by a few experts
• Career penalty for unwelcome advice
• Administrative procedures that impose secrecy

• Presenter notes on slide:

o Moving over to debate – two experts argue, under what circumstances will
this be unfair

6. What is the difference between a profession and an occupation?

• Presenter notes on slide:

o Difference between professional and occupation.
o Thus, all professions play to some varying degree as experts in society,
providing specialised knowledge and advice.

7. What is a professional?
• Origins in Latin verb profiteri–to declare or profess a vocation or special calling.
• During the middle ages, knowledge and education was mostly controlled by the church.
• During the 12thcentury free associations of scholars came together to form universities
o By the 13thcentury it has largely taken the place of monasteries as intellectual
centres.
• Small number of professionals -Theology, medicine and law (the original pre-industrial
professions) -were trained by universities to service the ruling elite. The nature of
professions changed with the onset of the industrial revolution.
8. Characteristics of modern profession
• Today: Someone who is paid for an activity, typically does it full time and also used
to indicate thoroughness and competence.

• Today it is no longer clear-cut which groups are professionals and which are not –
professionalism is much more a matter of degree.

• Some of characteristics on which claims of professionalism is based:

o Substantial intellectual and practical training
▪ The knowledge base has to be broad enough so that the tasks
cannot become a matter of routine but distinct enough not to
interfere with adjoining specialists.

• Some of characteristics on which claims of professionalism is based:

• Professional autonomy and responsibility

o A degree of acceptance by society of the legitimacy of the claim for control
by the professional group

• Registration and licensing

o The profession is responsible, on behalf of society, for testing the
competence of practitioners, regulating standards and maintaining discipline

• Embargoes on methods of attracting business

• A fiduciary relationship with the client

• Professional indemnity

9. To create meaningful, satisfying and sustainable engineering jobs...

• Engineers need to understand how their society is structured and how technology
choice and control can be handled.