✔ Transmitter

Defn: Transmitter is a device that senses process parameter, convert it to standard

signal, transmits it to receiving instrument for indicating, controlling or recording.
Standard Power Supply & Output for Transmitter:
1. Standard Supply for Pneumatic Transmitter: - 1.4 Bar (Moisture Free, Dust
Free, Oil Free, Compressed Air)
2. Supply for Electronic Transmitter: — 24 Volt DC
3. Output Signal of Pneumatic Transmitter: - 0.2 to 1.0 Bar
4. Output signal of Electronic Transmitter: - 4 to 20 mA
Advantage of Using Transmitter:
1. Gives A Clear View Of Process At A Glance From The Control Room.So it
is easy to
2. Control the Process very Precisely.
3. Inexpensive and simple ;
4. Greater safety and Reliability.;
Types of Transmitter:
1) According To Process Parameter :
a) Pressure Transmitter
b) Level Transmitter
c) Flow Transmitter
d) Temperature Transmitter
e) pH Transmitter
f) Conductivity Transmitter
2) According To Driving Power
a) Electronic: - Conventional, Programmable/Smart
b) Pneumatic
 c) Hydraulic
Main Parts of Transmitter:
1. Sensing element
2. Signal conditioning Circuit/Arrangement
3. Power Supply

Process parameter
The physical variables which is measured and/or controlled are the process
parameters. Pressure, level, flow, temperature are the main process parameters
measured in the industry.
Instrument :A device that is used to measure or control a variable.
Instrumentation :When a machine or a process is furnished with instruments for
measurement and control is called instrumentation.
Types of Industrial Instrument
a)Measuring Instruments :
-Thermocouple, RTD, Flow Sensor etc.
b)Indicating, recording & Controlling instruments:
-Temperature Indicator, Temperature recorder, Temperature Controller etc.
c)Safety& interlock instruments -Pressure Safety Valve, Pressure Switch etc.

The above instruments can be again classified into two categories based on driving
power.
Electronic instrument (uses electricity)
Pneumatic instrument (uses pressurized air)
Control
Control means the Process variables are kept equal/near to the desired value.
Control Loop
An arrangement of instruments connected together to control a physical variable or
process parameter to the desired value is called a control loop.
Fig…
Elements of Control Loop
Sensor: (Thermocouple, RTD etc.) measures the outlet temperature of the
process.
Transmitter: It measures the process variable and transmits standard signal (4~ 20
mA) to the controller as process value (PV).
Controller: It compares process value (PV) signal to the set value (SV) and sends
a output signal (4 ~ 20 mA) to the control valve to manipulate the process
parameter.
Control valve: manipulate the steam flow to make the water temperature equal to
the set point.
Measuring Elements
1) Pressure Measurement
2) Level Measurement
3) Temperature Measurement
4) Flow Measurement
 Pressure Measuring Elements:
1) Pressure Gauges with Liquid Column
a) Mercury Barometer
b ) U-Tube Manometer
2) Pressure Gauges with Elastic Elements
a) Bourdon Tube
1) C-Type
2) Spiral type
 3)Bellows
4) Helical Type
b) Diaphragm
1)Single Diaphragm
2)Diaphragm Capsule
3)Bellows
Level Sensing and Measuring Elements:
1) Float type
2) Displacer type Air bubble or purge
3)Capacitive type Ultrasonic level sensor
4)Ultrasonic level sensor
Temperature Measurement
1)Thermocouples
2)Bimetallic Temperature sensors
3)Liquid/Gas filled thermometers
4)Optical Pyrometer
Flow Measurement:
Differential Head :
1) Orifice Plate
2) Venturi Tube
3) Flow Nozzle
4) Pitot Tube
5) Variable Area Tube
Displacement:
1) Positive Displacement
2) Turbine
 3) Magnetic Flow meter
Controller: The Controller is an instrument that accepts input signal from the
input transducer or transmitter, performs the required control actions on the
received signal and feeds the output signal to the final control element (control
valve) so that the industrial process system operates most efficiently. The
relationship between input signal and output signal reflects the control actions of
the controller.
Types of Controller:
Depending on driving power:
1) Pneumatic controller
2)Electrical/Electronic controller(Analog and Digital)
3) Hydraulic controller
Depending on mode of action:
1)Two-position or On-Off controller
2)Proportional controller(P)
3)Proportional plus Integral controller(PI)
4)Proportional plus Derivative controller(PD)
5)Proportional plus Integral plus Derivative controller(PID)
Depending on the output of controller:
1) Direct acting controller
2) Reverse acting controller
Depending on process parameter:
1) Pressure controller
2) Level controller
3) Flow controller
4) Temperature controller etc.
Pneumatic Controller: The controller that is driven by compressed air is called
the pneumatic controller.
Control Modes:
Electronic hardware modules provide one or more of the following control actions
1)Two position or On/Off action
2)Proportional gain (P)
3)Proportional gain plus integral (PI)
4)Proportional gain plus derivative (PD)
5)Proportional gain plus integral plus derivative (PID)
Proportional Controller:
Where continuously process control is necessary. ON-OFF controller cannot be
tolerated. A Proportional Controller allows tight control of the process variable.
because its output can take on any value between fully ON and fully OFF.
depending on the magnitude of the error signal. As indicated by the name of this
controller, the output changes proportionally with small changes in the error input.

Proportional plus Integral plus Derivative controller:

For satisfactory control of processes having large distance-velocity and transfer
lags and where load changes may be sudden and/or sustained, the controller must
incorporate proportional action, integral action and derivative action. Such a
controller is called three—term controller. That is, the proportional portion
provides fast response to system disturbances, the derivative portion ensures that
sudden disturbances will be met with an aggressive attempt to correct the error,
and the integral section provides a means of eventually eliminating the error
altogether.
Electrical power operated controller can be classified as:
1)Analog electrical/electronic controller
2)Programmable controller
Control Loop:
Definition: The arrangement of instruments connects to control a physical variable
to desired value constitute a control loop.
 Elements of Control Loop: The process, The measuring system, The transmitter,
The controller, The correcting element (final control element), The connecting
tubes and pipes; which passes signals
There are two types of control loop
1) Open Loop Control
2)Closed Loop Control.
Types of Closed Loop Control:
1)Feed-forward and
2)feed-back control loop
There are different types of Control loop (Depending on process)
1. Ratio Control Loop
2. Single Control Loop
3. Split-Range Control Loop
4.Cascade Control Loop
Controller Function
The Controller is an instrument which accepts input signal from the input
transducer or transmitter compares with desired value performs the required
control actions and feeds the output signal to the final control element
Controller facilities
1. Indications
- Measured value
- Set / Desired value
-Output
2.Auto / Manual operation
3. Local / Remote set value
4.Control action adjustment
5. Direct / Reverse operation
 ✔ Relay
Relay is electrically controlled devices that can opens or closes several contact
paths Simultaneously when its coil is energized by electric power. By using a low
level of control energy in the relays, it is possible to switch high power levels and
actuate several contacts at the same time.
Functional Components: Electro- magnetic relays are consists of the following.
1)Coil
2)Iron core
3)Armature
4)Contacts
5)Spring.

Principle of Operation:
The solenoid coil of a relay remains in de-energized position if no power is
applied. In this case, the spring 5 pulls the armature 3 away from the iron core as
shown in Fig. above. When power is applied, the solenoid coil becomes energized
and the armature 3 is pulled towards the iron core. As a result the normally open
(NO) contacts will close and normally close (NC) contacts will open.
Concept on NO and NC Contact:
If the contact of a switch or relay remains close on actuated force free condition,
the contact is called NC contact. Actuated force may be mechanical, electrical,
hydraulic or any other means. On the other hand, if the contact of a switch or relay
remains open on actuated force free condition, the contact is called NO contact. A
Relay may have several sets of NO and NC contact. In every set of contact. there is
a common (COM) terminal.
Conventional numbering system of a relay has shown in the following table:

A2 B2 B1 A1 Coil Connection

41 31 21 11 Common Contact

44 34 24 14 NO Contact

42 32 22 12 NC Contact

In the above table:

1st row represents the coil connection, where A and B stands for primary and
secondary coil.
2nd row represents the common contact of switches.
3rd row represents the NO contact of switches.
4th row represents the NC contact of switches.
Each column represents the set No. of switches.
 ✔ Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)
Introduction to PLC
PLC is a microprocessor-based controller with input/output circuitry that monitors
the status of field connected input and controls the attached output actuators such
as motor, solenoid, control valve according to a user created program stored in the
memory.
Hardware description of PLC
A typical PLC consists of various functional units (modules) as shown in the
following fig.

Digital Input Modules

Digital Output Modules
Analog Input Module
Analog Output Module
CPU Module
-RAM: It consists of input memory, output memory & program memory.
-ROM: It holds the operating system/Executive program of PLG.
-Microprocessor: It makes output according to stored user program and sends it to
output memory. Power Supply Module
Program Loader or Programmer
Digital Input Modules:. Input modules accept signals from the machine or process
Digital Input modules: (120 V ac or 24 V dc) and convert them into 5 V dc signals
that can be used by the processor Input devices such as push buttons, limit
switches, sensors, selector switch etc are hard wired to terminals on the input
modules.
Digital Output modules: A digital output is an output that is either in an ON or and
lamps are OFF condition. Solenoid valves, magnetic contactor coils, examples of
actuator devices connected to digital output modules.
CPU Module : The CPU is a microprocessor-based system that replaces relays,
counters, timers etc. The CPU accepts (reads) input data form various sensing
devices, executes the arithmetic and/or logic functions in accordance with the
stored user program and produce outputs. These outputs are sent to the output
module.
Program memory (RAM): It is a battery backup RAM where large number of
instructions are stored by the user i.e. application programs are stored. The
program memory is optionally available in the EPROM MEMORY, EEPROM
MEMORY etc in addition to the RAM memory incorporated in the PLC.
Input memory (RAM): The Input memory stores the status of digital inputs which
are connected to input interface circuits. Each connected input has a bit in the input
memory. When a switch is closed, its corresponding bit in the memory is set to 1.
If input is OFF, the corresponding bit is cleared or reset to zero.
Output memory (RAM): The output memory is an array of bits that store the status
of digital output devices which are connected to output interface circuit. Each
connected output has a bit in the output memory. If the program calls for a specific
output to be ON, its associated bit in the memory table is set. to 1.
Operating System Memory (ROM): A PLC's CPU is controlled by operating
system software. The operating system software is a group of supervisory
programs that are loaded and stored permanently in the PLC's memory by the PLC
manufacturer.
Power Supply Module : The power supply unit is needed to convert the main AC
voltage to the DC voltage (24 V) necessary for the processor (CPU) and the
circuits in the input and output interface modules.
Program Loader/Programming device
A programming device/Program loader is used to enter the desired program into
the memory of the processor. Program Loader is usually not permanently
connected toa particular PLC and can be moved from one PLC to the next without
disturbing the operations.
Programming devices are of two types: a) Hand-held programmer/ Programming
Console b) PC based programmer with appropriate software
Programming Software of PLC
Every brand of PLC has its own software. Here is the list of different PLC.

Brand Software Manufacture

Omron Cx-Programmer Japan

Allen Bradley RS-Logix500 USA

Mitsubishi Gx-Works2 Japan

Siemens Step7 TIA Portal V15 Germany

Yokogawa Logic Desinger Japan

Operating modes of PLC

Program Mode: It is used for preparing new program or modifications corrections
to existing program. In this mode, the PLC does not execute the program.
Monitor Mode: This mode allows a running program to be edited and monitorea
wne connected during development.
RUN Mode: It is used to execute the program that has been entered into the PLC.
No changes can be made to the internal data in this mode.
Scanning sequence of PLC
After transferring the user program to PLC, it is to be switched into Run /Monitor
mode. In this mode, microprocessor of PLC starts scanning the input memory,
program memory and update output memory sequentially.
User program is executed repeatedly as long as the PLC is in run/monitor mode.
Advantages of PLC over relay system
Reduce wiring work Easier and faster to make changes.
Relays and hardware timers are greatly reduced
Modification can be quite easy without changing of l/CO wiring
Self-diagnostic functions enable easy and fast troubleshooting of the system
Applications can be immediately documented
Advanced PLC with Human Machine Interface (HMI)
The NS-Designer is an application software package that can be run on Windows
95, 98, NT, Me,2009 or XP to create data for NS series programmable Terminals.
Basic Configuration and functions:
A project contains all 0f the objects and settings required for a group of user
screens. The prefect name is specified in access data when editing on the NS—
Designer or transferring data to PT.
Loop Control Board (LCB):
Loop Control Board performs the analog control block function easier than PLC
main processor. it is another processor like main processor. It uses main processor
memory address without affecting the main processor. LCB uses software block
than ladder diagram. it controls independently PID block.
The Loop Control Board exchanges field l/O values (analog input values, analog
output values, contact inputs and contact outputs) with external units by the
method.
1. Analog input Unit or the Basic l/O Unit refresh the I/O memory on the CPU
unit.
2.The Loop Control Board exchanges data allocated to l/O memory on the CPU
Unit
according to the operation cycle of each function block.
SCADA system
Introduction: SCADA stands for Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition. It is
not a full control system but focuses on the supervisory level. It is a purely
software package,positioned on the top of hardware to which it is interfaced.
Generally SCADA interfaced with PLC. SCADA system is used in industrial
process, power generation and distribution etc.
The generally SCADA system can be classified into two parts:
1. Clint layer which caters for the man machine interaction
2. Data server layer which handles most of the process data activities
Four distinct levels for SCADA
1. Field instrumentation,
2.PLCs and / or RTUs,
3. Communications networks and
4.SCADA host software.
Features of SCADA
1. Dynamic process Graphic
 2. Alarm summery and history
3. Real time trend
4. Historical time trend
5. Database connectivity
6. Device connectivity
7. Scripts
8. Recipe management
Applications of SCADA
1.Waste Water Treatment
2. Electrical Power Distribution System
3. Power Generating Stations
4. Industrial Control
CX-Supervisor
CX-Supervisor is dedicated to the design and operation of PC based visualization
and machine control. C X-Supervisor boasts powerful functions for a wide range of
PC based HMI requirements. Simple applications can be created rapidly with the
aid of a large number of pre-defined functions and libraries, and even very
complex applications can be generated with a powerful programming language or
VBScript.
CX-Supervisor incorporates the following items .
1. Projects
2 Points
3. Animation
4.Objects
5.Alarms
6. Data Logging
7.Graphics
 8.Pages etc.

✔ Electrical Protective Devices & Electrical Symbols

All electrical equipment and circuits have to be protected by protective devices
against damages arising abnormal conditions.
Abnormal conditions are:
1)Earth fault
2)Short circuit
3)Under voltage
4)Lighting & surge effects
5)Overload
6)Over voltage
7)Phase reversal
8)Reverse power
9)Unbalanced voltage & freq
A protective device must possess the following attributes:
1)Non-deterioration
2)Discrimination
3)Reliability
4)Adequate breaking capacity OR RUPTURING CAPACITY.
Switchgear Equipment:
1)Circuit breakers
2)Fuses
3)Switches
4)Relays and Other equipment
Switches: A switch is a device which is used to open or close an electrical circuit
in a convenient way. Limitation of Switches:
It can be used under full-load or no-load conditions but it cannot interrupt the fault
currents. When the contacts of a switch are opened, an arc is produced in the air
between the contacts.
Fuse: Fuse is a safety device. It is connected in series with the circuit and protects
the electrical apparatus and equipment from damage, when excess current flows. It
is one of the simplest protective devices and is used as circuit interrupting device
under short circuit condition. The duty of the fuse is to carry the normal working
current safely without heating, but when the normal working current is exceeded it
should rapidly heat up to the melting point. The materials used as fuse wire are tin,
lead, zinc, silver, antimony, copper, aluminum etc. Copper or lead-tin alloy is
mostly used as ordinary fuse wire.
A fuse unit essentially consists of 1) A metal fuse element or link. 3) A body to
support and isolation. 2) A set of contacts.
Types of fuse: The various types of fuses, most commonly employed are described
below:
1)Semi-enclosed or Re-wireable or Kit-Kat type fuse
2)Totally enclosed or Cartridge fuse.
3) Fuse with tripping device
4) Drop-out fuse.
5) Time delay fuse.
6) Liquid fuse.
7) Horn gap fuse.
8) Switch fuse.
Application of fuses:
1)Domestic wiring
2) Transformer protection.
3) Motor protection.
 4) Capacitors protection.
5)Breakup protection for Circuit breakers.
6) Protection of underground distribution systems
Circuit Breaker
A circuit breaker is an equipment which can open or close a circuit under all
conditions, such as:
1.No load
2. Full load and
3. Fault condition.
Types of circuit -breaker
1.Air-break circuit-breaker
2.Miniature, molded case & earth leakage circuit-breaker.
3.Oil circuit-breaker.
4. Air-blast circuit-breaker.
5.SF6 circuit-breaker.
6.Vacuum circuit-breaker
7.H.V.D.C circuit-breaker.
Construction of Circuit Breaker
A circuit breaker consists of
1.Moving and fixed contacts
2.Operating Mechanism .
3.Thermal /Magnetic Protection System .
4.Arc - extinguishing chamber
Relay: A relay is a device which detects the faultand supplies information to the
breaker for circuit interruption.
Construction of a Relay: It can be divided into three parts:
 1.The primary winding of a CT
2.The secondary of a CT connected to the
relay operating coil.
3.The tripping circuit.
Working principle of Relay:
1. Under normal load current a small current flows in the relay Operating coil
so breaker remain unchanged.
2.When fault occurs a large amount of current flows in the relay operating coil
and it energized the trip coil of the breaker. Hence the breaker is open.

✔ Starting and Control of Induction Motor

Staring Methods of Induction Motor
Induction motor can be started by one of the following methods, depending on the
specified conditions.
i. Direct on line starting
ii. Reduced voltage starting
By auto-transformer
By Star-Delta Starter
iii. Rotor resistance starting
Direct On Line Starting: Plain Induction motors, when direct switched-on take 5
to 7 times their full load current. This current will produce large line voltage drop
which will affect the operation of other electrical equipment in the same line. The
motor may be damaged by overheating if the start is delayed by excessive load
torque or supply voltage depression on restriction from supply system. Standard 3-
phase Induction Motor or designed motor (like double cage rotor) may be started
Direct On Line. Small motors up to 10 KW size maybe started Direct On Line.
Reduced Voltage Starting: By applying reduced voltage, starting current may be
reduced. This is possible by the use of auto-transformer or star-delta starter.
Rotor Resistance Starting: This is applicable for wound rotor induction motor.
Solid or Liquid rheostats (LRS) are connected to rotor through slip ring.
Starting Devices Push switch, selector switch, switch-fuse combination, Magnetic
Contactor, circuit breakers etc. are common starting devices
Magnetic Contactor Contactor is a switching device which is generally operated
by electromagnet and is capable of carrying electric current under normal circuit
conditions including operating overload conditions. Normally It has Main contact,
Auxiliary contact (N.C or N.O). The contacts are of copper silver or cadmium
conductor.
Motor Control
Motor control means starting, running, reversing, stopping, speed control,
protection etc. of a motor.
Manual and Automatic Control
Manual and automatic control of a motor is possible. When the auto-manual switch
is in manual position, the contactor is operated manually by push buttons either
locally or from a remote place. When it is in Auto position the contactor is
operated by a relay contact or a level switchc, flow switch or a thermostat or a
pressure switch or from a PLC command. Those are control devices.
Control Devices
The motor may be controlled automatically or from a remote place. Following
control devices are used to operate the switching device automatically (these are all
situated in the coil cicuit of contactor):
i. Limit switch: These are used frequently for over travel stops of motors or
other electrical equipment’s.
ii. Thermostat: Thermostats indirectly control large motors in refrigeration
and
air conditioning and in many industrial applications.
iii. Float switch: The lifting and lowering of a float mechanically attached to
an
electrical contact may start/ stops a motor which closes/ opens a valve
 controlling the liquid flow into the tank.
iv. Pressure switch: These are used to protect motor from starting with high
pressure in the process, (say, high condenser pressure in a air conditioning
system or high pressure in a gas compressor) Also this can be used in
controlling the pressure of liquids & gases within a desired range. These are
placed in the control circuit of motor.
v. Timer and time delay relays: Starting/ stopping after definite time
intervals
is achieved by using timer in the control circuit of motors.
Preventive Maintenance of Control Equipments
Mainly two rules should be followed in this connection.
a) Keep those portions conducting that are intended to be conducting.
b) Keep those portions insulated that are intended to be insulated.
• For good conduction, it requires clean, tight joints, free of contaminants
such as dirt, oxides.
• For good Insulation, it requires absence of contaminates, dirt and operation
with rated temperature.
• Equipment may be blown clean with vacuum cleaner or compressed air or
wipe by cloth.