Instrumentation and Control Engineering

PROCESS PARAMETERS

The physical variables which is measured and/or controlled are the process parameters. Pressure, level,
flow, temperature are the main process parameters measured in the industry.

TYPES OF INDUSTRIAL INSTRUMENTS

Measuring Instruments

Thermocouple, RTD, Flow Sensor etc.

Indicating, recording & Controlling instruments

Temperature Indicator, Temperature recorder, Temperature Controller etc.

Safety& interlock instruments -Pressure Safety Valve, Pressure Switch etc.

The above instruments can be again classified into two categories based on driving power.

Electronic instrument (uses electricity)

Pneumatic instrument (uses pressurized air)

CONCEPT OF CONTROL

Control means the Process variables are kept equal/near to the desired value.

CONTROL LOOP

An arrangement of instruments connected together to control a physical variable or process parameter

to the desired value is called a control loop.

ELEMENTS OF CONTROL LOOP

Sensor: (Thermocouple, RTD etc.) measures the outlet temperature of the process.

Transmitter: It measures the process variable and transmits standard signal (4~ 20 mA) to the controller
as process value (PV).

Controller: It compares process value (PV) signal to the set value (SV) and sends a output signal (4 ~ 20
mA) to the control valve to manipulate the process parameter.

Control valve: manipulate the steam flow to make the water temperature equal to the set point.

MEASURING ELEMENTS

Primary element For:- 1) Pressure Measurement 2) Level Measurement 3) Temperature Measurement

4) Flow Measurement

Pressure Measuring Elements:

1) Pressure Gauges with Liquid Column

a) Mercury Barometer

b ) U-Tube Manometer

2) Pressure Gauges with Elastic Elements

a) Bourdon Tube

1) C-Type 2) Spiral type 3)Bellows 3) Helical Type

b) Diaphragm

1)Single Diaphragm 2)Diaphragm Capsule 3)Bellows

Level Sensing and Measuring Elements:

1) Float type 2) Displacer type Air bubble or purge 3) 4) Capacitive type Ultrasonic level sensor
5)Ultrasonic level sensor

Temperature Measurement

1)Thermocouples 2)Bimetallic Temperature sensors 3)Liquid/Gas filled thermometers 4)Optical

Pyrometer

Flow Measurement:-

Differential Head :1) Orifice Plate 2) Venturi Tube 3) Flow Nozzle 4) Pitot Tube 5) Variable Area Tube
Displacement: 1) Positive Displacement 2) Turbine 3) 3) Magnetic Flow meter

CONTROLLER AND CONTROL LOOP

CONTROLLER: The Controller is an instrument that accepts input signal from the input transducer or
transmitter, performs the required control actions on the received signal and feeds the output signal to
the final control element (control valve) so that the industrial process system operates most efficiently.
The relationship between input signal and output signal reflects the control actions of the controller.

TYPES OF CONTROLLER:

Depending on driving power:1) Pneumatic controller 2)Electrical/Electronic controller(Analog and

Digital) 3) Hydraulic controller

Depending on mode of action:1)Two-position or On-Off controller 2)Proportional controller(P)

3)Proportional plus Integral controller(PI) 4)Proportional plus Derivative controller(PD) 5)Proportional
plus Integral plus Derivative controller(PID)

Depending on the output of controller:1) Direct acting controller 2) Reverse acting controller

Depending on process parameter:

1) Pressure controller 2)Level controller 3)Flow controller 4)Temperature controller etc.

PNEUMATIC CONTROLLER: The controller that is driven by compressed air is called the pneumatic
controller.

Control Modes:

Electronic hardware modules provide one or more of the following control actions

1)Two position or On/Off action

2)Proportional gain (P)

3)Proportional gain plus integral (PI)

4)Proportional gain plus derivative (PD)

5)Proportional gain plus integral plus derivative (PID)

PNEUMATIC CONTROLLER: The controller that is driven by compressed air is called the pneumatic
controller.

Electrical power operated controller can be classified as:

1)Analog electrical/electronic controller

2)Programmable controller

Control Loop:

Definition: The arrangement of instruments connects to control a physical variable to desired value
constitute a control loop.

Elements of Control Loop: The process, The measuring system, The transmitter, The controller, The
correcting element (final control element), The connecting tubes and pipes; which passes signals

There are two types of control loop 1) Open Loop Control 2) Closed Loop Control.

Types of Closed Loop Control:

1)Feed-forward and 2)feed-back control loop

There are different types of Control loop (Depending on process)

1. Ratio Control Loop

2. Single Control Loop

3. Split-Range Control Loop

4.Cascade Control Loop

Controller Function

The Controller is an instrument which

Accepts input signal from the input transducer or transmitter

Compares with desired value

Performs the required control actions and

Feeds the output signal to the final control element

SEQUENTIAL LOGIC OPERATION

The manner of operating a machine or equipment by feeding the steps into a particular order for sale
start-up, operation, annunciation and shutdown is called sequence.

There are two types of sequence system:

(i) By electromagnetic relay (ii) By Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

In the conventional sequence system electromagnetic or solid state relays, timers, counters etc are
used as switching element.

On the otlher hand in the computerized control system electromagnetie or solid state relays. timers,
counters etc are replaced by microprocessor based Programmable Logic Controller (PLC).

COMPONENTS OF CONVENTIONAL SEQUENCE SYSTEM

The main components of a conventional sequence system are switches, relays, timers, counters.
solenoid valves etc.

Switch:The electric switch is a device that is used for making, breaking or rerouting connection in an
electrical circuit to operate the load. This switching is accomplished by the opening or closing of two
metal surfaces.

Types of Switch: Mainly switches are of three types: Momentary action switch. Maintained action switch
Push-push action switch

Relay

Relay is electrically controlled devices that can opens or closes several contact paths Simultaneously
when its coil is energized by electric power. By using a low level of control energy in the relays, it is
possible to switch high power levels and actuate several contacts at the same time.

Funetional Components: Electro- magnetic relays are consists of the following.

1)Coil 2)Iron core 3)Armature 4)Contacts 5)Spring.

Principle of Operation:

The solenoid coil of a relay remains in de-energized position if no power is applied. In this case, the
spring 5 pulls the armature 3 away from the iron core as shown in Fig. above. When power is applied,
the solenoid coil becomes energized and the armature 3 is pulled towards the iron core. As a result the
normally open (NO) contacts will close and normally close (NC) contacts will open.

Concept on NO and NC Contact:

If the contact of a switch or relay remains close on actuated force free condition, the contact is called NC
contact. Actuated force may be mechanical, electrical, hydraulic or any other means. On the other hand,
if the contact of a switch or relay remains open on actuated force free condition, the contact is called
NO contact. A relay may have several sets of NO and NC contact. In every set of contact. there is a
common (COM) terminal.

Fig. Relay Normal(shown de-energized)

Conventional numbering system of a relay has shown in the following table:

Table

In the above table:

Ist row represents the coil connection, where A and B stands for primary and secondary coil.

2nd row represents the common contact of switches.

3rd row represents the NO contact of switches.

4th row represents the NC contact of switches.

Each column represents the set No. of switches.

Fig.Self-hold system of a relay

Interlock System

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

INTRODUCTION TO PLC

PLC is a microprocessor-based controller with input/output circuitry that monitors the status of field
connected input and controls the attached output actuators such as motor, solenoid, control valve
according to a user created program stored in the memory.

HARDWARE DESCRIPTION OF PLC

A typical PLC consists of various functional units (modules) as shown in the following fig.

Digital Input Modules

Digital Output Modules

Analog Input Module

Analog Output Module

CPU Module

-RAM: It consists of input memory, output memory & program memory.

-ROM: It holds the operating system/Executive program of PLG.

-Microprocessor: It makes output according to stored user program and sends it to output memory.
Power Supply Module

Program Loader or Programmer

Digital Input Modules:. Input modules accept signals from the machine or process (120 V ac or 24 V dc)
and convert them into 5 V dc signals that can be used by the processor Input devices such as push
buttons, limit switches, sensors, selector switch etc are hard wired to terminals on the input modules.

Digital Output modules: A digital output is an output that is either in an ON or and lamps are OFF
condition. Solenoid valves, magnetic contactor coils, examples of actuator devices connected to digital
output modules.

CPU Module

The CPU is a microprocessor-based system that replaces relays, counters, timers etc. The CPU accepts
(reads) input data form various sensing devices, executes the arithmetic and/or logic functions in
accordance with the stored user program and produce outputs. These outputs are sent to the output
module.

Program memory (RAM): It is a battery backup RAM where large number of instructions are stored by
the user i.e. application programs are stored. The program memory is optionally available in the EPROM
MEMORY, EEPROM MEMORY etc in addition to the RAM memory incorporated in the PLC.

Input memory (RAM): The Input memory stores the status of digital inputs which are connected to input
interface circuits. Each connected input has a bit in the input memory. When a switch is closed, its
corresponding bit in the memory is set to 1. If input is OFF, the corresponding bit is cleared or reset to
zero.

Output memory (RAM): The output memory is an array of bits that store the status of digital output
devices which are connected to output interface circuit. Each connected output has a bit in the output
memory. If the program calls for a specific output to be ON, its associated bit in the memory table is set.
to 1.

Operating System Memory (ROM): A PLC's CPU is controlled by operating system software. The
operating system software is a group of supervisory programs that are loaded and stored permanently
in the PLC's memory by the PLC manufacturer.

Power Supply Module

The power supply unit is needed to convert the main AC voltage to the DC voltage (24 V) necessary for
the processor (CPU) and the circuits in the input and output interface modules.

Program Loader/Programming device

A programming device/Program loader is used to enter the desired program into the memory of the
processor. Program Loader is usually not permanently connected toa particular PLC and can be moved
from one PLC to the next without disturbing the operations.

Programming devices are of two types: a) Hand-held programmer/ Programming Console b) PC based
programmer with appropriate software
Programming Software of PLC

Every brand of PLC has its own software. Here is the list of different PLC.

Table

Operating modes of PLC

PROGRAM Mode: It is used for preparing new program or modifications corrections to existing program.
In this mode, the PLC does not execute the program.

Monitor Mode: This mode allows a running program to be edited and monitorea wne connected during
development.

RUN Mode: It is used to execute the program that has been entered into the PLC. No changes can be
made to the internal data in this mode.

Ladder Diagram

Block Diagram

Scanning sequence of PLC

After transferring the user program to PLC, it is to be switched into Run /Monitor mode. In this mode,
microprocessor of PLC starts scanning the input memory, program memory and update output memory
sequentially.

User program is executed repeatedly as long as the PLC is in run/monitor mode.

Fig.Scanning sequence of PLC

Advantages of PLC over relay system

Reduce wiring work Easier and faster to make changes.

Relays and hardware timers are greatly reduced

Modification can be quite easy without changing of l/CO wiring

Self-diagnostic functions enable easy and fast troubleshooting of the system

Applications can be immediately documented

Electrical and Electronic Engineering

Electrical Protective Devices & Electrical Symbols

All electrical equipment and circuits have to be protected by protective devices against damages arising
abnormal conditions.

Abnormal conditions are:

1)Earth fault 2)Short circuit 3)Under voltage 4)Lighting & surge effects 5)Overload 6)Over voltage
7)Phase reversal 8)Reverse power 9)Unbalanced voltage & freq

A protective device must possess the following attributes: 1)Non-deterioration 2)Discrimination

3)Reliability 4)Adequate breaking capacity OR RUPTURING CAPACITY.

Switchgear Equipment:

1)Circuit breakers 2)Fuses 3)Switches 4)Relays and Other equipment

Switches: A switch is a device which is used to open or close an electrical circuit in a convenient way.
Limitation of Switches:

It can be used under full-load or no-load conditions but it cannot interrupt the fault currents. When the
contacts of a switch are opened, an arc is produced in the air between the contacts.

Fuse:

Fuse is a safety device. It is connected in series with the circuit and protects the electrical apparatus and
equipment from damage, when excess current flows. It is one of the simplest protective devices and is
used as circuit interrupting device under short circuit condition. The duty of the fuse is to carry the
normal working current safely without heating, but when the normal working current is exceeded it
should rapidly heat up to the melting point. The materials used as fuse wire are tin, lead, zinc, silver,
antimony, copper, aluminum etc. Copper or lead-tin alloy is mostly used as ordinary fuse wire.

A fuse unit essentially consists of 1) A metal fuse element or link. 3) A body to support and isolation. 2) A
set of contacts.

Types of fuse: The various types of fuses, most commonly employed are described below:

1)Semi-enclosed or Re-wireable or Kit-Kat type fuse 2)Totally enclosed or Cartridge fuse. 3) Fuse with
tripping device 4) Drop-out fuse. 5) Time delay fuse. 6) Liquid fuse. 7) Horn gap fuse. 8) Switch fuse.