Flash Report on Damages

by the 2015 Gorkha Earthquake

June 20, 2015

OYO INTERNATIONAL CORPORATION

OYO RMS CORPORATION
ENGINEERING AND RISK SERVICES CORPORATION
Introduction

We would like to express our sincere sympathies and condolences for the victims of the 2015
Gorkha Earthquake.
We are deeply sorry for deceased persons due to the earthquake, and their families, in addition to
all the people damaged by the quake.
We really hope that the recovery will be achieved as soon as possible, and the victims will restore
their peaceful life again.
With our concern for Nepal, we strongly hope that the information we have heard and watched
and the ideas we have developed may help anyone, thereby contributing to recovery and
rehabilitation of Nepal in somehow and some way. With this in mind, we have collected data on
situation of disaster-hit areas and kept them as records. We are glad to disclose these data herein.

Fumio Kaneko
Representative of Damage Survey Members
General Manager, Earthquake Disaster Management Division
OYO International Corporation
 Contents

1 Survey Overview................................................................................................................................ 1
2 Earthquake Outline and Seismic Motion ........................................................................................ 3
3 Geography and Geology .................................................................................................................... 6
3.1 Geography/geology outline for the Kathmandu Valley............................................................ 6
3.1.1 Basement rock ..................................................................................................................... 6
3.1.2 Kathmandu Valley sediment .............................................................................................. 6
3.2 Terrace deposit............................................................................................................................ 7
3.3 Damages on buildings ................................................................................................................ 8
3.3.1 Chapagau ............................................................................................................................. 8
3.3.2 Kirtipur ................................................................................................................................ 8
3.3.3 Parigau................................................................................................................................. 9
4 Questionnaire Intensity and Damages to High Rise Apartments ............................................... 11
4.1 Questionnaire seismic intensity survey.................................................................................. 11
4.2 Attempts in questionnaire intensity survey in high rise apartments .................................. 12
4.3 Damages on high rise apartments .......................................................................................... 13
4.4 Consideration............................................................................................................................ 14
5 Damages to Buildings ..................................................................................................................... 16
5.1 Around the Bus Park (Balaju) ................................................................................................. 16
5.2 Town centers in Bhaktapur and Kathmandu cities............................................................... 18
5.3 Bhaktapur ................................................................................................................................. 19
5.4 Kathmandu Durbar Square and Thamel ............................................................................... 20
5.5 Chautara ................................................................................................................................... 22
5.6 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 22
6 Community-based Disaster Risk Management............................................................................. 23
6.1 Background and objectives ...................................................................................................... 23
6.2 Target areas .............................................................................................................................. 23
6.3 Overview of damages ............................................................................................................... 23
6.4 Change in the situation surrounding community-based disaster management activities . 24
6.5 Hearing survey results............................................................................................................. 25
6.5.1 Community in District 16, Nagbahal, of Lalitpur Sub-Metropolitan Municipality ..... 25
6.5.2 District 34 in Kathmandu Metropolitan Municipality................................................... 27
6.6 Evacuation ................................................................................................................................ 28
6.7 Summary and Consideration................................................................................................... 30
7 Acknowledgement ............................................................................................................................ 32
1 Survey Overview

Since the end of the 20th century, huge earthquakes have stricken various areas in the world.
Immediately after the earthquake in Gujarat, India in January 2001 causing over 20,000 victims,
seismic hazard and risk assessment targeting the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal and surveys on measures
for earthquake disaster management were implemented. It tried to warn people on damages due to a
huge earthquake in the future. Despite these efforts, however, devastating damages were brought by the
2015 Gorkha Earthquake after 13 years.

Then a damage survey for the 2015 Gorkha Earthquake was planned and conducted firstly aims for
investigating earthquake damages and keeping the results as records, thereby archiving reference data
for future earthquake disaster management and surveys. The other one is to confirm that how the
results from earthquake damage estimation and earthquake disaster management activities conducted
during 2001 to 2002 are utilized or not utilized, thereby preparing them as materials for exploring ways
of future similar surveys.

To achieve these goals, the members from various fields conducted surveys activities. The fields and
schedule were presented below.

Table 1.1 Survey Members

Field of Survey Name (Affiliation)
Earthquake Fumio Kaneko (OYO International Corp.)
Geography/geology Yoshinori Tokizane (OYO RMS Corp.)
Seismic motion (seismic Koichi Hasegawa (OYO International Corp.)
intensity) /damage outline
Building structure Yosuke Nakajima (ERS Corp.)
Community-based disaster Tomoko Shaw (OYO International Corp.)
risk management

Table 1.2 Survey Schedule

Date Details of Survey
5/26 to 5/30 Damage outline survey, seismic motion/questionnaire intensity (Hasegawa)
6/1 Arrived at the site, meeting (hereafter for all members)
6/2 Damage outline survey (main survey areas: Sakhu, Ghokarna, Gongabu and
Kuleshwor)
6/3 to 6/5 Individual surveys (earthquake, geography/geology, damages on high
rise/typical buildings, community-based disaster management activities)

Figure 1.1 shows a survey map, indicating main survey areas and routes as well as the contents
surveyed. We also conducted a building survey in Chautara, Sindhupalchoke located at the east of the

1
survey area outside of Figure 1.1. The survey focused only limited areas according to the availability of
time and human resources.

Figure 1.1 Survey Map

We will discuss the survey results in several chapters based on the following subjects.

・ Earthquake outline and seismic motion

・ Geography/geology
・ Questionnaire intensity and damages to high rise buildings
・ Damages to buildings
・ Community-based disaster risk management

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2 Earthquake Outline and Seismic Motion

The 2015 Gorkha Earthquake occurred at the depth of approximately 15 km, and approximately 80
km west of Kathmandu, the capital of Nepal, at 12:56 on April 25, 2015 (local time). According to USGS
(U.S. Geological Survey), the moment magnitude (Mw) was 7.8 (7.9 at first), and the local magnitude
(ML) was 7.6 according to DMG (Department of Mines and Geology of Nepal). It was a thrust type
earthquake in a near east-west direction, with the low subduction angle at around 10 degrees.

Several analysis results for the focal mechanism were disclosed, all of which determined that the
source fault was the area at the west of the epicenter (★ in Figure 2.1) with the length and width of 150
km and around 100 km, respectively, extending further to the east of the Kathmandu Valley. Main
slippages were concentrated to the east side of the source fault, distributed around the Kathmandu
Valley, with the maximum slip of around 4 m (red areas in Figure 2.1).

Figure 2.1 A Source model of the 2015 Gorkha Earthquake in 2015

(slip distribution by Yagi is also shown)

Looking into the mortality rate mainly resulted from the collapse of buildings, the areas near the
earthquake source had low rates, while the rate exceeded 1% (extremely severe damage) in
Sindhupalchoke and Rasuwa districts north of the Kathmandu Valley and distant from the earthquake
source. In the Kathmandu Valley having high population, the rate was low at 0.1% or less. As Yagi
indicated, these results coincide with the fact that higher frequency components related to building
damages in these areas were mainly radiated in the north side of the Kathmandu Valley. Though the
seismic intensity distribution map is provided by USGS, it may be different from actual distribution.
Because it has been prepared based on the presumption of a damage distribution insufficiently

3
considering the above source characteristics and building types. Based on the map, however, the MMI
Seismic Intensity Scale was around VII in Kathmandu, and VIII in Chautara City (Sindhupalchok
district) near the center of higher frequency component radiation.

Kathmandu

More than 1%:

Sindhupalchok, Rasuwa

More than 0.1%:

Dhorka, Nuwakot, Dhading, Bhaktapur
As of May end 2015
（Kathmandu: 0.07％） 6

Figure 2.2 Distribution of mortality rate

(Prepared based on the death toll by the Nepal Police and population data from the 2011 census)

Next, the earthquake at this time is regarded as a recurrence of the one in 1833. There are three
segments (the unit of areas where earthquakes iterate) around Kathmandu: In the east segment, huge
earthquakes occurred in 1934 and 1255 (a recurrent period of about 700 years); in the west segment, a
huge earthquake was reported to occur in 1505, indicating that the next earthquake is expected to occur
in next 100 to 200 years, assuming the same recurrent period as the east segment; in the segment near
the Kathmandu Valley (tentatively called as the central segment) located between the east and west
segments, earthquakes occurred in 1833 and 2015 (this time), though slightly smaller in scale compared
to huge earthquakes in the east and west segments above, at a recurrent period of around 200 years.
Since these two earthquakes had epicentral areas concentrated on the north of the central segment,
some presume that an earthquake will occur in 20 to 30 years at the south of the central segment due to
an seismic activity, just as the earthquake occurred in the south of the central segment (the south of the
Kathmandu Valley) in 1866 (with an estimated magnitude of 6.5 to 7.0), around 30 years after the
earthquake in 1833.

As for the damage situation, main damages were concentrated to masonry (stone masonry,
adobe-brick masonry, and mud mortar among burn-brick masonry) while damages to brick masonry

4
using cement mortar and reinforced concrete structures were limited. Judging only from a structural
type, it is presumed that a seismic motion at approximately 100 to 200 gals occurred in the Kathmandu
Valley, though many damages were caused from structures with low construction working qualities. A
strong motion record at the Kanti Path in the central area of the valley by USGS is the only disclosed
reference at the time, which shows the peak ground acceleration of 164 gal. Seeing the disclosed
response acceleration spectrum, a peak of about 0.6 g is found at 0.5 and 4.5 seconds, indicating a
short-period seismic motion component overlapping a long-period seismic motion component. Some
presume that since the Kathmandu Valley was once a lake, it has thick sediment layers, causing a
long-period motion. Moreover, period elements may differ between the center and edge of the valley,
while subsurface grounds may also affect them. However, currently we have less information.
Observation records by DMG, and by Associate Professor Takai of Hokkaido University at four locations
are not yet disclosed either. Among the records at four locations of the latter, observation records in
Kirtipur, a rock site, is especially important for considering an input seismic motion.

Record at the Kanti Path in the central area of Kathmandu

Acceleration cm/s2]

Shake at a period of 0.5 Time [sec]

seconds (affecting
buildings more) ---------- 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake (K-NET Shiogama)
---------- 1995 Southern Hyogo Earthquake (JR Takatori)
Elastic acceleration

---------- 1999 Taiwan Chi-chi Earthquake (Ishioka)

---------- 2003Tokachi‐Oki Earthquake (K-NET Tomakomai)
---------- 2015 Central Nepal Earthquake (KATNP)

Slow shake at a period of 4 to

5 seconds
response [G]

Period [sec]
Figure 2.3 A strong motion record at Kanti Path by USGS

5
3 Geography and Geology

3.1 Geography/geology outline for the Kathmandu Valley

3.1.1 Basement rock

The basement rock at the Kathmandu Valley consists of the Kathmandu Nappe, which is comprised of
granitic rocks and metamorphic rocks originated by sedimentary rocks in the Precambrian, and
Kathmandu Complex, which is comprised of sediments in the Tethys Sea between the India and Eurasia
continents.

3.1.2 Kathmandu Valley sediment

In the Kathmandu Valley, there are thick lacustrine and fluvial sediments that had deposited during
the Pliocene to the Pleistocene, with the maximum layer thickness at 600 m. At the lowest bottom of the
Kathmandu Valley sediment, there is a Bagmati formation (or a Tarebhir formation in the south of the
valley) mainly consisting of gravel layers, on top of which a Kalimati formation (or a Lukundol formation
in the south of the valley) consisting of fine-grained deposits exists. In the south of the valley, moreover,
there is an Itati formation consisting of talus deposits on top of a Lukundol formation1).

Judging from confirmation of outcrops, these sediments are partially consolidated, with the hardness
that can be somehow crushed with a hammer. Meanwhile, it is reported that a boring sample obtained
from the underground of the valley where underground water is saturated at the depth of 45 m or less
has a soft Kalimati layer which can be destroyed with its own weight2).

Figure 3.1 Geological map of the Kathmandu Valley3)

6
 Figure 3.2 Schematic view of the Kathmandu Valley cross section1)

Figure 3.3 Lacustrine sediments in the Kathmandu Valley and contained plant fossils

3.2 Terrace deposit

A terrace surface consisting of Gokarna, Thimi or Patan formation (in a chronological order) widely
distributed in the Kathmandu Valley4) (Figure 3.1). Alternating gravel and silt layers comprise of a
Gokarna layer, which are considered as sediment from a river or lake. A Thimi layer mainly consists of a
silt layer, and is considered as sediment deposited around the lacustrine delta. Fine gravel layers mainly
form a Patan layer, which is considered as sediment from alluvial fans to floodplains1)/4).

7
 Left: Gokarna layer Center: Thimi layer Right: Patan layer
Figure 3.4 Layers consisting the terrace in the Kathmandu Valley

3.3 Damages on buildings

3.3.1 Chapagau

Chapagau is a town located in a terrace-like upland in the south of the Kathmandu Valley. The
relative elevation against a river is close to 100 m, but the town seems to have a low groundwater level,
judging from a shallow well (Figure 3.5, on left) or a pond in the town. This town also suffered a great
damage, mainly in masonry buildings. In particular, the uppermost floor fell on the road due to the
earthquake in many buildings. Meanwhile, temple buildings using wooden columns had no remarkable
damage, meaning damages were concentrated onto masonry buildings.

Figure 3.5 Damages on buildings, etc. in Capagau

3.3.2 Kirtipur

Kirtipur is a city having a lot of buildings on mountains with exposed basement rocks. Damages on
buildings were not confirmed in the area having exposed basement rocks, and people lived an ordinary
life there (Figure 3.6, on left). On the other hand, damages on buildings were found in the area where

8
sediment covered on basement rocks (Figure 3.6, on right). The difference in damages between two areas
is considered to be caused by the difference in seismic resistance of buildings in the two areas: While the
area covered by sediment had many old masonry buildings, the area with exposed basement rocks has a
lot of RC buildings, in addition to various ground conditions.

Figure 3.6 Damage on buildings, etc. in Kirtipur

3.3.3 Parigau

In Parigau, a village located in the south of the valley, farm houses were scattered at a place about 500
meter walk along the terrace cliff downward from a roadway. Here heavily damaged masonry buildings
were found in every place, too. While removal works for rubbles of collapsed buildings were progressing
in other areas, where activities toward recovery/rehabilitation such as selecting reusable bricks were
observed, many collapsed and not yet touched buildings were found in this village. The level of
recovery/rehabilitation in this area was found to differ from other villages accessible by car.

Figure 3.7 Damage on buildings, etc. in Parigau

References
1) Sakai H: Stratigraphic division sedimentary facies of the Kathmandu basin group, central
Nepal. J Nepal Geol Soc 25 (Special issue), pp. 19-32, 2001
2) Harutaka Sakai: Tectonics in Nepal earthquake in 2015, and very soft ground in Kathmandu
http://www.geosociety.jp/hazard/content0087.html
3) Mitsuo Yoshida: By-products from rise of the Himalayas -- formation of intermountain basins,

9
 edited by Koshiro Kizaki, Rising Himarayas, Tsukiji Shokan Publishing, pp. 103-114, 1988
4) Yoshida, M and Igarashi, Y: Neogene to Quaternary lacustrine sediments in the Kathmandu
Valley, Nepal. Jour. Nepal Geol. Soc. 4 (Special issue), pp. 73-100, 1984

10
4 Questionnaire Intensity and Damages to High Rise Apartments

4.1 Questionnaire seismic intensity survey

As discussed in Chapter 2, disclosed data on earthquake observation is limited at this point. Therefore,
it is important to conduct a seismic intensity survey based on questionnaires of citizens in damaged
areas. During the survey period by this survey team, Associate Professor Hitomi Murakami of
Yamaguchi University arrived at the site, and conducted a survey using an updated questionnaire
intensity survey forms in cooperation with NSET (National Society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal)
and Associate Professor Shinichiro Mori of Ehime University. We were allowed to participate in the
survey, namely those in Gongabu having particularly-large damages in the Kathmandu Valley, as well
as student dormitories for the Engineering Department of Tribhuvan University (Photo 4.1) and in
areas adjacent to Thimi (Photo 4.2).

The survey results by Associate Professor Murakami were

disclosed at a brief report meeting on damage surveys by the
Architectural Institute of Japan. In page 140 of the material
for this brief meeting1), distribution of average questionnaire
intensity is presented. Average values based on
questionnaire intensity survey results tend to be smaller
than actual intensity scale, but relative differences are
reasonable in general. Figure 4.1 shows the comparison of
average values with actual seismic intensity2). In the future,
such results will be converted into the Modified Mercalli

(MM) Intensity Scales using a conversion expression based on

Figure 4.1 Example of correlation of
detailed analyses.
Max item and Average item
Ways of feeling seismic shaking by citizens were impressive: questionnaire intensities to USGS
While there were answers such as "The shaking made me intensity for the 1984 Morgan Hill and
unable to stand alone," or "I was so scared that I jumped from the 1986 Hollister earthquake 1
the second floor," contrary comments such as "The room was
safe though I was a little scared" were also found. For the situation on furniture and racks, most people
answered as "little items (in a store) were scattered." In a village near Thimi, having less damage, there
is a comment that a plant pot installed on the bars on the veranda at the third floor of the adjacent
building did not fell down due to the earthquake. We presume that the seismic ground shaking was
extremely slow, a characteristic of earthquake shakings.

11
 Photo 4.1 Tribhuvan Univ. Eng. Campus Photo 4.2 Survey at the shop near Thimi

4.2 Attempts in questionnaire intensity survey in high rise apartments

Recently, many high rise apartments of 10 or more stories have been built in the Kathmandu Valley.
According to the UNDP Survey Materials (2013), there are 23 high rise apartments of 10 or more stories,
including those under construction. Long-period seismic ground motion has a period close to specific
periods of these buildings, so it is expected that shaking was amplified by such similarity. Therefore, we
conducted a damage survey targeting high rise apartments. We planned to conduct a questionnaire
intensity survey for residents in the apartments, in addition to observation of buildings' appearance.
However, we could not obtain a sufficient number of answers for analysis, since the residents in five out
of six high rise apartments (of 14 to 17 stories) surveyed had evacuated. Some residents evacuated
though their apartments had few damage in appearance, showing a slightly excessive reaction to the
earthquake among residents in high rise apartments.

We were able to conduct a questionnaire survey only for residents of the Sun City Apartment (of 17
stories), where the number of answers collected was only eight. Due to this, we presented the results of
survey items (Q12 to Q14) showing the indoor situation which we assume indicates characteristics of the
earthquake in Table 4.1, sorted by the floor where residents were at the earthquake. Though this survey
targets only limited floors, there are some characteristics in the results: The effect on furniture, racks, or
hanging objects was extremely small on the first floor and eighth or higher floors, while significant on
the second and sixth floors. On the sixth floor, in particular, two answers obtained showed similar
results. Thus, we confirm that seismic shaking became much greater at the medium level of floors from
the ground to one-third of the total height.

12
 Table 4.1 Answers to the Questionnaires Q12 to Q14
Floors Q12. What happened to hanging Q13. What happened to objects Q14. What happened to
respondents objects, such as pictures on the wall on the shelf? furniture?
stay and lights?
1 1) Nothing. 1) Nothing. 1) Nothing.
1 1) Nothing. 1) Nothing. 1) Nothing.
2 3) Considerable swinging with 2) Some mover on the shelf. 1) Nothing.
banging noises, and some swung out
of place.
6 4) Partly damaged or fallen. 3) Some fell from the shelf. 2) Slight shake.
6 3) Considerable swinging with 2) Some mover on the shelf. 3) Considerable shake.
banging noises, and some swung out
of place.
8 1) Nothing. 1) Nothing. 1) Nothing.
11 2) Slight swinging without noises. 1) Nothing. 1) Nothing.
16 1) Nothing. 1) Nothing. 1) Nothing.

Photo 4.3 Sun City Apartment

4.3 Damages on high rise apartments

At high rise apartments, RC-frame, a main structure, had no damage, but other parts such as brick
wall (mortar paint) had cracks, peeling-off, or partial collapse. Cracks had multiple patterns, such as the
oblique direction to the wall, or horizontal/vertical direction in the border area between the wall and the
RC-frame. Lower floors had more damages, followed by medium floors. At lower floors (the first and
second floors), many cracks and peeling-off were found, while cracks were observed in medium floors.
Damages at the office located on the first floor of the Sun City Apartment were shown in Photo 4.4.

Damages at Park View Horizon located in upland slightly north of Ring Road were most devastating
in high rise apartments surveyed. Cracks and peeling-off were widely distributed in lower- to
medium-floors. In some places on lower floors, especially, brick walls were collapsed, showing the inside
of the room (Photos 4.5 and 4.6). This apartment is located on the northern edge of the valley, boasting a
beautiful landscape (Photo 4.6). Compared to the central area of the valley, this area is assumed to have
relatively thin sediment layers. The Sun City Apartment, on the other hand, is located at the east side of
the valley, having Manohara River nearby. Future analyses are required to study how the relationship
between the ground and building heights leads to damages.

13
 Photo 4.4 First floor of Sun City Apartment

Photo 4.5 Park View Horizon Apartment

Photo 4.6 Park View Horizon Apartment and View to the south

4.4 Consideration

We also checked many buildings not damaged by the earthquake in this damage survey. It is not easy
to investigate the factors of damages, but at least we can say that buildings having good working and
maintenance conditions did not collapse and had cracks only, even with long service period (Photos 4.7
and 4.8). In addition, it can be pointed out the effects of seismic shaking significantly vary depending on

14
the height of structures (Photo 4.9, collapsed Dharahara Tower).

Photo 4.7 Buildings at Trichandra Campus, Tribhuvan Univ.

Photo 4.8 Historical building at Kirtipur Photo 4.9 Collapsed Dharahara Tower

References
1) Hitomi Murakami, 2015, "Personal damage and seismic intensity survey," pp. 131-144,
Materials for Flash Report Meeting on Disaster Survey of the 2015 Gorkha Earthquake,
Architectural Institute of Japan
https://www.aij.or.jp/jpn/symposium/2015/nepal.pdf
2) Hitomi Murakami and Hiroshi Kagami, "Application of High-Precision Questionnaire Intensity
Survey Method to the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale," Earthquake, 2, 44, pp. 271-281.
https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/zisin1948/44/4/44_4_271/_pdf

15
5 Damages to Buildings

We conducted a damage survey on buildings, based on damage survey reports we had obtained
beforehand, and through visits to certain areas, focusing on the trend of damages on buildings in certain
areas, and structural problems. The areas where focused surveys were conducted, their characteristics
and survey schedules were shown in Table 5.1 below. On June 2, moreover, we conducted surveys at the
areas showing remarkable damages to understand typical buildings in this country.

Table 5.1 Survey areas, their characteristics and main structural types shown there
Representative structural type
Date Area Special notation
of area
Sankhu,
Brick masonry
Gokharna, General characteristics
June 2 Confined masonry
Gongabu, of structure
RC frame + infill
Sitapaila, Balkhu
June 3 Around Bus Park Confined masonry New town
Bhaktapur Brick masonry Traditional old city
Between Durbar
June 4 Brick masonry
Square and Center of Kathmandu
Confined masonry
Thamel
June 5 Chautara Confined masonry Mountain city

5.1 Around the Bus Park (Balaju)

Development of this area had progressed since the

Bus Park was constructed in 1993. Therefore, relatively
new buildings were concentrated in the area. Many
buildings were of reinforced concrete structure (with
brick walls) or reinforced concrete confined brick
masonry (with the column of 200 to 250 mm side
lengths). With the Bisnumati River flowing vertically in
the center area, many collapsed buildings at both sides
of the river were observed. The characteristics of such
Bus Park
damages on buildings were described below.

16
・ In general, buildings of 4 to 7 stories were Figure 5.1 Investigation log in Balaju
collapsed (it is possible that the ground and
seismic motion are related to the natural period for buildings, but it is currently uncertain). In
some of these buildings, upper floors were extended, which indicates the possibility of an
excessive vertical load on the column on the first floor. [Photos 5.1 and 5.2]
・ In many buildings, the first floor space was used as stores or lobbies for accommodation
facilities. It is presumed that these use causes structural problems such as a soft story or
eccentricity, accelerating deformation of a part of the column on the first floor, making it unable
to sustain a vertical load, leading to a collapse. [Photos 5.1 and 5.2]
・ At buildings having a store on the first floor, many flexural failures were found on the top and
bottom of the column at the opening area facing streets, while many residual deformation were
observed [Photos 5.3 and 5.4]. Brick walls installed at the back of the store often had shear
failures [Photo 5.5].
・ Many brick walls in the concrete frames had a shear failure, while few dropped toward the
outer surface. It is considered that many buildings escaped collapse though they had cracks,
because brick walls bore an earthquake force to a certain level [Photo 5.6].
・ By observing the reinforcing-bar arrangement situation of collapsed buildings, we found several
issues such as sheared reinforcement bars.

Photo 5.1 Collapsed buildings caused by a Photo 5.2 Breakdown on the column top on
story collapse on the first and second floors the second floor

Photo 5.3 Residual deformation with soft Photo 5.4 Flexural failure at the column top /

17
 stories bottom

Photo 5.5 Shear failure on the inner brick Photo 5.6 Shear failure on the outer brick
wall wall

5.2 Town centers in Bhaktapur and Kathmandu cities

Kathmandu
Durbar Square

Figure 5.2 Investigation log in Bhaktapur Figure 5.3 Investigation log on Durbar
Square and Thamel

In this area, ancient buildings having a long history are concentrated. The structure of buildings is
mainly masonry (brick). This masonry can be classified into subdivided groups depending on the types of
brick and mortar. Through visual inspections, combinations are mainly as shown in Table 5.2 below. In
addition, we presumed the process of collapse of brick masonries through a survey. [Photos 5.7 to 5.12].

In this area, buildings of adobe-brick masonry with mud mortar suffered devastating damages.

Table 5.2 Combination of types of brick and mortar

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 Type of mortar
モルタルの種類
Mud
泥 Mud + lime
泥+石灰 Cement
セメント
レ
Type of bricks
ン Burn-brick
焼成レンガ
ガ
の Quake-resistant
アドベ 耐震性能
performance
種 Adobe-brick
類 (日干しレンガ)

Crack

Crack Major gap

Photo 5.7 Cracks occurred Photo 5.8 Major gap occurred

Wooden floor used (low

surface rigidity)

Outer wall
incorporating residual
Fall of outer wall deformation

Photo 5.9 Outer wall fell Photo 5.10 Residual deformation

Complete collapse
Partial collapse

Photo 5.11 Partial collapse Photo 5.12 Complete collapse

5.3 Bhaktapur

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 Many masonry buildings of mud masonry joint type in the survey area were collapsed, and if not
collapsed, barely existed with temporary support, etc. due to residual deformation. Main characteristics
of damages on buildings are shown below.

・ Many masonry buildings of mud masonry joint type had collapsed, or if not collapsed, residual
deformation remained [Photo 5.13].
・ Many old masonry buildings had a floor of wooden structure. Therefore, horizontal stiffness was
small, resulting in a deformation in the direction where no buildings existed. [Photo 5.14].

Photo 5.13 Residual deformation of masonry Photo 5.14 Deformation on entire building

5.4 Kathmandu Durbar Square and Thamel

It is a town center of Kathmandu Metropolitan Municipality, where the Durbar Square is located. In
the Durbar Square, many historical buildings were damaged. A lot of reports were prepared, but omitted
here.

Damages were not so apparent on the main street, but on back streets, many masonry buildings
having remarkable residual deformation were found [Photos 5.15 and 5.16].

Photo 5.15 Residual deformation in Photo 5.16 Residual deformation in

masonry masonry

In these two areas, it is possible that many cracks occurred in the reinforced concrete or confined

20
masonry structure, but little damage was found in appearance.

21
5.5 Chautara

It is an area where a town was formed along the ridge of

the mountain about 50 km distance in the east of
Kathmandu. Though it is about 100 km away from the
epicenter of the earthquake, it is near to the areas where
seismic motion factors with short-period, which was close
to the one specific to buildings, were irradiated. Thus, the
MMI Seismic Intensity Scale is presumed at 8.5 (highest
in the current earthquake), judging from the damage
situation.
Figure 5.4 Investigation log in Chautara
From visual inspections, many buildings seemed to
suffer a wreck or severer damages, and any damage occurred in most buildings [Photo 5.17]. Among
buildings on the right side along the log in Figure 5.4, many were collapsed or fell in the direction of an
arrow (northeast). From the opposite side, a lot of buildings suffered a story collapse [Photo 5.18]. It can
be considered that slopes affected on these buildings.

Photo 5.17 Collapsed buildings on both sides of Photo 5.18 Collapsed buildings seen from the
the road along the ridge bottom of the ridge

5.6 Conclusion

There were areas having concentrated damages on reinforced concrete-based buildings. Most of
collapses seems to be caused by a story collapse on a lower floor. For masonry buildings, damages
occurred in almost all areas, but were concentrated in some areas. Among masonry buildings, a mud
mortar type suffered a greatest damage, while many of them showed residual deformation. It seems
impossible for masonry buildings with residual deformation to return to an original shape, which pauses
a difficult challenge at the time of recovery.

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6 Community-based Disaster Risk Management

6.1 Background and objectives

Under the development survey project by the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA),
"Earthquake Disaster Management Activity Plan Survey in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal" (hereafter,
"JICA Earthquake Disaster Management Plan Survey in the Kathmandu Valley"), in which
community-based disaster management activities were conducted as a pilot project.

1． As the first objective, it was aimed to provide a feedback to improve future disaster
management activities by conducting an interview survey to participants of community-based
disaster management activities at the time and by understanding the effects of actions at the 2015
Gorkha Earthquake, including community-based disaster management activities thereafter.

2． As the second objective, by understanding actual use of evacuation sites depending on the
difference between religious/cultural backgrounds, it was aimed to learn about considerations on
preparing evacuation plans in the future.

6.2 Target areas

1． Nagbahal in the Ward 16, Lalitpur Sub-Metropolitan Municipality (an area near the Durbar
Square and having close relationships with locale in a traditional community where Newar people
lives in patio-style houses)

2． The District 34, Kathmandu Metropolitan Municipality (a newly developed area)

6.3 Overview of damages

Some patio-style houses, where Newar people of Nagbahal lives, standing side by side were masonry
buildings of burnt bricks which were built 80 to 90 years ago, but individual structures supported each
other, except the area where burnt bricks lined up, escaping collapse. But at one part of 3 to 4 buildings
of adobe-brick masonry in Nagbahal communities, buildings collapsed. But, fortunately, people living
there were out, causing no victims. Among citizens in Nagbahal, only one woman died by collapse of a
building she worked in Nagachowk, a place distant from Nagbahal. With regard to earthquake-related
death, one woman died by a heart attack, frightened by the aftershock occurred a few days after the
earthquake in April 25, but no one died directly from the earthquake in Nagbahal. Four to five citizens
were injured.

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 Photo 6.1 Collapsed building in Lalitpur Nagbahal area

With regard to damages, cracks including minor ones were found in over 90% of all buildings, and
some buildings barely stood with a support of the supplementary column.

In the District 34 in Kathmandu Metropolitan Municipality, no deaths were found, and little damage
was observed in appearance, but some buildings had minor cracks, though limited, in rooms.

6.4 Change in the situation surrounding community-based disaster management activities

In 2001, the counterpart (C/P) of the development survey by JICA was the Ministry of Home Affairs.
Though trying to implement pilot activities, municipalities that control local activities had no
authorities as a C/P organization, and no disaster management divisions were established in individual
cities, except the Social Welfare Dep. of the Kathmandu Metropolitan Municipality that is stipulated to
manage the safety of the society as a part of work. Under these circumstances, it was not easy to
implement disaster management activities. There were no department/sections related to disaster
management or safety in Lalitpur Sub-Metropolitan Municipality, so JICA first visited various
department/sections that seem to be related to disaster management, explaining earthquake risks,
preached the necessity, and negotiated to implement community-based disaster management activities
together with municipalities.

After the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) was adopted in 2005, municipalities in Nepal started
allocating a budget for community-based disaster risk management. In 2007, the establishment of a
disaster management committee became mandatory in wards or lower level atcommunities, leading to
popularization of disaster management. Activities were implemented in an organized manner, in
accordance with the guidelines for community DRM activities, and budgets of 50,000 to 100,000 rupees
per community were allocated, though case by case, and depending on demand.

At now, Kathmandu Metropolitan Municipality has the Disaster Management Division to which one
official and six support members from the Kathmandu Metropolitan Municipality Police belong. At the
Lalitpur Sub-Metropolitan Municipality, the Disaster Management Division is established under the
Urban Development Department, having five officials, while the Bhaktapur Municipality had one

24
official in charge of disaster management in the Construction Division.

In the office of District 16 in Nagbahal (a small office with two rooms), three people (a secretary, an
assistant secretary, and a social worker) appointed by the city office currently work. This office is filled
with awareness raising posters, showing a surging awareness toward disaster management compared to
14 years ago. Moreover, the member list of the Disaster Management Committee, disaster management
map, considerations on construction of quake-resistant buildings, actions in case of an earthquake and
other various information were crowdedly posted in the district office.

Photo 6.2 Consideration on securing quake-resistance in buildings, awareness raising posters,

disaster management map

6.5 Interview survey results

6.5.1 Community in District 16, Nagbahal, of Lalitpur Sub-Metropolitan Municipality

In the community in Nagbahal, citizens protected their bodies immediately after the earthquake, by
keeping "Drop Cover Hold" actions, as always practiced. After 1 minute of shaking, they gathered to the
patio, and then evacuated in cooperation and supporting the elderly. Emergency response had no
problems in general, and injured people were smoothly treated without troubles by the Disaster
Management Committee in Nagbahal where people were trained for emergency treatment.

In activities in 2001, emergency treatment training was implemented together with the Nepal Red
Cross Society, considering the sustainability. After that, the Nepal Red Cross Society continuously
implemented trainings, including refresher ones, fostering 190 staff for emergency treatment and 54 for
light search and rescue (SAR) in the entire Nagbahal community. Thanks to such efforts, as well as
other preparatory trainings and periodical disaster drills conducted in a smaller unit of "Tole," many
citizens took necessary actions without panic at the earthquake. In 2001, a variety of trainings were
conducted, from setting up a tent, to emergency treatment and SAR in a disaster drill. This was the first
disaster management training, and since then, training had been continuously held, and the number of
participants had increased stably.

Many other changes occurred after the project: The awareness of disaster management among

25
citizens in the community had been continuously improved; the community was more united through
disaster management activities; the knowledge about safe buildings were widely disseminated, leading
to the change in construction of new buildings, such as the increase in tie reinforcements and total
reinforcing-bar arrangement amount, as well as the adoption of strengthened joints between columns
and beams, as a result of which buildings with higher safety were constructed in actual construction
sites, compared to 14 years ago.

Photo 6.3 New building construction site (left) and tents set up in the patio (right)

After the earthquake, citizens went out from buildings due to the anxiety and repeated aftershocks,
and spent hours in patios. In Nagbahal, there were four patios with different scale. In the largest patio,
11 large tents with an area of 12 m2 sent from China were set up, and between them, small tents owned
by individuals were also pitched. The government sent 3,000 rupees to the victims through
municipalities and districts, as well as foods including vegetables, sugar and rice as relief materials to
disaster-hit families in Nagbahal (In Nepal, many aid supplies failed to reach the victims). The Disaster
Management Committee took a role of distributing goods and preparing the list of evacuees. The
activities were progressed smoothly, thanks to preliminary drills before the quake.

The then chairman of the Disaster Management Committee in Nagbahal is currently the chairman of
the Disaster Management Committee of Ward 16. He becomes an important person for disaster
management in the district. The Disaster Management Committee in Nagbahal is now operated by 11
members of younger generation, as its members recognized the importance of involvement of young
people from the initial stage, which resulted in the replacement by younger people. They said that they
had a closer relationship within the community through disaster management activities, compared to 14
years ago.

At the time of our visit, more than 1 month had passed since the earthquake, a representative of the
community in the Ward 16 in Lalitpur Sub-Metropolitan Municipality, representatives of local civil
society organizations, and social workers in the Ward 16 got together to hold a review meeting for
actions after the earthquake. Most of participants considered that emergency response had been smooth,
and psychological support would be first required toward rehabilitation of the community.

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 Photo 6.4 Review meeting after the earthquake, water tank shared in the community, water
reservoir

The community in Nagbahal enriched disaster management materials/equipment: In addition to

water supply tanks owned by individuals, there are water supply tanks shared in the community,
including large ones with the capacity of 1,000 litters. A water purifying system was also installed
through the support from USAID. In these 1 to 2 years, moreover, fire-fighting hoses with the access
area of 200 m with pumps supplied by JICA were installed through the Disaster Management
Committee of the ward. Citizens were trained for handling of these hoses, thereby strengthening a fire
capacities of the area having a lot of narrow passages.

When many water supply tanks were used for a business purpose, a user receiving a benefit pays a
usage fee to the community, which will be used as expenses for community activities. Such system to
maintain and manage the local commons with funds raised from the community demonstrates a strong
relationship in the community, having a high potential as a social capital, and is an extremely important
source for community-based disaster risk management.

6.5.2 District 34 in Kathmandu Metropolitan Municipality

The chairman of the Disaster Management Committee in the Wardt 34 in Kathmandu Metropolitan
Municipality, a new residential area, had a quite strong leadership, and was very active in disaster
management. He is currently acting as a member of the disaster preparedness network in Nepal. As the
chairman, he felt the necessity of quake-resistant reinforcement works. When he expanded his house 7
years ago, he used a structure with higher quake-resistance, spending 5% higher costs compared to
typical houses When neighbors came to see how the house was reinforced, he conducted
sensitizingactivities for quake-resistant reinforcement works.

After that he moved to the Ward 10, and since then, disaster management activities did not continue,
as the next head of the ward was not active in such activities. Though the community failed to facilitate
the activities, he, as a person, continued the activities: After 1 week from this earthquake, he visited a
disaster-hit area, distributed relief materials such as tarpaulins and drugs to 300 families, and gave a
lecture on disaster management at trainings of teachers.

27
 Citizens in the community acquired quite a lot of knowledge and skills on disaster management for
these 14 years. The city office conducts awareness raising activities for disaster management, and
individual Disaster Management Committees help to stimulate the interest in disaster management at
a citizen level, thanks to the obligated systemization, though actual activities are somewhat
institutionalized. The earthquake let citizens deeply understand the risk of hosing enhancement by
adding stories.

In the viewpoint of safe urban planning and development, recently works to extend road widths have
been implemented gradually, and citizens are cooperating with them by providing a part of their site
where their houses are built (normally for free).

6.6 Evacuation

At the time when one month or more has passed after the earthquake, around 20,000 evacuees were
present in the Kathmandu Valley, living in 887 open spaces. Most evacuees living in an open space near
their houses by setting up a tent. During the period immediately after the earthquake, when meals were
distributed, there were workers who were absent from work sites, but since meals were replaced with
only rice and water, many evacuees started working during the day, as a result of which more women
than men stayed in tents for house-sitting.

At Tundikhel, the largest evacuation site in the Kathmandu Valley, 3,340 evacuees stayed on June 2.
The number of evacuees reached its peak immediately after April 25, and after May 12, when the
magnitude 7.2 aftershock occurred. Evacuees immediately after the earthquake were not always people
who lost their houses, but evacuated at night, frightened by aftershocks. After May 3 to 11 when
aftershocks decreased, evacuees also dropped from near 2,000 to around 1,400. But from May 14,
following the aftershock occurred, to the survey date of June 2, evacuees increased to over 3,000,
indicating the possibility of new damages on buildings due to the aftershock, since the number of
evacuees exceeded the one before the aftershock.

Total
14000

13000

12000

11000

10000

9000

8000

7000

6000

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
2015/5/1
2015/5/2
2015/5/3
2015/5/4
2015/5/5
2015/5/6
2015/5/7
2015/5/8
2015/5/9

2015/6/1
2015/6/2
2015/4/27
2015/4/28
2015/4/29
2015/4/30

2015/5/10
2015/5/11
2015/5/12
2015/5/13
2015/5/14
2015/5/15
2015/5/16
2015/5/17
2015/5/18
2015/5/19
2015/5/20
2015/5/21
2015/5/22
2015/5/23
2015/5/24
2015/5/25
2015/5/26
2015/5/27
2015/5/28
2015/5/29
2015/5/30
2015/5/31

Figure 6.1 Change in the number of evacuees at large evacuation sites

In 2013, with the support of USAID, the Ministry of Home Affairs disclosed a report on open spaces in

28
the Kathmandu Valley. In this report, appropriate use and characteristics for 83 open spaces were
presented, together with satellite images for adjacent areas including open spaces. These 83 open spaces
were posted on an official gazette and published.

According to the interview survey, more victims who were non-house owners lived in open spaces than
house owners. After one month or more had passed since the earthquake, schools were closed nationally,
but simultaneously reopened on June 2. Schools focused on mental care, using mainly recreation
programs. At evacuation sites, NGO conducted various activities such as drawing or games, while
taking care of mental cares for victims.

Infrastructure in the Kathmandu Valley were considered to have resistance against disasters on a
routine basis, since planned outage regularly occurred, and people usually brought water from nearby
water use facilities because water pipes were installed in an extremely limited area, or, even with water
pipes installed, water was supplied in an extremely limited time. At the earthquake, electricity in the
Kathmandu Valley recovered in a few days, and few complaints were heard among citizens except those
for damage on houses. The number of households who have water reservoir tanks with the capacity to
cover the use for about three days accounted for approximately 40% in 2001. Moreover, many evacuee
families brought water reservoir tanks to evacuation sites.

Photo 6.5 A family brought its dog in a tent. Semicylindrical shelter

Photo 6.6 Stock of water/foods at a military-managed evacuation site, cooking space in a tent

According to the social survey results during evacuation in 2001, most people answered, "I can live

29
and eat with other people in an evacuation place, regardless of their castes," but about 15% of them were
concerned with castes. Immediately after the 2015 Gorkha Earthquake, evacuation sites were filled
with many evacuees and people concerned about aftershocks, showing that castes did not cause any
problems even they sit closely under an emergency situation.

Photo 6.7 During the program for children in an

Layout of evacuation sites (right)
evacuation center (left)

6.7 Summary and Consideration

1． The difference between two areas was caused by the support to disaster management activities by
the municipality and ward office, and continuous activities and trainings conducted by an external
organization specialized in disaster management. Disaster management requires continuous
efforts, but activities by the community have their limits. Regular inputs from specialized
organizations and specialists are necessary. Also, community-based disaster risk management
activities bear activity fees, though in a small amount, which energize the Disaster Management
Committee, and firmly set their root in the community.

2． In addition to the leadership by individuals, social capital which can act as a foundation of
people's connection such as community-based organizations consisting mainly of youths, like sport
clubs and hobby circles, or community-based religious organizations. Utilizing such connection
greatly helped to continuous disaster management activities. On the premise of disaster
management activities, it is best to have community-based organizations, but if not, it is necessary
to promote connection between people. To achieve this, it is necessary to create activities that
cooperate with community development or relate to interests commonly shared and meeting local
needs, in addition to disaster management activities, and to secure continuity by incorporating
support from municipalities into the mechanism of disaster management activities.

3． In Nagbahal, before operating the community, a system was established to collect usage fees
from large-lot users of water reservoir tanks in an emergency, and allocate to funds for community
activities. It is obvious that such system to earn profits within the community not only secures
external funds and support but also enables continuous activities. These activities are not

30
necessarily disaster management-related, but contribute to the activities indirectly, by
strengthening the connection among the community.

4． Community leaders are important persons involved with the Disaster Management
Committee of the ward. They cooperate with city or ward officials to receive support for disaster
management-related materials/equipment. Linking the budgets of the city and ward with
activities, they could utilize all chances to improve disaster management capabilities.

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7 Acknowledgement

We express our appreciation to NSET (National Society of Earthquake Technology) for their kind
cooperation to our survey.

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 I wish Nepal will have peace in the heart again.
Edited by Hiromi Kaji

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