Reconociemitno Facila de Las Emociones

C O G N I T I V E N E U R O P S Y C H O L O G Y , 1 9 9 6 , 1 3 (5 ), 6 9 9 ± 7 4 5
F a c ia l E m o tio n R e co g n itio n a fter B ila ter a l A m y g d a la

D a m a g e : D iŒe ren tia lly S eve re Im p a irm en t o f F ea r
A n d re w J . C a ld e r a n d A n d re w W . Y o u n g
M R C A p p lied P sy ch o lo g y U n it, C a m b rid g e, U K
D u n c a n R o w la n d a n d D a v id I. P e rre tt
U n iv ersity o f S t. A n d rew s, S t. A nd rew s, U K
Jo h n R . H o d g es
U n ive rsity o f C a m b rid g e N eu ro lo gy U n it, A dd en b ro o k e’ s H o spital,
C a m b ridg e, U K
N an c y L . E tc o Œ
H a rva rd M ed ic a l S cho o l, M a ssa ch u setts G en e ral H o sp ita l,
C h arlesto w n , U S A
A lth o u g h th e a m y gd a la is w id ely b eliev ed to h a ve a ro le in th e r ec o g n itio n

o f em o t io n , a ce n t ra l iss u e c o n ce rn s w h et h er it is in vo lv ed in th e
re co gn itio n o f all em o tio n s o r w h et h e r it is m o re im p o rt an t to s o m e
em o tio n s t h a n t o o th ers . W e d es cri b e st u d ie s o f t w o p e o p le, D R a n d S E ,
w ith im p air ed re c o g n itio n o f fa cia l ex p re ssio n s in th e co n tex t o f b ilat er al
a m y g d a la d a m a g e. W h en t es ted w ith p h o t o g ra p h s s h o w in g fa cial ex p re s -
si o n s o f em o tio n f ro m t h e E k m a n a n d F ri ese n ( 19 7 6) se r ies , b o th D R a n d
S E sh o w e d d e ® c its in t h e re c o g n itio n o f fea r. P ro b le m s in re co gn is in g f ea r
w er e a lso fo un d u sin g p h o t o g r ap h ic q u a lity im a ge s in ter p o la te d
(``m o rp h ed ’ ’ ) b et w e en p ro to t yp es o f t h e six e m o t io n s in th e E k m a n a n d
F rie se n ( 19 7 6 ) se rie s t o c re a t e a h e xa g o n a l co n tin u u m (r u n n in g fr o m
h ap p in e ss t o s u rp rise to fe ar to s a d n ess to d isg u s t t o a n ge r t o h a p p in ess ).
C o n t ro l su b ject s id e n t i® ed th ese m o r p h ed im a g es a s b elo n g in g to d ist in ct
R e q u e s ts fo r r e p r in t s s h o u ld b e a d d r e s s e d to A n d y C a ld e r , M R C A p p lie d P s y c h o lo g y
U n it, 1 5 C h a u c e r R o a d , C a m b r id g e C B 2 2 E F , U K (T e l: 0 1 2 2 3 3 5 5 2 9 4 , x 7 4 1 ; F a x : 0 1 2 2 3
3 5 9 0 6 2 ; E -m a il: a n d y .c a ld e r@ m r c -a p u .ca m .a c .u k ), o r to A n d y Y o u n g a t t h e s a m e a d d r e s s
(T e l: 0 1 2 2 3 3 5 5 2 9 4 x 7 1 0 ; F a x : 0 1 2 2 3 3 5 9 0 6 2 ; E -m a il: a n d y .y o u n g @ m r c -a p u .ca m .a c .u k ).
T h is r e s e a r c h w a s s u p p o rte d b y E S R C g r a n t R 0 0 0 2 3 4 0 0 3 . W e a r e d e e p ly in d e b te d t o D R
a n d to S E fo r th e ir tim e a n d p a tie n c e in c o o p e r a tin g in o u r in v e s tig a tio n . W e a r e g ra te fu l to
P r o fe s s o r P . E k m a n f o r g iv in g u s p e r m is sio n to u s e a n d re p r o d u c e im a g e s d e riv e d fr o m th e
E k m a n a n d F rie s e n (1 9 7 6 ) P ictu re s o f F a c ia l A ffe c t s e r ies , a n d to th e P r e s s A s s o c ia tio n fo r
p e r m is s io n to u s e p r e s s p h o to g r a p h s .
1 9 9 6 P s y c h o lo g y P r e s s , a n im p rin t o f E r lb a u m (U K ) T a y lo r & F r a n c is L td
700 C AL D ER ET AL .
re gio n s o f t h e co n tin u u m , c o r re s p o n d in g t o th e n e ar es t p r o t o t yp e
ex p re s sio n . H o w ev er , D R a n d S E w er e im p a ir ed o n th is t as k , w ith
p ro b le m s ag a in b ein g m o st cle ar ly a p p a re n t in t h e re g io n o f t h e f ea r
p ro to ty p e. A n eq u iv a len t t es t o f re c o g n itio n o f m o r p h ed id en t ities o f s ix
fa m o u s fa c es w a s p er fo rm ed n o rm a lly b y D R , co n ® rm in g th e d iss o ciab ility
o f im p a irm e n t s a Œec tin g th e re c o g n itio n o f id en t ity an d e xp re ss io n fr o m th e
fa c e. F u rt h e r t w o - w ay fo rc e d - ch o ice tes ts sh o w e d th a t D R w a s u n a b le t o
te ll fe ar f ro m an g er, b u t co u ld t ell h a p p in es s f ro m s ad n ess w ith o u t
d i cu lty . T h e ® n d in g th a t th e re co gn itio n o f fe ar ca n b e d iŒe re n t ially
se ve re ly aŒec te d b y b ra in in ju ry is co n s ist en t w ith re p o rt s o f t h e e Œe cts o f
b ila ter al a m y g d a la d a m ag e in a n o t h e r ca se ( A d o lp h s, T ra n el, D am a sio , &
D am a sio , 1 9 94 , 1 99 5 ). T h e r eco g n itio n o f fa cia l ex p r es sio n s o f b as ic
em o tio n s m ay t h e re f o r e b e lin k ed , to s o m e e xt en t, to sp eci® c n eu r al
su b st ra tes .
INTR OD UC TIO N
S tu d ies o f fac e pro c essin g im p airm en ts d u e to d a m a g e to the h u m a n a n d
p rim ate b ra in h a v e sh o w n th at the se c an tak e a v a riety of fo rm s,
selectiv ely aŒe ctin g d iŒeren t a sp ects o f fa ce p ercep tio n (H ey w o od &
C o w ey , 1 9 92 ; Y o u n g, 1 9 9 2). O n e o f the m o st strik in g ® n d in g s to em erg e
fro m h u m a n stu dies is a d o u b le d isso c ia tio n b e tw e en de ® cits a Œectin g th e
rec og n itio n o f th e id en tities o f see n fa ces a nd d e® cits a Œec tin g th e
in terp reta tio n o f em o tio n fro m facia l ex p ressio n s (E tc oŒ, 1 9 8 4; P a rry ,
Y o u n g , S a u l, & M oss, 19 9 1 ; Y o u n g et a l., 1 9 9 3). T he im p lic atio n th a t
ce rta in a sp ects of id en tity an d em o tio n a re a n a ly sed sep a rate ly in th e
h u m a n b ra in h a s b een co n ® rm ed w ith P E T (S erg en t, O h ta , M ac D o n a ld ,
& Z u ck , 1 9 9 4). S im ila rly , stu d ies o f p rim ates sh o w th a t ce lls selec tive fo r
fa cia l id en tity an d ex p ression a re fo u n d in diŒeren t b ra in area s; cells
w h ich resp o n d to th e fa ce’ s id en tity ten d to b e lo ca ted o n th e in fe rio r
tem p o ra l g y ru s, w h erea s cells w h ose resp o n ses a re m o d u la ted p referen -
tia lly b y ex pre ssio n a re lo ca te d w ith in th e m o n k ey’ s su p erio r tem p o ra l
su lc us (D esim o n e, 1 9 91 ; H a sselm o , R o lls, & B a yliss, 1 9 89 ).
A lth o u g h in a b ility to re co gn ise fa m ilia r fac es a fte r h u m an b rain in ju ry
(p ro so p a gn o sia) h a s b een ex ten siv ely d o cu m en te d (B en to n , 1 99 0 ; B ru y er,
1 9 93 ), m u ch less is k n o w n a b o u t im p airm en ts o f fa cia l exp ressio n
rec og n itio n, th o u g h th e re is a su b stan tia l litera tu re in d ica tin g a n
in v o lv em en t o f th e rig h t cereb ra l h em is ph e re (E tc o Œ, 1 9 86 ). O n e o f th e
p a th o lo g ies tha t ca n lea d to im p a ired rec og n itio n o f fa cia l ex p ressio n s
in v o lv es d a m a g e to th e a m y gd a la. R ep o rts o f tw o p eo p le w h o su Œered
b ilatera l a m yg d a la d a m a g e, a risin g in o n e ca se fro m U rb ach - W ieth e
d ise ase (lip o id p rotein o sis) a n d in th e o th er c ase fro m su rg ery fo r
in tra cta b le ep ilep sy , in d ica ted th a t th ey w e re a b le to re co gn ise th e
id e ntities o f p rem o rb id ly fa m ilia r face s, b u t h a d p ro b le m s in terp retin g
F AC IA L EXP R ESSIO N S 701
em otion fro m fa cia l ex p ression s (A d o lph s, T ra n el, D a m a sio , & D am a sio ,

1 9 94 , 19 9 5 ; Y o u n g et a l., 1 9 95 ; Y ou n g , H ellaw ell, va n d e W al, &
Jo h n so n , 1 9 96 ). H o w ev er, a fu rth er stud y o f tw o ca ses o f bila tera l
a m y g d ala d am ag e in th e co n tex t o f w id esp rea d tem p o ra l lo b e p ath o lo g y
d u e to en cep h a litis n o te d n orm al reco g n itio n o f em o tio n fro m th e fa ce
(H a m a n n et a l., 19 9 6 ).
A c en tra l issu e co n cern s w h eth er a m yg d a la d am a g e aŒe cts th e
rec og n itio n o f a ll em o tio n s, o r is restric te d to c ertain em o tio n s. T h ere
a re g ro u n d s for th in k in g th a t th e a m yg d a la is inv o lve d in th e reco g n itio n
o f m a n y so cia l sig na ls (A llm a n & B ro th ers, 1 9 9 4 ; B roth ers , 1 9 92 ), a n d o n
th is ba sis a g en era lised d e® cit a Œectin g a ll em o tio n s m ig h t b e e xp e cted .
M o reo v er, im p a irm en ts o f th e rec og n itio n o f id en tity fo un d in case s o f
p ro so p a gn o sia a Œect a ll fam ilia r face s, so it seem s n a tu ral to assu m e b y
a n a lo g y th a t im p a irm e n ts o f fa cia l ex p ressio n rec og n itio n w ill co m p ro m ise
a ll em o tio n s. B u t th is n ee d n o t b e the ca se. F a cia l id en tities m ust a ll b e
le arn t, w h erea s b a b ies’ reco g n itio n a n d p ro du c tio n o f certa in fac ia l
ex p ressio n s see m s to b e in n a te (D a rw in , 1 8 7 2; F ield, W oo d so n , G re en b erg ,
& C oh e n, 19 8 2 ). H en ce, th e n e ura l su b stra tes o f em o tio n m ig h t in c lu d e
tem p lates fo r sp eci® c em o tio n s. M o reo v er, em o tio n s m ay h a v e ev o lv ed in
a p iecem eal m an n er, w ith d iŒerin g n e ura l su b stra tes fo r d iŒeren t e m o tio n s.
E k m a n (1 9 92 ) h a s c og en tly su m m a rised th e p o w erfu l arg u m e nts for a set
o f ba sic h u m a n em o tio n s, sh a p ed b y ev o lu tio n .
R ece ntly, A do lp hs e t a l. (1 9 9 4, 19 9 5 ) re p o rted in ve stiga tion s o f ca se S M
w h o , fo llo w in g b ila tera l d a m a g e to th e a m y g d a la ca u sed b y m in era l
d ep o sits a sso ciated w ith U rb a ch -W ieth e d isea se, sh o w ed im pa ired reco g n i-
tio n o f fa cia l ex p re ssio n s o f fea r. A lth o u g h A d o lp h s et a l. (1 9 9 4, 1 9 95 )
fo u n d tha t S M w a s p a rticu la rly im p a ired a t reco g n isin g fea r, th ey n o ted
m o re w id esp rea d p ro b lem s in th e reco g n itio n o f rela tiv ely su b tle a Œectiv e
sta tes. N o n e th e less, th ey su g g ested th a t S M ’ s im p a ired reco g n itio n o f fea r
im p lies th a t th e a m y gd a la play s a p a rticu la rly sign i® ca n t ro le in th e
rec og n itio n of th is ex p ression . T h e ® n d in g o f a d iŒeren tia l d e® cit fo r fea r
is co n sisten t w ith e vide n ce fro m n eu ro p h y sio lo g ic al stu d ies p oin tin g to a
sp eci® c ro le fo r th e am y g d a la in th e a p p ra isa l o f d an ge r a n d th e em o tio n
o f fea r (L eD o u x , 1 9 9 5). In a d d itio n , H a lg ren (1 99 2 ) h a s p o in ted o ut th a t
electrica l stim u la tio n o f th e am yg d a la in h u m a n s ca n ev o k e a v a riety o f
p h en o m e n a b u t w h en an em o tio n a l sen sa tio n is ex p erie n ced , it is
in v a ria b ly fea r.
A s w ell a s c ase S M , A d o lp h s et a l. (19 9 5 ) tested six p eo p le w ith
u n ilatera l a m y g d a la d a m ag e b u t d id n ot ® n d co m p a ra b le d i cu lties fo r
a n y o f th ese. T h ey th erefo re c o nc lu d ed th a t b ilate ral, b u t n o t un ila te ral,
d a m a g e to th e h u m a n am yg d a la im pa irs the reco g n itio n o f fac ia l
ex p ressio n s o f fea r. H o w ev er, th is n eu ro -a na to m ica l co n clu sio n re q uires
co n ® rm a tio n b ec au se it rests o n th e re sults fro m a sin g le c a se o f bila tera l
a m y g d ala d a m a g e. T h is p o in t is u n d erlin ed b y th e fa ct th a t w h e n th ey
u sed th e sa m e p ro ced u res a s A do lp hs et al. (19 9 4 ), H a m a n n et a l. (1 9 96 )
d id n o t ® n d im p a irm en ts o f ex p ressio n p ercep tio n in tw o case s o f b ila tera l
a m y g d ala d a m a g e ca use d b y h erp es sim p le x en cep h alitis.
H ere w e rep o rt inv estig a tio n s o f tw o p eo p le w ith b ila tera l am y g d a la
d a m a g e; D R a n d S E . D R h a s p a rtia l b ila tera l a m y g da la lesio n s d u e to
su rg ery fo r o th erw ise intr acta b le ep ilep sy. H er im p a ired reco g n itio n o f
fa cia l ex p ressio ns h as b een stu d ied p rev io u sly (Y o u n g et a l., 19 9 5 , 1 99 6 ),
b u t w e h a d no t ex p lo red w h eth er h e r p ro b le m s a Œe ct rec og nitio n o f a ll
fa cia l e x pre ssio n s o f em o tio n, o r a re restricted to certa in em o tio n s. S E
su Œere d exten s iv e rig h t tem p or al da m ag e, w ith b ila te ral d am ag e to th e
a m y g d ala , ca u sed b y e n cep h alitis (L a w , E v a n s, H o d g es, & M cC a rth y ,
1 9 95 ; M c C a rth y , E v an s, & H o dg es, in p ress). O u r ® n din g s sh o w th a t b o th
D R an d S E a re d isp ro p o rtio n a tely im p a ired a t reco g n isin g fe ar, b ut th a t
b o th h a v e so m e p ro b le m s in p erce iv in g o th er em o tio n s, in clu d in g a n g er.
T h ese d ata a re c on sisten t w ith the h y p o th esised ro le o f th e h u m a n
a m y g d ala in th e reco g n itio n o f em o tio n , pa rticu lar ly fe ar, an d h a v e
im p lica tio n s fo r cu rren t co n cep tio n s o f th e m e n ta l rep resen ta tio n o f fac ia l
ex p ressio n s o f em o tio n .
C A SE SUM M AR IES
W e w ill g iv e b rief su m m a ries o f relev a n t asp ec ts o f n eu ro lo gica l a n d
n eu ro p sy ch o lo g ic al ev o lu tio n s of D R a n d S E ; a fu ll ca se d esc rip tio n fo r
D R ca n b e fo u n d in Y o u n g et al. (1 9 9 5) a n d fo r SE in M cC a rth y et a l. (in
p ress).
N eurolo g y
D R is a w om a n in h er e arly 5 0s w h o ® rst su Œe red fro m ep ile psy a t th e a g e
o f 2 8. A n ti-co n vu lsa n ts fa iled to co n tro l h er seizu r es, a n d b etw een 1 97 8
a n d 1 98 1 D R un d e rw en t a series of o p era tio n s ta rg eted a t th e le ft a n d
rig h t a m y gd a la. M R I sca ns sh o w e d a n ex ten siv e lesio n o f th e le ft m ed ia l
a m y g d ala , w h ich d estro ye d m u ch o f th e b a sal n u cle i b u t larg ely sp are d th e
la tera l n u cleu s. T h e a rea o f d a m a ge e xten d ed th ro u g h o u t th e ro stro -ca u d a l
lim its o f th e left a m y g d ala , just rea ch in g th e an te rio r h o rn o f th e left
h ip p o ca m p u s. A sso cia ted d am a g e e xten d ed d o rsa lly b ey o n d th e am y g d a la
to inv o lv e p art o f th e a n terio r c o m m issu re, la tera l pu ta m e n, a n d ex tern a l
ca p su le . In th e righ t h em is ph e re, th ere w a s a sm a ll p o sterio rly p la ced
le sio n a t th e ca u d al lim it o f th e a m y g da la , a n d a seco n d sm a ll lesio n in th e
rig h t a n te rio r am yg d a lo id a rea . T ra cin g s sh o w in g th e e xten t o f th ese
le sio n s w e re p rese n ted b y Y o un g et a l. (19 9 5 , p .17 ).
T h ere w a s also so m e a d d itio n a l ex tra -a m y g da la su b co rtica l d am ag e in

th e rig h t h em isp h ere, p ro b a b ly a s a re su lt o f b leed in g n o ted o n C T a fter
o n e su rg ery ; th is in v o lv ed a d iscr ete lesio n in th e p a llid al reg io n a t th e
le ve l o f th e a nterio r co m m issu re, ex ten d in g m o re d o rsa lly w ith in th e
stria tu m a t a leve l ro stra l to th e a n terio r c om m issu re, w ith p o ssible
d a m a g e to a d ja cen t p a rts o f th e in tern a l ca p su le a n d ca u d a te n u c leu s. In
a d d itio n , v ery sm a ll a rea s o f co rtica l ab n o rm ality w ere n o ted in th e left
o ccip ito -p arieta l reg io n a d ja ce nt to th e fa lx a n d in th e a n te rio r rig h t
fro n tal lo b e; th ese w ere a lso th o u g h t to resu lt fro m su rg ery .
D R rea d ily en g ag es in co n v ersa tio n in a live ly m an n er, b u t sh e ca n h a v e
p ro b lem s in ® n d in g th e ex a ct w o rd n eed ed a n d o ften reso rts to
circu m lo cu tion s. T h ese w o rd -® n d in g d i cu ltie s a re h er o n ly o b v io u s
p ro b lem w ith la ng u a g e, a n d th ey d o no t p resen t an y h in d ran c e to
co m m u nica tio n b eca u se D R u ses eŒe ctiv e circ u m lo cu tio n s. In a ll o th er
resp ec ts, h er co n ve rsa tio n is u sua lly a p p ro p ria te a n d g ra m m atic al. W ith
resp ec t to e m o tio n , D R ca n rea d ily g iv e e xa m p les o f o cca sio n s w h en sh e
sa y s th a t sh e h a s exp e rien ced feelin g s o f h a pp in ess or sa d n ess sin ce h er
o p era tio n s, an d sh e ca n de scrib e circu m stan ce s in w h ich o th er pe o p le
w o u ld b e h a p p y, sa d , a n g ry , a fra id , etc. H o w ev er, h e r u su a l m o od is
so m ew h a t u p b ea t; sh e d o es n o t ea sily ge t up se t, a nd do e s n o t a lw a y s
resp o n d a p p rop ria te ly w h en o th ers are u p set.
S E is a 64 -y ea r-o ld m a n w h o su Œered fro m p resu m ed h erp es sim p lex
v ira l en cep h a litis a t th e a g e o f 5 5 . A 3 D a cq u isitio n seq u en ce M R I w ith
co ro n a l a n d h o riz on ta l reco n stru ctio n h a s sh o w n exten s iv e d e str u ctio n o f
th e rig h t tem p o ra l p o le, u n cu s, a m y gd a la (in c lu d in g a ll n u clei),
h ip p o ca m p u s, p a rah ip po c a m p a l g y ru s, a n d in fe rio r a n d m id d le tem p o ra l
g y ri to th e lev el o f th e in su la , w ith co m p en sato ry d ila tio n o f th e tem p o ra l
h o rn o f th e rig h t latera l v en tricle. T h e left cere bra l h em is p h ere w a s
n o rm a l w ith th e e xc ep tio n of a sm a ll reg io n o f h igh sig n a l in th e T 2
w eig h ted seq u en ce in th e reg io n o f the u n cu s an d an tero -m ed ia l
a m y g d alo id a rea . M R I sca n s a re p resen t ed in th e p a p er b y M cC a rth y
et a l. (in p ress).
S in ce th is illn ess, S E h a s co m p la in ed o f sev ere p ro b le m s w ith
to p o g rap h ica l orien tatio n , m ild d e ® cits in fa ce reco g n itio n , a n d a pro fo u n d
d isru p tio n o f h is p rev io u s ha p p y in te rp erso n a l rela tio n sh ip s d u e to
d i cu lties in rea d in g so cia l inter a ctio n s. H is sp ee ch is g ram m a tica l a n d
a p p ro p ria te, b u t o b v io u s ch a n ges in S E ’ s b e h av io u r h a ve inc lu d ed
p ro b lem s w ith tu rn -ta k in g in co n v ersa tio n s a n d ju d g in g o th er p eo p le’ s
em otion al sta te.
B o th D R a nd S E th erefo re h a ve lo ng sta n d in g b ila te ral d a m a g e to th e
a m y g d ala ; for D R th is da m a g e is m o re sev ere in th e left a m y g da la , fo r S E
in th e righ t. In a d d itio n, S E h a s su Œere d ex ten siv e p a th olo g ica l ch a n g es
a Œectin g th e righ t tem p o ra l lo b e.
N europ syc holo g y
S u m m a ries o f a ssessm en ts o f in tellige n ce, visio n , a n d fac e pro cessin g a re

g iv en in T a b le 1 . D R ’ s la test a ssessm e n t w ith the W A IS -R (W ech sler,
1 9 81 ) g a v e a F u ll S ca le IQ o f 8 7 (V IQ 8 2 , P IQ 9 6 ). H er p re d icted
p rem o r bid IQ is 11 1 u sin g th e revised v ersio n of th e N a tio n a l A d u lt
R ea d in g T est (N elso n, 1 99 1 ), b u t th is ® g u re is a b o ve b oth p re- an d p o st-
o p era tiv e re sults w ith W A IS an d W A IS -R (Y ou n g et a l., 19 9 5 ). S E ’ s
W A IS -R a n d N A R T b o th in d ica ted a v era ge in tellig en ce (W A IS -R F u ll
S ca le IQ 1 00 , V IQ 99 , P IQ 1 0 1; N A R T estim a ted p rem o rb id IQ 1 00 ).
T h ere w a s n o ev id en ce o f im p a irm en t o f b a sic v isu a l fu n ction s, w ith full
v isu a l ® eld s to co n fro n tation te stin g an d no rm al sp atia l co n tra st sen sitiv ity
fu n ctio n (V istech V C T S 6 00 0 ) fo r b o th D R a nd S E . H en ce a n y pro b lem s
in fa ce p roc essin g w o u ld n o t seem to re sult fro m p o o r v isio n p e r se.
T h e fa ce p ro cess in g tests su m m a rise d in T a b le 1 a ssessed id en ti® ca tio n
o f fa m iliar fa ce s, u n fam iliar fa ce m atch in g , a n d pro c essin g o f fac ia l
ex p ressio n s. C o n tro l d a ta a re tak en fro m th e g ro u p o f 20 p eo p le ag ed 40 ±
5 9 y ea rs re p ort ed b y Y o u n g e t a l. (1 9 9 5 ). T h ese co n tro ls a re w ell m a tch ed
to D R , b u t sligh tly y o u n g er th an S E . H o w ev er, co m p a riso n o f S E ’ s sco res
to th o se p u b lish e d elsew h ere fo r co n tro ls in th eir 6 0 s an d 70 s (Y o un g et
a l., 1 9 93 ) m a ke s n o su b sta n tia l d iŒe ren ce to th e pa ttern o f ® n d in g s sh o w n
in T ab le 1.
Id en ti® ca tio n o f fa m ilia r fa ces w a s a sses sed w ith 3 0 h ig h ly fa m ilia r fa ces
(fa m o u s p eo p le ) an d 10 u n fa m ilia r fa ces, p re sen ted o n e a t a tim e in
p seu d o ra n d o m o rd er. F or ea c h fa ce, D R a n d S E w ere a ske d w h eth er o r
n o t it w as a fam iliar p erso n a n d , if so , h is o r he r o ccu p a tio n an d n am e.
D R sh o w ed u n im p aired reco g n itio n o f fa m o u s fa ces a s fa m ilia r (2 9 / 30 )
a n d g oo d a b ility to g iv e th e o ccu p a tio n s o f fam ilia r p eo p le (2 9 / 30 ), b u t sh e
w a s p o o r a t n a m in g the m (1 3 / 30 , z = 2 .7 6 , P 0 .0 1). D R a lso sh o w ed n o
p ro b lem s in rejectin g u nfa m ilia r fa ce s (9 / 10 ).
In co n trast, S E w a s p o o r a t g iv in g th e o ccu p a tio n s (15 / 3 0 , z = 4 .2 0 ,
P 0 .0 0 1 ) o r th e na m e s o f fa m o u s p eo p le (11 / 3 0, z = 3 .2 2 , P 0 .0 0 1 ),
sh o w in g a c lea r p ro blem in fa ce reco g n itio n . H e retain ed a se nse o f th e
fa m iliarity o f m o st fa m o u s fa ces (2 7 / 3 0 co rrectly reco g n ised a s fa m ilia r,
z = 0 .4 5, P 0 .1 ), b u t th is n eed s to b e co n sid ered to g ethe r w ith h is
ten d en cy to m iscla ssify as fa m ilia r th e fa ces o f p eo p le h e w o u ld n o t
h a v e seen b efore (8/ 1 0 co rrec t rejec tio ns , z = 1 .5 1, 0 .0 5 P 0 .1 ),
w h ich in d ica tes a slig h t b ia s to w a rd resp o n d in g ``fam ilia r.’ ’ A
co rres p o nd ing test w ith n a m es o f‹ th e sa m e 3 0 fa m o u s p eo p le a n d 1 0
u n fa m ilia r n a m es sh o w ed th a t S E ’ s p o o r reco g n itio n fro m fa ces d id n o t
sim p ly re¯ ect lo ss o f sem an tic k n ow led g e (3 0 / 3 0 fa m o u s n am es
rec og n ised a s fa m ilia r, 2 9 / 30 give n th e c o rrect o cc up atio n , 9 / 10 co rrect
rejectio n s o f un fa m ilia r n am es).
TA B L E 1
P erfo rm an c e o f D R a nd S E o n T ests of I nte llig en c e, Visio n , an d F ac e P ro c essin g
( C on tro l D a ta fo r th e F ac e P ro c e ssing T asks are T ake n fro m Y o u n g et al., 1 9 9 5 )
C o n tr o ls
DR SE M ean SD
I n te llig e n c e
W A IS -R :
F u ll S c a le I Q 87 1 00
V e rb a l I Q 82 99
P e r fo r m a n c e I Q 96 1 01
N a tio n a l A d u lt R e a d in g T e s t:
E s tim a te d p r e m o r b id IQ 1 11 1 00
V is io n
V is u a l ® e ld s :
C o n fr o n ta tio n te s tin g fu ll fu ll
S p a t ia l c o n tr a s t se n s itiv ity fu n c t io n :
V is te c h V C T S 6 0 0 0 n o rm a l n o rm a l
F a c e p r o c e s s in g
I d e n ti® c a tio n o f fa m ilia r fa c e s :
H ig h fa m ilia r ity f a c e s
R e c o g n is e d a s fa m ilia r : 29 /3 0 27 /3 0 2 8 .1 5 2 .5 2
b
O c c u p a tio n : 29 /3 0 1 5/3 0 2 7 .6 5 3 .0 1
a b
N am e: 1 3/3 0 1 1/3 0 2 4 .9 5 4 .3 3
U n fa m ilia r fa c e s
C o rr e c t r e jec tio n s : 9/10 8/10 9 .3 0 0 .8 6
U n fa m ilia r fa c e m a tc h in g :
B e n to n te st 47 /5 4 40 /5 4 4 6 .7 5 4 .8 0
F a c ia l e x p re s sio n s:
b b
M a tc h in g 6/1 8 1 3/1 8 1 6 .9 0 0 .7 9
a
R e c o g n itio n 1 6/2 4 19 /2 4 2 1 .3 5 1 .8 1
S c o r e s w it h s u p e r s c rip ts a r e s ig n i® c a n tly im p a ire d in c o m p a ris o n to th e p e r fo rm a n c e o f

a b
c o n tr o ls: z 2 .3 3 , P 0 .0 1 ; z 3 .1 0 , P 0 .0 0 1 .
In sh o rt, D R w a s g o o d a t reco g n isin g fa m ilia r fac es b u t h ad pro b lem s

rem em b erin g th eir n a m es, w h erea s S E w a s p oo r a t givin g o c cu p atio ns o r
n a m es o f fa m ilia r fac es. T h ese ® n d in g s a re c o nsisten t w ith o th er rep o rted
d a ta sh o w in g th at D R is a b le to re co gn ise h ig h ly fa m ilia r fa ces w ith o u t
d i cu lty b u t h a s p ro b le m s in n am e retrieva l (Y ou n g et a l., 1 99 5 ), an d th a t
S E ha s p ro b lem s in fac e reco g n itio n (M cC arth y et a l., in p re ss).
U n fa m ilia r fa ce m a tch in g w as a ssesse d w ith th e B en to n T est of F a cia l
R ec og n itio n (B en to n , H a m sh er, V a rn ey , & S p reen , 19 8 3 ). D R h a d n o
p ro b lem s w ith th is test, sco rin g a t th e lev el o f co n tro ls. S E ’ s sco re w a s at
th e bo tto m en d o f th e n o r m al ra n ge (4 0/ 54 co rrect, z = 1 .4 1 ,
0 .1 P 0.05 ), re¯ ectin g a b o rd erlin e im p a irm e n t o n th e test’ s n o rm s
(B en to n et a l., 1 98 3 ). T his resu lt w a s slig h tly p oo r er th a n S E ’ s
p erfo rm a n ce on th e B en to n test o n a p rev io u s o cc asio n , w h e n h e sco red

4 4 / 54 (M cC art h y et al., in p ress).
P relim in a ry testin g o f ab ility to ide n tify fa cial ex p ressio n s w as ca rried
o u t w ith tw o tests; a n ex p ressio n -m a tch in g ta sk an d a n ex p ressio n -
rec og n itio n ta sk . T h e ex p ressio n-m a tch in g ta sk h a s b e en d escrib e d b y
G a in o tti (19 8 9 ). A p ho to g ra p h o f a m o de l p o sing o n e o f six fac ia l
ex p ressio n s (ha p p in e ss, su rp rise , fea r, sa d n ess, d isg u st, o r a n ge r) m u st b e
m a tch ed a g ain st o n e o f fo u r sim u lta n eo u sly p resen te d p ic tu r es; a p ictu re
o f a n o th er m o d el p o sin g th e targ et em o tio n , a n d th ree d istra cto rs
co m p risin g p ictu re s o f d iŒere n t m o d els p o sin g th ree diŒeren t e xp ress io n s.
In the ex p ress io n -r eco g n itio n task a p ic tu r e o f a m o d e l p o sin g o n e o f six
fa cia l ex p ressio n s is sh o w n , w ith th e six em o tio n la b els (h ap p in e ss,
su rp rise, fear, sad ne ss, d isg us t, or a n g er) p rin ted in ra nd o m o rde r be lo w .
T h e ta sk is to selec t th e lab el th a t b est d e scrib es th e fa cial ex p ressio n . In
b o th te sts th e stim u li w ere ta k en fro m E k m a n an d F r iesen ’ s (1 9 76 )
p ic tu res of fa cia l a Œe ct; stim u li fo r th e rec o gn itio n ta sk a re liste d h ere in
th e A p p en d ix . D R w a s sev erely im pa ired o n b o th ta sk s. S E sh o w e d a
sig n i® ca n t im p a irm e n t o n th e ex p ressio n -m atch in g ta sk , a n d w a s a t th e
b o tto m en d o f th e n o rm a l ra n g e fo r th e ex p ress io n -re co g n itio n task (1 9 / 2 4
co rrec t, z = 1 .3 0 , 0.1 P 0 .0 5 ).
T h ese d e® cits in fa cia l ex p ressio n p ro cessin g d id n o t se em to re¯ ect an y
fa ilu re to u n d ersta nd em o tio n al term s; b o th D R a n d S E co u ld d esc rib e
circu m sta n ces in w h ich o th er p eo p le w o u ld b e h a p p y , sad , a n g ry, a fraid ,
etc. F u rth er w o rk w ith D R h a s sh o w n fa cial e xp re ssio n pro cessin g
im p airm en ts w ith m o v in g a s w ell a s sta tic stim uli, a n d fo r fa ce im a g ery
(Y o u n g et a l., 1 9 9 6).
INVESTIG ATION
A s th eir ca se d esc rip tio n s m a ke c lea r, D R a n d S E h a v e b o th su Œered
b ilatera l a m y gd ala d a m a ge, an d b oth h a ve p ro b le m s in reco g n isin g fac ia l
ex p ressio n s o f em o tio n . H o w ev er, th e ex pre ssio n p ercep tio n tests sh o w n in
T a b le 1 co n tain to o few item s to d eterm in e w h eth e r D R a nd S E a re
d isp ro p o rtio n a tely im p a ired in an y p a rticu la r em o tio n ca teg o ry . T h er efo re,
w e p resen ted D R a nd S E w ith a series o f tests d esig n ed to ex p lo re fu rth er
th eir reco g n itio n o f th e six em o tio n s fro m th e E k m a n a n d F rie sen (1 9 76 )
series (h a pp in ess, sa d n ess, an g er, fe ar, d isg u st, a n d su rp rise). W e w ere
p a rticu la rly in terested to d e te rm in e w he th e r eith er p erso n w a s d isp ro p o r-
tio n a tely im p a ire d in th e rec o gn itio n of fea r. W h ere a p p ro p ria te, w e a lso
u sed co m p a ra ble tests o f reco g n itio n o f fa cia l id en tity , a llo w in g u s to
co n tra st D R ’ s an d S E ’ s p ro c essin g o f fa cia l id en tity an d ex p ressio n .
A s a star tin g p o in t, D R an d S E w ere sh o w n 1 0 exe m p la rs o f ea ch o f th e
6 fa cia l ex p ressio n s (h a p p in ess, sa d n ess, an g er, fea r, su rp rise, a n d d isg u st)
a n d ask e d to ca teg o rise ea ch w ith th e ap p ro p ria te em otio n la be l. W e th en

tested th eir reco g n ition o f ph o to g ra p h ic q u a lity im a g es in terp o la ted
(``m o rp he d ’ ’ ) b e tw ee n p ro to ty p e exp re ssio n s fo r th e six e m o tio n s, to
cre ate a h ex ag o n a l co n tin u u m (ru n n in g fro m h ap p ine ss to su rp rise to fea r
to sad n ess to d isg u st to a n g er to ha p p ine ss). A n e q u iv alen t te st o f
rec og n itio n o f m o rp h ed id en tities o f six fa m o u s fa ces w a s a lso co n d u cted .
F in a lly , tw o -w a y forc ed -ch o ice tests w ith m o rp h ed im ag e s w ere u sed to
in v estig a te D R ’ s a n d S E ’ s a b ility to d iscrim in ate b etw een sp eci® c p airs o f
fa cia l em o tio n s (h a p p in ess vs. sa d n ess, an d fe ar v s. a n g er) a n d ide n tities
(L arry H a g m a n v s. D en n is W aterm a n ).
F o r th ese n ew ta sk s, D R ’ s a n d S E ’ s pe rfo r m a nc e w a s co m p a red to th a t
o f 1 0 co n trol su b jec ts, a ge d 50 ± 6 9 y ears, fro m th e M R C A p p lied
P sy ch o lo g y U n it sub ject p a n el. T h ey w e re ch o sen so th a t b o th D R (54
y ea rs old a t th e tim e of testin g ) a n d S E (6 4 y ea rs) w er e w ithin 1 S D o f th e
m e an a ge o f th ese co n tro ls (m e a n a ge = 5 8 .9 y ea rs, S D = 6.6 y ea rs). N o n e
o f th e co n tro ls h a d b ee n fo rm a lly ed u c ated b ey o n d sch o o l le av in g a g e.
R ec o gnition of Sp e cific E mo tion s

P h o to g rap h s of th e fa ces o f 1 0 p e op le (6 fem a le, 4 m a le) w ere ta k en fro m
th e E km an a n d F riesen (19 7 6 ) series. F or ea c h fa ce, th ere w ere p o ses
co rres p o nd ing to ea ch o f 6 em o tion s (h a p p in ess, sa d n ess, su rp rise, d isg u st,
a n g er, a n d fea r), givin g a tota l o f 6 0 ph o to g ra p h s. T h e 10 p o se rs w ere
selected so th a t eac h em o tio n w a s a s w e ll reco g n ised a s p ossib le in E k m a n
a n d F riesen ’ s (1 9 7 6) n o r m s. M ea n p erce n tag e re co gn itio n ra te s ac ro ss a ll
1 0 fa ces, a n d sta n d a rd d ev ia tio n s, w ere a s fo llo w s: ha p p ine ss,
m e an = 9 9.10 , S D = 2 .5 1; sad n e ss, m ea n = 8 9 .7 0 , S D = 7 .87 ; su rp rise,
m e an = 9 0.70 , S D = 7 .7 8 ; d isg u st, m ea n = 9 3.10 , S D = 5 .2 0 ; a n g er,
m e an = 8 9.50 , SD = 1 1 .3 9; fea r, m e an = 8 9.50 , S D = 5 .9 1 . T h e stim uli
a re listed in th e A p p en d ix .
D R a n d S E w e re sh o w n ea ch o f th ese p h o to g ra p h s o n e a t a tim e, a n d
a sk ed to d ecid e w h ich o f th e em o tio n n a m es (h ap p in e ss, sad n ess , su rp rise,
d isg u st, a n g er, an d fea r) b est d escrib ed th e fa cia l exp re ssio n sh o w n . T h e
n a m es o f th e six em otio n s w ere p rin ted o n a ca rd , a n d th is w a s a va ila b le
th ro u g ho u t the test. T h er e w ere 60 tria ls (o n e fo r eac h o f th e 6 em o tio n s
a cro ss th e 1 0 p o sers), lead in g to a n a ccu rac y sc o re ou t o f a p o ssible
m a x im u m o f 10 fo r ea ch o f th e 6 em o tio n s.
T ab le 2 sh o w s D R ’ s a n d S E ’ s p erfo rm a n ce, a lo n g w ith th e pe rfo rm a n ce
o f th e 1 0 ag e-m a tch ed co n tro l su b jects. D R ’ s p e rform an ce is u n im p a ired
fo r h a p p in ess, sa d n ess, su rp rise, d isg us t, a n d an g er, b u t im p a ired fo r fea r
(5 / 10 co rrect, z = 3 .0 8 , P 0.01 ). S im ila rly , S E ’ s p erfo rm a n ce is u n im -
p a ired fo r h a p p in ess, sa d n ess, su rp rise, d isg u st, a n d a n ge r, b u t sev erely
im p aired fo r fea r (3 / 1 0 co rre ct, z = 4 .7 9 , P 0 .0 01 ).
TA B L E 2
I d e n tific a tio n o f E mo tio n in F a c ial E xp ressio n s fro m th e Ek ma n an d
F rie sen ( 1 9 7 6 ) S erie s b y D R an d S E, w ith M e an I d en tific atio n R ates
an d S ta n d ard D eviatio ns for A g e- m atc h e d C o n tro l S u b je c ts
C o n tr o ls
E m o tio n DR SE M ean SD
H a p p in e s s 1 0 /10 10 /1 0 9 .9 0 0 .3 2
S u r p r is e 9 /10 9/10 8 .5 0 1 .5 8
a b
F ea r 5 /10 3/10 8 .6 0 1 .1 7
Sa dness 9 /10 8/10 8 .7 0 1 .3 4
D is g u s t 8 /10 10 /1 0 9 .0 0 1 .2 5
A n ger 7 /10 10 /1 0 7 .7 0 1 .4 2
S c o r e s w ith s u p e r s c r ip ts a r e s ig n i® c a n tly im p a ir e d in c o m p a r iso n to th e

a b
p e rfo r m a n c e o f c o n t ro ls: z 2 .3 3 , P 0 .0 1 ; z 3 .1 0 , P 0 .0 0 1 .
S in ce E k m a n a n d F rie sen (19 7 6 ) ga v e n o rm s fo r th e reco g n isa b ility o f

ea ch p h o to g rap h , it is a lso p o ssib le to ev alu ate D R ’ s a nd S E ’ s
p erfo rm a n ce b y c o nv ertin g th eir sco res to p erc en t co rrect fo r ea ch
em otion , an d co m pa rin g th ese to th e m ea n s a n d stan d a rd d ev ia tio n s
ca lc ulated fro m E k m a n a n d F riesen ’ s (1 97 6 ) n o rm s. W h en th is is d o ne ,
D R ’ s p e rfo rm a n ce is n o rm a l fo r h a p p in ess (z = 0 .3 6 ), su rprise
(z = 0.09 ), a n d sa d n ess (z = 0 .0 4 ), im pa ire d fo r d isg us t (z = 2 .5 2 ,
P 0 .0 1 ) a n d an g er (z = 1 .7 1 , P 0 .0 5), a n d sev ere ly im p a ired
(z = 6.68 , P 0.00 1 ) fo r fea r. S E is n orm al for h a p p in ess (z = 0 .3 6 ),
su rp rise (z = 0 .0 9 ), sa d n ess (z = 1 .2 3), d isgu s t (z = 1.32 ), a n d a n g er
(z = 0 .9 2 ), an d sev erely im p a ired (z = 1 0.07 , P 0 .0 0 1 ) fo r fea r.
In sp ection o f th e co n trol d a ta su gg e sts th a t th is d iŒeren tia lly sev ere
p ro b lem in reco g n isin g fea r d o es n o t m ere ly re ¯ e ct th e rela tiv e di cu lty
n o rm a l su b jects exp e rien ce in rec o gn isin g em o tion in th ese fac ia l
ex p ressio n s. O u r co n tro ls fo u n d a n ge r th e m o st d i c ult em o tio n to
rec og n ise (m ea n reco g n ition ra te = 7 .7 0/ 1 0 co rrec t, S D = 1.42 ), n o t fea r
(m ea n reco g n itio n rate = 8 .6 0 / 1 0 co rrect, S D = 1 .1 7 ), b u t S E o u tp er-
fo rm ed all o f th e c o n tro ls o n th is e m o tio n (1 0/ 1 0 co rrec t fo r a n g er). In
a d d itio n , th e a g e-m a tc he d co n tro ls’ m ea n reco g n itio n ra te fo r su rprise
(m ea n = 8.50 , S D = 1 .5 8 ) w as co m p a ra b le to th eir reco g n itio n ra tes fo r
fea r, y et b o th D R a n d S E co rrectly reco g n ised 9 / 10 o f th e su rprise
ex p ressio n s.
A c o m p ariso n o f the fa cia l ex p ressio n s o f fea r D R co u ld o r c o u ld n o t
rec og n ise co rrectly sh o w ed n o d iŒeren ces b etw e en th e ir reco g n isa b ilities a s
fea r fo r E k m a n a n d F r iesen ’ s (1 9 76 ) n o rm a l su b jects. M ea n n o rm a l
rec og n itio n a s fea r fo r the 5 fa ces D R c orre ctly reco g n ised w a s 8 9.6% ; fo r
th e 5 fea r fa ce s D R d id n o t re co gn ise a s fea r, m ea n n o rm a l pe rfo rm a n ce
w a s 8 9.4% . S im ila rly , th e E k m a n an d F riese n n o rm s sh o w ed n o reliab le

d iŒe ren ce b e tw ee n th e m ea n rec og n itio n rates fo r the th ree fea r fa ces S E
co rrec tly reco g n ised (9 0.6 % ) a n d th e sev en h e d id n o t reco g n ise (8 9.0% ).
L ik ew ise, th e re w a s n o re lia b le d iŒe ren ce b etw een th e reco g n itio n rates fo r
th e fear ex p ressio n s th at D R an d S E d id an d d id n ot reco g n ise a m o n g o u r
o w n a g e-m a tch ed co n tro ls. P erc en t reco g n ition ra te s b y th e a g e-m a tch ed
co n tro ls w e re 8 6 .0 % for th e fea r ex p ression s reco g n ised by D R a n d 8 6.0%
fo r th o se sh e d id n o t reco g n ise; fo r S E p erce n t reco g n itio n ra tes b y th e
a g e-m a tc h ed co n tro ls w ere 8 3.3% for th e fea r ex p ressio n s h e id en ti® e d a s
fea r an d 8 7.3% fo r th o se h e did n o t reco g n ise.
F ro m th is te st a lo n e w e w ere a b le to e stab lish th a t D R an d S E a re v ery
im p aired a t re co gn isin g fea r; th is is co n sisten t w ith th e p a ttern o f
p erfo rm a n ce sh o w n b y the p a tien t w ith a m y g d ala d a m a ge rep o rted b y
A d o lp h s et a l. (1 9 94 , 1 99 5 ). F o r S E , fea r w a s th e o n ly em o tio n a Œe cted .
F o r D R , th e im p a irm en t w a s also o n ly fo r fea r w h e n h er pe rfo rm a nc e w a s
co m p a red to o u r a g e-m a tch ed co n tro ls, b u t less sev ere im p airm en ts in
rec og n isin g an g er a n d d isg u st w ere a lso evid en t w h en h er p erfo rm a n ce w a s
co m p a red to th e E k m a n a n d F riesen (19 7 6 ) n o rm s.
F o r D R , th is p a tte rn w a s in itially su rp risin g , g iv en th e resu lts o f
p rev io u s ex am in a tio n s o f h er p ercep tio n o f fac ia l ex p ress io n s (Y o u n g et
a l., 1 9 9 5, 1 9 9 6). N o te th a t o n th e ex p ressio n -m a tch in g ta sk (T ab le 1) D R
sco red o n ly 6 / 1 8 co rrect , w h ic h is virtu a lly a t ch a n ce lev el sin ce th e ta sk
in v o lv es a 4 -w a y fo rced c ho ice. T h is seem s a n u n lik ely sco re fo r som eo n e
w h o m a in ly ex p erien ces p ro b lem s in reco g n isin g fea r. H o w ev er, th e
ex p ressio n -m atch in g test is a p a rticu la rly d i cu lt test o f fac ia l ex p ressio n
p erce p tio n b eca u se th e su b jec t is req u ired to id en tify th e ta rg et ex p ressio n
in o ne p erso n ’ s fac e a n d th en ® n d th e sam e e xp ress io n in an o th er p erso n ’ s
fa ce; erro rs in reco g n itio n o f th e ex p ressio n o n a n y o f th e fa ces w ill th u s
in tera ct w ith eac h o th er.
In lin e w ith th is ob s erv atio n , A d o lp h s et a l. (1 9 94 , 1 9 9 5 ) re po rte d th a t
o n m o re su b tle tests o f facia l ex p ression reco g n itio n th eir ca se, S M ,
sh o w ed m o re w id esp rea d p ro b lem s in reco g n ising em otio n . H en ce, w e
w ere intere sted to d isc o ve r h o w D R an d S E w o u ld p erfo rm w ith a
sec on d , p o ten tia lly m o re sen sitiv e, test o f ex p ression reco g n itio n in w h ich
th ey w ere ask ed to ca tego r ise a se t o f m o rp h ed fa cia l e x p ressio n s. T h ese
m o rp h ed ex p re ssio n s w ere g en era ted b y b len d in g tw o p ictu res o f th e
sa m e p erso n p o sin g d iŒeren t ex p ressio n s (e.g . an g er a n d h a p p in ess) in
p h y sica lly e qu a l step s, to p ro d u ce a co n tin u u m ra n gin g b e tw e en th e tw o
p ro to ty p es. N o rm a l su b ject s p erce iv e fa ces in su ch co n tin u a a s fallin g
in to d istin ct em o tio n sectio n s, w ith sh arp b o u nd a ries sep a ra tin g th e
d iŒe ren t reg io n s; fo r ex a m p le, m o v in g alon g a n a n g er± h ap p in ess
co n tin u u m , th e fa ce s a t th e an g er en d w ill b e co n sisten tly ca teg or ised
a s `àn g er,’ ’ th en a t so m e p o in t th ere w ill b e an a b ru p t c ateg o ry sh ift, a n d
th e re m ain in g fac es w ill b e ca teg o rised as ``h a p p in ess’ ’ (C alde r et a l., in

p ress; E tco Œ & M ag ee, 1 9 9 2 ). W e w e re in terested to ex a m ine h o w D R
a n d SE w o u ld p erceiv e su ch co n tin u a , a n d cre ated a n e xp e rim en t in
w h ich six em o tio n s w ere u sed .
Identific ation of M o rph ed F acial E xp ressions

T h e E k m a n a n d F riese n (1 9 76 ) series co n ta in s exa m p les o f six d iŒeren t
em otion al fa cia l ex p ress io n s (h a p p in ess, su rp rise, fea r, sa d ne ss, d isg u st,
a n d a n g er), w h ich h a v e b een fo un d to b e reco g n ised b y p e o ple fro m
w id ely diŒerin g c ultur es. U sin g E k m a n a n d F riesen ’ s (1 9 76 ) n o rm s, w e
o rd ered th ese e xp ress io n s b y th eir m a x im u m co n fu sab ilitie s, p lacin g ea ch
a d ja cen t to th e o n e it w a s m o st lik ely to b e co n fu se d w ith. T h e resu lt
ra n h ap pin ess± su rp rise± fea r± sad n es s± d isg u st± a n g er, w ith m ea n p ercen ta g e
co n fu sa b ilities fo r e ach p a ir o f ex p ress io n s in th is seq u en c e b ein g :
h a p p in ess a n d su rp rise 0 .8 % , su rp rise a n d fea r 5 .8 % , fe ar a n d sa d n ess
2 .4 % , sad n e ss an d d isg u st 2 .7 % , d isg u st a n d an g er 6 .4 % . T h e en d s o f
th e seq u en ce (a n ge r a n d h a p p in ess) w ere the n jo in ed to crea te a
h ex a g on , a n d m o rp h ed im a g es w ere crea ted fo r th e six co n tin ua th a t lie
a ro u n d th e p erim eter of this h ex a go n (ha p p in ess± su rp rise, su rp rise± fea r,
fea r± sad n ess, sa d ne ss± disgu s t, disgu s t± a n g er, a n g er± ha p p ine ss).
F ac e JJ (E k m an & F rie sen , 1 9 76 ) w a s ch o sen fo r m o rp h in g b eca u se th e
p h o to gra p h s o f a ll six em otio n al fa cial ex p ress io n s (h a p p in ess, su rp rise,
fea r, sa d n ess, d isg u st, a n d an g er) w ere o f co n sisten t q u ality , w ith
rea so n a b ly sta n d a rd ised po se a n d lig hting . T h e n u m b e rs a n d id en ti® ers
o f th e sele cted p ro to typ e im a g es in th e E k m a n a n d F riesen (1 9 76 ) series
a re give n in th e A p p en d ix to th is p a p er. P erce n ta g e reco g n itio n ra tes o f
ea ch p ro to ty p e im ag e as its co rresp o n d in g em o tio n in th e E k m a n a n d
F riese n (1 97 6 ) n o rm s w ere: h a p p in ess 10 0 % , surp rise 9 7 % , fea r 96 % ,
sa d n ess 93 % , d isg u st 8 8 % , a n d an g er 7 6% .
P h o to gra p h ic-q u a lity co n tin u a w ere m a d e, w ith ® v e m o rp h ed im a g es
fo r e ac h co n tin u u m . T h ese w ere p rep a red by b len d in g b e tw e en tw o
p ro to ty p e ex p ressio n s p o sed b y J J (e.g . h ap p in e ss a n d su rp rise ) in
p ro p o rtio n s 9 0:10 (i.e. 9 0% h ap p y:10 % su rp rised fo r the h a p p in ess±
su rp rise co n tin u u m ), 7 0:30 (7 0 % h a p p y:30 % su rp rise d ), 5 0 :5 0 (5 0%
h a p p y:50 % su rp rised ), 3 0 :7 0 (3 0 % h a p p y :7 0% su rp rised ), a n d 10 :9 0 (1 0%
h a p p y:90 % su rp rised ). W e w ill refer to th ese a s 9 0 % , 7 0 % , 5 0 % , 30 % ,
a n d 1 0 % m o rp h s a lo n g th e ap p rop ria te co n tin u u m (in o u r e xa m p le,
h a p p in ess± su rp rise ).
T h e p rep a ra tio n o f ea ch co n tin u u m w a s d on e in th e sam e w a y .
P rep a ra tio n o f th e h ap p in ess± su rp rise co n tin u u m is d escrib e d in d eta il, to
illu strate th e p ro cess. T h e p ro ced u re in v o lv ed th ree sta g es.
S ta ge 1: D elin ea tio n. O n e hu n d red a n d eig h ty -six p o in ts w ere

p o sitio n e d m a n u a lly o n to th e p h o to g rap h o f JJ’ s fac e w ith a h ap p y
ex p ressio n fro m th e E k m a n a n d F riesen (1 97 6 ) series. T h e lo c atio ns o f
th ese p o ints w ere sp e ci® ed in term s o f a n a to m ica l la n d m a rk s, w ith ea ch
fa cia l fea tu re rep res en ted b y a set nu m be r o f p o in ts; fo r ex a m p le, th e
m o u th w a s rep resen ted b y 22 p o in ts, a n d ea ch ey eb ro w by 8 p o in ts. T h ese
p o in ts w ere th en jo in ed to p ro d u ce a d elin ea ted re pre sen ta tio n c o m p risin g
5 0 feat ure co n to u rs. E xa ctly th e sa m e m eth o d w a s a pp lied to th e
p h o to gra p h o f th e sam e m o d el p o sing su rp rise . H en ce, a cro ss th e 2
p ro to ty p e ex p ressio n s (h a p p in e ss a n d su rp rise) th ere w as co n fo rm ity w ith
resp ec t to th e an a to m ical p o sitio n in g o f th e 1 86 p o in ts o n e ach fa ce, b u t
n o t a lw a ys th eir ex a ct sp atia l p o sitio n s; fo r ex a m p le, th e ey eb ro w s w ere
ra ised in th e su rp rised b u t n o t th e h a p p y fa ce, w h erea s th e sh ap e o f th e
h a irlin e w a s th e sa m e in b o th .
S ta ge 2 : S h a pe In terp o la tio n. A co n tin u u m o f fa ce sh ap es w a s

g en era ted b etw ee n the tw o d elin e ated p ro to ty p e fa ce sh ap e s (in o u r
ex a m p le , JJ h a p p y a n d JJ su rp rised ). T h is w a s a ch iev ed b y ta k in g th e
d elin ea tio n d a ta fo r the tw o p ro to ty p e im a g es a n d ca lcu la tin g th e v ecto r
d ifferen ce fo r eac h la n dm a rk. F or exa m p le, co n sid er th e p o int de scrib in g
th e tip o f th e n o se ; th is h a s a lo ca tio n o n th e JJ ha p p y fa ce o f (x 1,y 1) a n d
a lo ca tio n o n th e JJ su rp rised fac e o f (x2 ,y2 ). E q u a tio n s d e scrib in g th e
v ecto r fro m (x 1,y1 ) to (x2 ,y 2 ) w ere u sed to o b ta in p o sition s fo r th e p o in t
a t the tip o f th e n o se, w h ich m o v ed 1 0% , 3 0 % , 50 % , 7 0% , a n d 9 0%
a lo n g a stra ig h t lin e fro m th e lo ca tion o f th at p o int in JJ’ s h ap p y fa ce
(x 1 ,y 1) to th e lo ca tio n o f th at p o int in JJ’ s su rp rised fa ce (x 2 ,y 2 ). T h is
p ro cess w a s re pe ate d fo r ‹e a ch o f th e 1 8 6 fea tu re p o in ts, to g en era te th e 5
fa ce sh a p es w h ich w o u ld in te rp o la te at 1 0 % , 3 0% , 5 0 % , 70 % , a n d 9 0%
d ista n ces b etw een th e 2 o rig in a l fac e sha p es.
S ta ge 3: P ro du cin g a C o ntin u o u s-to n e Im a g e. T h e ® n al sta g e cre ated a

co n tin u o u s-to n e (p h oto g ra p h ic q u a lity ) im ag e fo r ea ch o f th ese in ter-
p o la ted fa ce sh a p es. T h is w a s a ch iev ed by ta k in g b o th o f th e p ro to ty p e
fa ces a n d ``w a rp in g ’ ’ o r ``stretch in g’ ’ th e m (a s if th ey w er e prin ted o n a
ru b b er sh eet) to th e n ew sh ap e , so th a t a ll p o in ts rep res en tin g th e sa m e
fea tu re w er e a lig n ed a cro ss im a ge s. T h e tw o fac es, n ow w ith th e sa m e
in term ed ia ry fa ce sh a p e , w ere the n b len d ed w ith th e ap p ro p riate w eig h t.
F o r ex a m p le, in th e 9 0% h a p p y :1 0 % su rp rised m o rp h , the p ix el in ten sities
in ea ch tessella tio n w ere a rriv ed a t b y d e fo rm in g th e h a p p y fac e 1 0%
to w a rd th e su rp rised p ro to ty p e, a n d th e su rp rised face 9 0 % to w a rd th e
h a p p y p ro to ty p e, an d th en b len d in g th e g rey lev els in th ese 2 c on trib u to ry
im ag es in th e ratio 9 pa rts fro m th e ha p p y p ro to typ e to 1 p a rt fro m th e
su rp rised p ro to ty p e.
T h e resu ltin g m o rp h ed fa ces a re sh o w n in F ig . 1 . In to ta l, th e re a re 3 0

im ag es (5 fro m eac h o f 6 co n tin u a ). M o v in g fro m le ft to righ t in F ig. 1 ,
th e co lu m ns sh ow 9 0 % , 70 % , 5 0% , 3 0 % , a n d 1 0 % m o rp h s a lo n g ea ch
co n tin u u m . N o te th at a 9 0% m o rp h o n th e h ap p in ess± su rp rise co n tin u u m
w o u ld b e th e sam e a s a 1 0% m o rp h o n a su rp rise± h a p p ine ss c o n tin u um ,
a n d th at th e p ro to ty p e e xp ressio n s a re n o t sh o w n in F ig. 1 . M o v in g fro m
to p to bo tto m o f F ig . 1 , th e ro w s sh ow th e h a p p in ess± su rp rise co n tin u u m
(to p ro w ), su rp rise± fea r (seco n d ro w ), fea r± sa d n ess (th ird ro w ), sa d n ess±
d isg u st (fo u rth ro w ), d isg u st± a n g er (® fth ro w ), a nd a n g er± h ap p in ess
(b o ttom row ).
T h e 3 0 m o rp h ed fa ces sh o w n in F ig . 1 w ere u sed in a n id en ti® c atio n ta sk .
T h ey w ere p rese nted o n e a t a tim e , in ra n d o m o rd er, o n a 2 5 6 g rey sca le
M a cin to sh d isp la y u sin g th e P sysc o p e so ftw a re. E ach fa ce su b te n de d a
h o rizo n ta l visu al a ng le o f 3 .6 d eg rees an d a vertical a n g le o f 5 .2 d eg ree s. T h e
su b jec t’ s ta sk w a s to d ecide w h eth er th e m o rp h ed im a g e w a s m o st lik e
h a p p in ess, su rp rise, fe ar, sa d n ess, d isg u st, o r a ng er. R esp o n ses w e re m a d e
u sin g a b o x w ith six lab elled b u tto n s (o n e fo r ea ch em o tio n ), w h ich w a s
in terfa ced w ith th e co m p u ter to rec ord th e ch o ice o f e m o tio n fo r ea ch
m o rp h ed im ag e . O n e ac h tria l, th e m o rp h ed im ag e re m a in ed in v iew fo r tw o
sec on d s, a fter w h ich it w a s rep la ce d b y a p ictu re o f JJ p o sin g a n eu tra l
ex p ressio n . N o fe ed b ack w as g iv en a s to th e a p p ro p ria ten ess of an y resp o nse s.
B o th D R a n d S E u n d erto o k a to tal o f six b lo ck s o f tria ls e ach . In ev ery
o n e o f th ese b lo ck s o f tria ls, a ll o f th e 30 m o rp h ed fa ces w ere p resen ted
o n ce. T he ® rst b lo ck o f tria ls w a s d isc o un ted a s p rac tice, lea v in g 5 b lo ck s
o f 3 0 tria ls fo r a n alys is. N o te th at th e p roto ty p e fa ce fo r e ach ex p ressio n
w a s n ev er sh o w n in th e ex p erim en t; all th e stim u li w ere m o rp h s. N o te to o
th a t th e m orp h s w ere p re sen ted in ra n do m o rd e r; the y w e re no t g ro u p ed
in to th e u n d e rly in g c on tin u a .
R esu lts a re sh o w n in F ig . 2 a (D R ) an d F ig . 2b (S E ), w he re pe rfo rm a n ce
is co m pa red to th a t o f th e 1 0 a g e-m a tch ed co n tro ls. In F ig . 2 , th e
m o rp h ed im ag es sh o w n in F ig . 1 a re p la ced a lo n g th e x -ax is o f ea ch g ra p h ,
ru n n in g fro m left to rig h t a n d to p to b o tto m in F ig . 1; i.e. fro m 9 0%
h a p p in ess:10 % surp rise (th e to p left im a g e in F ig . 1 ; la b elled w ith th e
co n v en tio n H A 9 -S U 1 in F ig . 2 ) to 1 0% an g er:9 0 % h a p pin ess (th e b o tto m
rig h t im a g e in F ig . 1 ; lab elled A N 1 -H A 9 in F ig . 2 ). In ea ch g ra p h , th e y-
a x is th en sh o w s th e n u m b er o f tim es eac h im ag e w as id en ti® e d a s a
p a rticu la r em o tio n . F o r clarity , th e p erfo rm a n ce o f D R a n d SE is ch a rted
sep a ra tely , a n d sep a rate ly fo r ea ch em o tio n, bu t ea ch g ra p h also sh o w s th e
a p p ro p ria te co n tro l p erfo rm an ce .
T h e ex te n t to w h ic h D R ’ s a n d SE ’ s p e rfo r m an c e m a tch ed th e co n tro l
d a ta w a s asse ssed in tw o w ay s. F irst, six sectio n s w ere id en ti® e d in th e
h ex a g on al co n tin u u m ; th ese c o rresp o n d ed to d iscrete reg io n s co n ta in in g
m o rp h s th at the co ntro ls co n sis te ntly id en ti® ed w ith o ne o f th e six em o tio n
FIG. 1. ( c o n tin u e d o v e r lea f) E x p r e s s io n c o n tin u a u s e d in id e n ti® c a tio n e x p e r im e n t. G o in g
fr o m left t o r ig h t, th e c o lu m n s s h o w 9 0 % , 7 0 % , 5 0 % , 3 0 % an d 1 0 % m o r p h s a lo n g e a c h
c o n tin u u m . F r o m to p to b o tto m , th e c o n tin u a s h o w n in e a c h ro w a re h a p p in e s s ± s u r p r is e (t o p
r o w ), s u rp r is e ± f e a r (s e c o n d r o w ), fe a r ± s a d n e s s (th ir d r o w ), s a d n e s s ± d is g u st (fo u rt h r o w ),
d isg u s t± a n g e r (® fth r o w ), a n g e r ± h a p p in e s s ( b o tto m r o w ).
713
FIG. 1. ( c o n tin u e d fr o m p r e v io u s p a g e )
714
FIG. 3. (c o n tin u e d o v e r lea f) M o r p h s ly in g a r o u n d a h e x a g o n o f s ix id e n titie s ( i.e . s ix fa m o u s
p e o p le). G o in g fr o m le ft t o r ig h t, th e c o lu m n s s h o w 9 0 % , 7 0 % , 5 0 % , 3 0 % , a n d 1 0 % m o r p h s
a lo n g e a c h c o n tin u u m . F r o m to p to b o tto m , th e c o n tin u a s h o w n in e a c h r o w a r e W in s to n
C h u r c h ill± R o b e r t H a r d y (to p r o w ), R o b e r t H a r d y ± M ich a e l A s p e l (s e c o n d r o w ), M ich a e l
A s p e l± R o g e r M o o r e (th ir d ro w ), R o g e r M o o r e ± P r in c e s s A n n e (fo u r th r o w ), P r in c e s s A n n e ±
S u e L a w le y (® fth r o w ), S u e L a w le y ± W in s to n C h u r c h ill ( b o tto m r o w ).
715
FIG. 3. ( c o n tin u e d fr o m p r e v io u s p a g e )
716
la b els (h ap p in ess, su rp rise, fea r, sa d n ess, d isg u st, a n d an g er). E a c h su ch

reg io n co m p rised th e 4 m o rp h s th a t w e re clo sest to th e rele va n t p ro to ty p e; 2
o f th ese c o n taine d 9 0% o f th e ta rg et ex p ressio n a nd th e o the r 2 co n ta in ed
7 0 % . H en ce th e su rp rise sectio n co n ta in ed th e m o rp h s 7 0 % su rp rised :3 0%
h a p p y, 9 0 % su rp rised :1 0 % h a pp y, 9 0% su rp rised :1 0 % afra id , a n d 7 0%
su rp rised :3 0% a fra id ; th e fe ar sectio n co n ta in ed the m o rp h s 7 0%
a fra id :3 0 % su rp rised , 90 % afra id :10 % surp rised , 9 0 % a fraid :1 0 % sa d ,
7 0 % afra id :3 0 % sa d ; a n d so o n . In F ig . 1, the su rp rise reg io n th u s
co rres p o nd s to th e tw o rig h tm o st m o rp h s in the to p ro w an d th e tw o
le ftm o s t m o rp h s in th e seco n d ro w , th e fe ar reg io n to th e tw o rig h tm o st
m o rp h s in th e seco n d ro w an d th e tw o leftm o st m o rph s in th e th ird ro w , th e
sa d n ess regio n to th e tw o rig h tm o st m o rph s in th e th ird ro w a nd th e tw o
le ftm o s t m o rp h s in th e fo urth ro w , th e d isg u st re gio n to th e tw o rig h tm o st
m o rp h s in th e fou rth ro w a n d th e tw o leftm o st m o rp h s in th e ® fth ro w , th e
a n g er reg io n to th e tw o rig h tm o st m o rp h s in th e ® fth row a n d th e tw o
le ftm o s t m o rp h s in th e b o ttom ro w , a n d th e h a p p in ess reg io n to th e tw o
rig h tm o st m o rp h s in th e b o tto m ro w a n d th e tw o leftm o st m o rp h s in th e
to p ro w . W e the n ca lcu la te d th e to ta l nu m be r o f tim es D R a n d S E id en ti® ed
a ll o f the fo u r m o rp h s in eac h re gio n w ith th e ap pro p ria te em o tio n lab el,
a n d th ese v a lu es w ere co m p a red to th e m e an n u m b er o f tim es th e ag e-
m a tch ed co n trol su b jec ts p ro d u ced the a p p ro p ria te resp o n se s in th e sa m e
reg io n . A s a ro u g h g u id e, D R ’ s a nd S E ’ s p erfo rm a n ce is sh o w n in F ig . 2 a s
a p ercen tag e of th e m ea n n u m b e r o f tim es th e co n tro ls g a v e th e a p p ro p ria te
resp o n se fo r ea ch o f th e 6 e m o tio n regio n s; va lu es less tha n 1 00 % in d ica te
th a t D R a n d S E co rrectly id en ti® e d few er o f th e m o rp h e d ex p ressio ns a s
b elon g ing to th is reg io n th a n d id th e co n tro ls.
B o th D R a n d S E sh ow e d sign i® c an tly few er o ve rall co rrect resp o n ses
a cro ss the six d e ® n ed reg io n s tak e n to g eth er (co n tro ls’ m ea n to ta l n u m b er
o f co rrect re spo n ses = 1 0 7.50 / 1 2 0 , S D = 9 .1 0; D R = 82 / 1 20 , z = 2 .8 0 ,
P 0 .0 1 ; S E = 9 0/ 1 2 0 , z = 1.92 , P 0 .0 5 ). T h erefo re, b o th sh o w ed
a b n o rm a l p erfor m a n ce. E x a m in in g th e six em o tio n reg io n s sep a rately, to
® n d th e p rin cip al so u rce s o f ab n o rm a lity, D R sh o w ed a sig n i® ca n t
im p airm en t in th e re co gn itio n o f th e fea r, d isg u st, a n d a n g er reg io n s
(P 0 .0 5 ) a n d n o rm a l p erfo rm a n ce w ith th e h a p pin ess, sad n ess, a n d
su rp rise reg io n s. S E sh o w ed a sim ila r p a ttern , w ith a b o rd erlin e
im p airm en t of fea r (P 0 .1 ) an d a n g er (P 0 .1 ), a n d n o rm a l p erfo rm -
a n ce w ith ha p p in ess , sa d n ess, su rp rise, a n d d isg u st.
A s a seco n d m eth o d o f a ssessin g th eir resp o n ses, w e c alcu la ted th e
n u m b er of `ù n u su a l’ ’ resp o n ses m a d e by D R , S E , a n d th e c on tro ls in th e
sa m e six em o tio n re gio ns . R eca ll th a t th e six ex p ressio n co n tin u a w ere
p rep a red b y b len d in g m a x im a lly co n fu sa b le p ro to ty p e ex p ressio n s w ith
o n e a n o th er; h en ce, th e o rd er in w h ich th e ex p ressio n s w ere b len d ed w a s
h a p p in ess± su rp rise ± fea r± sa d n ess± d isg u st± an g er a n d b a ck to ha p p ine ss.
FIG. 2 a. I d e n ti® c a tio n o f th e m o rp h e d im a g e s s h o w n in F ig . 1 b y a g e -m a tc h e d c o n tr o ls a n d
D R (s e e a ls o o p p o s ite p a g e ).
718
719
FIG. 2 b. I d e n ti® c a tio n o f th e m o r p h e d im a g e s s h o w n in F ig . 1 b y a g e -m a tc h e d c o n tr o ls a n d
S E (s e e a ls o o p p o s ite p a g e ).
72 0
721
G ive n th a t n o rm a l su b jec ts o cca sio n a lly m ista k e co n fu sab le p ro to ty p e

ex p ressio n s (e.g . su rp rise an d fea r) fo r o n e an o th er, a resp o n se w as o n ly
sco red a s `ù n u su a l’ ’ if th e m o rp h w as id en ti® ed w ith a n em o tio n lab el th a t
w a s in ap p ro p riate fo r th a t p a rticu la r reg io n o f the co n tin u u m a nd for th e
co n fu sa b le re gion s to th e im m e diat e rig h t an d left of th is reg io n ; w e w ill
ca ll th ese ``rem o te p ro to ty p e erro rs.’ ’ H en ce, if a m o rp h in the su rprise
reg io n w as la b elle d sa d n ess, d isg u st, o r a n g er, th at resp o n se w a s sco red a s
a rem o te p ro to ty p e erro r, w h erea s if th e sa m e m o rp h w a s id en ti® ed a s fea r
o r h a pp in ess, it w a s n ot sco red a s su ch sin ce th ese a re th e m o re c o m m o n ly
co n fu sed a d ja cen t pro to ty p es. R em o te p ro to ty pe erro rs fo r ea ch o f th e 6
em otion reg io n s w ere ca lcu la te d fo r D R an d S E , a n d co m p a red to th e
n u m b ers o f rem o te p ro to ty pe erro rs m a d e by the 1 0 a g e-m a tch ed co n tro ls.
O v era ll, bo th D R a n d S E sh o w ed sig n i® ca n tly m o re rem o te p ro to ty p e
erro rs th a n the co n tro ls (co n tro ls’ m e an n u m b er o f to ta l rem ote p ro to ty p e
erro rs = 2 .3 0 o u t o f a p o s sib le m a xim u m o f 12 0 , S D = 2.98 ; D R = 1 6
rem ote p ro to ty pe erro rs , z = 4 .5 9 , P 0 .0 01 ; S E = 1 7 rem o te p ro to ty p e
erro rs, z = 4 .9 3 , P 0.00 1 ). B ro k en d o w n b y in d iv id u a l ex p ression s, D R
m a d e a t m o st 1 rem o te p roto ty p e erro r (o u t o f a p o ssib le m ax im u m 20 )
w ith all exp re ssio n s e xc ep t a n g er, for w h ich sh e m a d e 1 2 re m o te p ro to ty p e
erro rs. S E m a d e a t m o st 2 rem o te p ro tot yp e erro rs w ith a ll ex p ressio n s b a r
su rp rise (3 rem ot e p ro to ty p e erro rs ) a n d fea r (7 rem o te p ro to ty p e erro rs).
T h e fa ct th a t th e co n tro ls m ad e v ery few re m o te pro to ty p e erro rs (m ea n
n u m b er fo r ea ch ex p ressio n = 0.38 , S D = 0 .3 9 ) su g g ests th at w e sh o u ld b e
w a ry o f a d o p tin g th e u su a l 1.65 S D cu t-o Œ p o int as n ecessa rily in d ica tin g
im p airm en t. T h e co ntro ls’ n ea r-ceilin g p erfo rm a n ce o n ea c h in d iv id u a l
ex p ressio n m ea n s tha t a sin g le erro r w ou ld co n stitu te a statistica lly
sig n i® ca n t im p a irm en t. T his m e an s th at a t lea st so m e o f th e rem o te
p ro to ty p e erro rs co u ld ea sily h a v e a risen fro m m o m e n ta ry la p ses o f
a tten tio n o r fro m pre ssin g th e w ro n g resp o n se k ey ra th er th a n a ge n u in ely
im p aired re co gn itio n o f a pa rticu la r e x pre ssio n categ o ry . In th ese
circu m sta n ces, it the refo re seem s m o re sen sib le to a d o p t a cu t-o Œ p o in t.
If w e a d o p t 3 re m o te p ro to ty p e erro rs a s a lib er al cu t-o Œ co rresp o n d in g to
th e m a x im u m n u m b er o f suc h erro rs m a d e b y an y o f th e co n tro ls, th en
D R sh o w s in crea sed rem o te p ro to typ e erro rs in th e reco g n itio n o f a n g er
(1 2 rem ot e pro to ty p e erro rs) a n d S E in th e reco g n itio n o f fear (7 rem o te
p ro to ty p e erro rs ) a n d po ssibly su rp rise (3 rem o te p ro toty p e erro rs).
T h is m o rp h ed co n tin u a test p ro vid es a sen sitiv e m ea su re o f reco g n itio n
o f fa cial ex p re ssio n . T h e resu lts a re co n sisten t w ith th e p rev io u s test u sin g
6 0 p h o to g rap h s fro m th e E k m an a n d F riese n (1 97 6 ) se ries, in w h ich b o th
D R a n d S E sh o w ed a m a rk ed im p a irm e n t in th e re co gn itio n o f fea r. T h e
m o rp h ed fa cia l ex p ressio n test rev ea led o v era ll d e ® c its w hich co u ld b e
b ro k en d o w n in to p ro b lem s w ith fea r, an g er, a n d d isg u st fo r D R , a n d fo r
S E p ro b lem s w ith fe ar a n d p o ssib ly a n g er a n d su rp rise. H o w e ve r, g iv en
th a t D R w a s a lso slig h tly d o w n o n a n g er a n d d isg u st in co m p a riso n to

E k m a n a n d F riesen ’ s (1 97 6 ) n o rm s fo r reco g n itio n of sp eci® c e m o tio n s,
h er p attern o f p erfo rm a n ce is th e sam e a cro ss b oth tests. H en ce, in tw o
d iŒe ren t tests o f reco g n itio n o f fa cial ex p re ssio n , b o th D R a n d S E sh o w ed
p ro b lem s, pa rticu la rly w ith fear. In th is la tter test u sin g m o rp h ed fac ia l
ex p ressio n s, D R p ro d u ced sign i® ca n tly few er co rrect resp o nse s a n d S E
sig n i® ca n tly m o re rem o te p ro to ty p e e rro rs in th e fe ar reg io n th a n d id
co n tro ls.
Identific ation of M o rph ed F acial Identities

T h e p rev io u s se ctio n d e scrib ed a n ex p erim en t in w h ich w e u sed m o rp h ed
stim u li to e xa m in e D R ’ s a n d S E ’ s id en ti® ca tio n o f fa cia l e xp ress io n s,
® n d in g im p a irm e n ts in b oth ca ses. It is im p o rta n t to d em o n stra te,
h o w ev er, th at the se resu lts re¯ ect som eth in g m o re th a n ju st a p ro blem
in arb itrating b etw een six ca teg o ries at th e sa m e tim e. W e th erefo re
p resen te d D R a nd S E w ith a co m p ara b le task u sing a set o f m o rp h ed
fa m o u s fa ces , a n d a sk e d th em to id en tify ea ch o f th e m o rp h e d im a g es. A s
T a b le 1 sh o w s, D R d o es n o t ex p erien ce p ro b lem s in rec o gn isin g h ig h ly
fa m iliar face s, a n d a lth o u g h S E h a s a fa ce re co g n itio n im p a irm en t h e
rem ains a b le to re co gn ise a n u m b er o f fa m o u s celeb rities.
E ig h t fa ces o f p eo p le fa m o u s in B rita in w ere selected fro m a p o o l o f
p ress p h o to g rap h s sh o w in g fu ll-fa ce v iew s a n d clo sed -m o u th e xp ress io n s.
A ll p ossib le p a irw ise c o m b in a tio n s o f th ese 8 fa ces w ere p rese nt ed to 7
su b jec ts w h o w ere a sk ed to rate th em o n a sca le fro m 1 to 7 fo r p h ysica l
sim ila rity , w h ere 1 = v ery sim ila r a nd 7 = v ery d issim ilar. T h e fa ce p a irs
w ere p resen ted h o rizo n ta lly to th e rig h t a n d left o f cen tre on a 2 5 6 g rey
sca le screen u sin g th e P sysc o p e p rese nt atio n so ftw a re. E ac h p o ssib le p a ir
w a s p resen te d tw ice; th e freq u en cy w ith w h ich ea ch fa ce a pp e ared o n th e
rig h t a n d left o f th e screen w a s co u n terb a la nc ed . T h e d a ta w ere a n a ly sed
u sin g K en d a ll’ s co e cien t o f co n co rd a n ce, w h ic h sh o w ed th a t th ere w a s a
sig n i® ca n t am o un t o f a g reem en t a m o n g th e su b jects’ ra tin g s, W = 0 .5 6 ,
2
(5 5 ) = 2 1 7 .5 3 , P 0.00 1 .
F o r th e p rev io u s test in vo lv in g m o rp h ed fa cia l e xp ressio n s, th ese w ere
a rra n ge d in term s o f th eir c on fu sa b ility. T o c reat e as m u ch co n sisten cy a s
p o ssib le b etw een th e e xp ress io n a n d id en tity m o rp h ta sk s, six o f the eig h t
fa m o u s fa ces w ere ch o se n; th ese w e re a g a in a rra n ge d a ro un d th e p erim eter
o f a he xa g o n so th at, as fa r a s p ossib le, th o se ra ted m o st sim ila r in
p h y sica l a p p ea ran c e (a n d he n ce m o st co n fu sa b le) w ere a d ja cen t to o n e
a n o th er. T h e seq u e nc e ra n W in sto n C h u rc hill± R o b ert H ard y ± M ich a el
A sp el± R o g er M o o re± P rin cess A nn e± S ue L a w ley . A s fo r th e exp ressio n
m o rp h s, th e e n ds o f th e se q ue n ce, S u e L a w ley a n d W in sto n C h u rch ill,
w ere jo in ed to p ro d u ce a h ex a g on . T h e six co n tin u a lyin g a ro u n d th e
p erim eter o f th is h ex a go n w ere th en g en era te d b y b len d in g b etw een

a d ja cen t p ic tu r es (e.g . W in sto n C h u rch ill a n d R o b ert H a rd y) to crea te
in terp o lated m orp h ed im a g es in th e p ro p o rtio n s 90 :1 0 (90 %
C h u rch ill:1 0 % H ard y fo r th e W in ston C h u rc hill± R o b ert H a rd y co n -
tin u u m ), 7 0 :3 0 (70 % C hu rc h ill:30 % H a rd y), 50 :5 0 (50 % C hu rc h ill:5 0%
H a rd y ), 30 :7 0 (3 0 % C h u rch ill:7 0 % H a rd y ), an d 1 0 :9 0 (10 %
C h u rch ill:9 0 % H a rd y ).
T h e six c o ntinu a a re sh o w n in F ig . 3 . In to tal, th ere w er e 3 0 im a g es (5
fro m ea ch o f 6 co n tin u a ). M o v in g fro m le ft to rig ht in F ig . 3 , the c o lu m n s
sh o w 9 0% , 7 0% , 5 0 % , 3 0 % , an d 1 0 % m o rp h s a lo n g eac h c o n tin u um .
M o v in g fro m to p to b o tto m of F ig . 3, th e ro w s sh o w W in sto n C h u rc hill±
R o b ert H ard y (to p ro w ), R o b ert H ard y ± M ich ae l A sp el (seco n d ro w ),
M ich ae l A sp el± R o g er M o o re (th ird ro w ) , R o g er M o o re± P rinc ess A n n e
(fo u rth ro w ), P rin c ess A n n e± S u e L a w ley (® fth ro w ), a n d S u e L a w ley ±
W insto n C h u rch ill (b o tto m row ).
D R an d S E w e re sh o w n th ese m o rp h ed im a g es on e a t a tim e, a n d
a sk ed to in d ica te w h ic h o f th e six cele b rities ea ch im a ge w as m o st lik e
b y p ressin g o n e o f six b u tton s m a rk ed w ith th e six celeb rities’ n am es.
E a ch fa ce re m ain ed in v iew fo r tw o seco n d s, after w h ich tim e it w a s
rep lac ed b y a p ictur e o f N o rm a n L am o n t’ s fa ce; th a t is, N o rm a n
L a m o n t’ s fa ce w as u sed in p la ce o f th e n eu tra l e xp ress io n m a sk u se d in
th e ex p ress io n m o rp h task . N o te th at ``N o rm an L a m o n t’ ’ w a s n o t o n e
o f th e six n am e s av a ila b le as a resp o n se; h o w ev er, D R an d S E w ere
fa m iliar w ith h is fa ce. In all o th e r re sp ects, th e m o rp h ed fa cia l ide n tities
ta sk w a s id en tica l to the m o rp h ed ex p ressio n ta sk . D R a n d S E w ere
p resen te d w ith 6 b loc k s o f tria ls, ea ch co n tain in g th e 3 0 m o rp h ed fa ces
fro m F ig . 3 in ra n d o m o rd er; n o te a ga in th a t th e p ro to ty p e fa ce fo r
ea ch celeb rity w a s n ev er sh o w n . T h e ® rst blo ck o f tria ls w a s d isco u n ted
a s p ra ctice a n d da ta fro m th e rem a in in g 5 b lo ck s a re su m m arised in
F ig . 4 a (D R ) a n d F ig. 4b (S E ), w h e re p erfor m a n ce is co m p a red to th a t
o f th e 1 0 a ge-m atch e d c o ntro ls.
In F ig. 4 , th e m o rph e d im ag e s sh o w n in F ig . 3 a re p la ced alon g th e x-
a x is o f e ach g ra p h , ru n n in g from left to rig h t a n d to p to bo tto m in F ig . 1 ;
i.e. fro m 9 0 % C h u rc h ill:1 0% H a rd y (the to p left im ag e in F ig . 3 ; la b elled
w ith th e co n ve ntio n W C 9 -R H 1 in F ig . 4) to 10 % L aw ley :9 0% C h u rch ill
(th e b o tto m rig h t im a g e in F ig . 3 ; la b elled S L 1 -W C 9 in F ig . 4 ). In ea ch
g ra p h , th e y -a x is th en sh ow s th e n u m b er o f tim es e ac h im a g e w a s
id e nti® e d a s a p a rticu lar pe rso n. F o r clarity , the p erfo rm a n ce o f D R a n d
S E is ch a rte d sep a ra tely in F ig s. 4 a a n d 4 b , an d sep ara tely for ea ch
id e ntity w ith in F ig . 4 a a n d F ig . 4 b , b u t e ac h g ra ph also sh o w s th e
a p p ro p ria te co n tro l p erfo rm an ce .
A s w ith the e xp ressio n co n tin u um , th e 3 0-im ag e id e ntity co n tin u u m w a s
d iv id e d in to se ctio n s co rresp o n d in g to the 6 ide n tities (W in sto n C h u rch ill,
R o b ert H a rd y, M ich a el A sp el, R o g er M o o re, P rin c ess A n ne , an d S u e

L a w ley ). E a ch sectio n co n tain ed 4 m o rp h ed im a g es; 2 in w h ich th e ta rg et
fa ce w a s p resen t in 9 0 % o f th e im a g e a n d 2 in w h ich it m a d e u p 7 0 % o f th e
im ag e. F o r ex am ple, th e R o b ert H a rd y regio n in clu d ed th e m o rp h s 7 0%
H a rd y :3 0 % C h u rch ill, 9 0 % H a rd y :1 0 % C h u rch ill, 9 0 % H a rd y :1 0 % A sp el,
a n d 7 0 % H a rd y :3 0 % A sp el. In F ig . 3 , th e R o b e rt H a rd y regio n th u s
co rres p o nd s to th e tw o rig h tm o st m o rp h s in the to p ro w an d th e tw o
le ftm o s t m o rp hs in th e seco n d ro w , the M ich a el A sp el reg io n to th e tw o
rig h tm o st m o rp h s in th e seco n d ro w a n d the tw o le ftm o s t m o rp h s in th e
th ird ro w , th e R o g er M o o re re gion to th e tw o righ tm o st m o rp h s in th e th ird
ro w a n d th e tw o leftm o st m o rp h s in th e fo u rth ro w , th e P rin cess A n n e
reg io n to th e tw o rig h tm o st m o rp h s in th e fo u rth ro w an d th e tw o leftm o st
m o rp h s in th e ® fth row , th e S u e L a w ley reg io n to th e tw o rig h tm o st m o rp h s
in th e ® fth ro w an d th e tw o leftm o st m o rp h s in th e b o tto m ro w , an d th e
W insto n C h urc h ill reg io n to th e tw o rig h tm o st m o rp h s in th e b o tto m ro w
a n d th e tw o le ftm o s t m o rp h s in th e to p ro w . A s fo r th e em o tio n h ex a g o n ,
d a ta fro m th e id en tity h e x ag o n w ere th en sco red in tw o w a y s; n u m b er o f
co rrec t resp o n ses in ea ch o f th e six id en tity reg io n s (w h ere a co rrect
resp o n se is ta k en to b e c ho ice o f th e p roto ty p e tha t m a k es th e g rea ter
co n trib u tio n to th e m o rp h ed im a g e), an d n u m b er o f rem o te p ro to ty p e
erro rs fo r th e sa m e six reg io n s. A s a ro u g h g u id e to th eir p erfo rm a n ce, th e
co rrec t resp o n ses m a d e by D R a n d S E in ea ch o f th e six id en tity reg io n s a re
sh o w n in F ig . 4 a s a p ercen ta g e o f th e m ea n n u m b er of co rrect resp o n ses
m a d e b y th e co n tro ls. V a lu es gre ate r th a n 1 0 0 % in d icate reg io n s w h ere D R
o r SE m a d e slig h tly m o re co rre ct resp o n ses th a n th e co n tro ls.
O v era ll, D R p e rform ed n o rm a lly in term s o f he r to ta l n u m b er o f
co rrec t resp o n ses (co n tro ls, m e an to ta l n u m b er of co rrect
resp o n ses = 1 1 5.20 o u t o f 12 0 , S D = 2 .4 4; D R = 1 16 / 1 2 0 , z = 0 .3 2 ),
a n d sh e m ad e n o rem o te p roto ty p e erro rs . S E a lso m a d e no rem o te
p ro to ty p e erro rs, b u t h e m ad e sig n i® ca n tly fe w e r co rrect resp o n ses th a n
co n tro ls o v era ll (to ta l n u m b er o f co rrect resp o n ses fo r S E = 1 0 7/ 1 2 0 ,
z = 3 .3 6, P 0 .0 01 ). A lth o u gh h igh ly sig n i® ca n t statistica lly , th is d e® cit
m a y b e ex ag g era ted b y th e n ea r-ceilin g p e rfo r m an c e of co n tro ls; S E d id
sco re 10 7 / 1 20 c orre ct, b u t co n tro ls w er e d o in g ev en b etter. In term s o f th e
in d ividu al ide n tities, S E m ad e sign i® ca n tly few e r co rrec t resp o n ses th a n
co n tro ls w ith th e R o b ert H a rdy , R o g er M o o re, a n d S u e L a w ley reg io n s
(P 0 .0 5 ), a n d sh o w ed a b o rd e rlin e im p a irm en t in id en tify ing m o rp hs in
th e M ich a el A sp el reg io n (P 0 .1 ).
H en ce , D R sh o w ed n o ev id en ce o f a n y im pa irm en t in id en tify in g th e
fa ces of fa m ilia r ce leb ritie s m o rp h ed u sin g th e sa m e tec h niq u e a s w a s
a p p lie d to th e fa cia l exp re ssio n s. S E , in co n tra st, w a s im p a ired at
rec og n isin g m o rp h ed fa cia l id en titie s, w h ic h is co n sisten t w ith h is o th er
p ro b lem s in fa ce reco g n itio n .
FIG. 4 a . I d e n ti® c a tio n o f th e m o r p h e d im a g e s s h o w n in F ig . 3 b y a g e -m a tc h e d c o n tr o ls a n d
D R (s e e a ls o o p p o s ite p a g e ).
72 6
727
FIG. 4 b . I d e n ti® c a tio n o f th e m o r p h e d im a g e s s h o w n in F ig . 3 b y a g e -m a tc h e d c o n tr o ls a n d
S E (s e e a ls o o p p o s ite p a g e ).
72 8
729
Two- way F o rc ed- choic e Task s
F ro m th e tests d escrib ed so fa r w e esta b lish ed th a t D R w a s p a rticu la rly

im p aired a t reco gn isin g fac ia l ex p ressio n s o f fea r, a n d to a lesser ex ten t
a n g er an d d isg u st. In c o ntra st, h er p erfo rm a n ce w ith h ap p in ess a n d
sa d n ess w a s w ell w ith in th e n o rm a l ra n ge o n b o th task s. S im ila rly , S E
see m ed to sh o w pa rticu la r p ro b lem s in reco g n isin g fea r, b u t a lso sh o w ed
n o rm a l rec o gn itio n o f h a p p in ess a n d sa d n ess. S E also ha d so m e p r ob lem s
rec og n isin g a n ge r in the test w ith m o rp h ed e xp ressio n co n tin u a , bu t th ese
w ere n o t a s m a rk ed as th o se sh o w n b y D R .
T o ex p lo re furt he r th is p a ttern o f b rea kd o w n , D R an d S E w ere
p resen te d w ith a co n tin u u m o f m o rp h ed im ag e s ra n g in g b etw een
h a p p in ess a n d sa d n ess, a n d a n o th er co n tin u u m ra n g in g b etw een a n g er
a n d fea r. T h ey w er e a sk ed to ca te go rise th e m o rp h s in th e fo rm er
co n tin u u m as ``h a p p y ’ ’ or ``sa d ,’ ’ a n d in th e la tter a s `àn g ry ’ ’ o r `àfra id .’ ’
T h ese p a rticu la r co n tin u a w e re ch o sen b eca u se h a p p in ess a n d sa d n ess a re
em otion s w h ich d id no t crea te d i c ulties fo r D R a n d S E , a n d th erefo re
p ro v id e a u sefu l co m pa riso n to th e a n g er± fea r co n tin uu m . W e rea so n ed
th a t a lth o u g h D R a n d S E h a v e d i cu lty in se lecting fea r a s th e co rrect
ch o ic e o f em o tio n in a six -w ay ch o ice task , th eir p erfo rm a n ce m ig h t
im p ro ve if th e task is red u ced to a sim p le b in a ry d ec isio n . A n y su ch
im p ro ve m en t w o uld b e m o re lik ely fo r S E th a n D R , th o u g h , if th e ch o ice
w a s b etw een a ng ry a n d afra id . T h is is be cau se S E h a s sh o w n rela tiv ely
g o o d reco g n itio n o f an g er, a n d w o u ld th ere fo re b e in a b etter p o sitio n to
d ed u ce th a t th o se fa ces w h ich are n o t a n g ry m u st (b y d efa u lt) b e afra id .
H a p p in ess± sa d n ess (fa ce P F fro m th e E k m an an d F riesen se ries) a n d
a n g er± fea r (fa ce E M ) co n tinu a w ere ta ke n fro m p rev io u s w o rk (C a ld er et
a l., in p ress). M e a n re co gn isa b ilitie s o f th e em o tio n s fo r ea ch fa ce b y
E k m a n a n d F riese n’ s (1 9 7 6) n o rm a l su b jec ts w er e a s fo llo w s: P F h a p p in ess
1 0 0% , P F sa dn e ss 10 0 % , E M a n g er 8 3% , E M fear 9 2 % . H o w eve r, th ese
rec og n isab ilities relate to th e m o re d i cu lt six-w a y ch o ice o f ha p p ine ss,
sa d n ess, fe ar, a n ge r, su rp rise , o r d isg u st, n ot to th e sim p le r tw o -w a y
ch o ic es use d in th e p resen t ta sk .
T h e stim u li inv o lv ed the 2 p ro to typ e ex p ressio n s an d m o rp h s a t 1 0%
in terv a ls, giving a to ta l o f 1 1 im a g es fo r ea ch co n tin u u m (e.g . fo r
h a p p in ess± sa d n ess, th e 0 % sa d :1 00 % h ap py p ro to typ e , th en m o rp h s w ith
1 0 % , 2 0 % , 30 % , 4 0% , 5 0 % , 6 0 % , 7 0% , 8 0 % , 9 0 % sa d n ess, an d ® n a lly
th e 1 0 0 % sad :0 % h a p p y p roto ty p e). T h e 11 fa ces in ea ch co n tin u u m w ere
p resen te d o ne a t a tim e in ra n do m o rd er, an d D R a n d S E w ere a sk ed to
ca teg o rise ea ch as on e o f th e tw o ex p ressio n s p o sed at th e ex trem es o f th e
co n tin u u m ; h e n ce, fo r the ha p p in ess ± sa d n ess co n tin u u m th eir ta sk w as to
ca teg o rise ea ch fa ce a s eith er ``h a p p y ’ ’ o r ``sa d ,’ ’ an d fo r th e an g er± fea r
co n tin u u m to ca teg o rise e ach fac e a s eith e r `àn g ry ’ ’ o r `àfra id .’ ’ In lin e
w ith o ur in ten tio n to m ak e th e ta sk co m p a ra tive ly e asy , u n lim ited

p resen ta tio n tim es w ere use d fo r ea ch im a g e. F o u r b lo ck s o f tria ls w ere
ru n fo r ea ch co n tin uu m (i.e. 4 tria ls w ith ea ch im ag e ; in to tal 4 4 tria ls p er
co n tin u u m ).
R esu lts are p resen ted in F ig . 5 a (D R ) a n d F ig . 5b (S E ), w h ere
p erfo rm a n ce is sho w n a g a in st th at o f th e a ge -m atch ed co n trols. In ea ch
ca se, th e m o rph e d im ag es a re p lace d a lo n g th e x -a x is. F o r h a p p in ess±
sa d n ess, resu lts are g ra p he d in term s o f the n u m b e r o f tim es ea ch im a g e
w a s ch o sen a s ``sa d ’ ’ ; fo r an g er± fea r, th e g ra p h sh o w s the n u m b er o f tim es
ea ch im a g e w as ch o sen a s `àfraid .’ ’ D R sh o w ed a n o rm a l a b ru pt sh ift
b etw een ca teg o ries fo r h a p p in ess± sa d n ess th at fell w ith in th e ran g e o f
ca teg o ry sh ifts sh o w n b y th e a g e-m a tch ed co n trols. In co m p lete co n tra st,
sh e cla ssi® ed th e e n tire a n g er± fea r co n tin u u m a s fea r, sh o w in g n o a b ility
to tell fa cia l ex p ressio n s o f th ese em o tio n s fro m ea ch o th er. S E ’ s
p erfo rm a n ce fell w ith in th e n o rm a l ra n g e fo r b o th ex p ression co n tin u a .
N e ver the less, h is p erfo rm an ce w ith th e a n ge r± fe ar co n tin u u m w a s m o re
``n o isy ’ ’ th a n th e co n tro ls. S E ’ s resp o n se p a ttern w ith the an g er± fea r
co n tin u u m is p erh ap s no t su rp risin g if w e co n sid er th a t in o th er te sts h e is
v ery im p aired a t re co gn isin g fea r bu t n ot v ery im pa ire d w ith a n g er; h e
sh o w ed n o sig n i® ca n t im pa irm en t w ith an g er fo r th e 6 0 fa ces from th e
E k m a n an d F riesen (1 9 76 ) serie s, an d o n ly m in o r p ro b le m s w ith a n g er in
th e test w ith th e h ex a g o n o f m o rp h ed fa cial ex p ressio n s. H en ce , S E m a y
b e rely in g o n a stra te gy in th is b in a ry d ec isio n ta sk in w h ich h e class i® es
th e fac e a s a fra id if it do e s n o t lo o k an g ry .
A s a fu rth er co m pa riso n , D R a n d S E w ere also sh o w n an eq u iv a len t
1 0 -ste p id en tity co n tin u u m ra n g in g b etw een L a rry H ag m an ’ s an d D en n is
W a term a n ’ s fa ces; b o th fa ces a re o n es D R an d S E ca n reco g n ise fro m
th e p ro to ty p e im a g es. T h eir ta sk w a s to say w h e th er eac h fa ce in th is
co n tin u u m w a s m o re lik e L ar ry H a g m a n (J R fro m th e telev isio n series
``D a lla s’ ’ ) o r D en n is W a term a n (T e rry fro m th e telev isio n series
``M in d er’ ’ ). T h e m eth o d o f pre sen ta tio n o f the id en tity c on tin u u m w a s
id e ntical to th at u sed fo r th e ex p ress io n co n tin u a , w ith e ac h im a g e
p resen te d fo u r tim es in to ta l. F o r b o th D R a n d S E , p erfo rm a n ce w ith
th is co n tin u u m w a s w ith in th e a g e-m a tch ed c o ntro l ra n g e (F ig s. 5 a a n d
5 b ).
In su m m a ry , bo th D R a n d S E p erfo rm ed w ith in the n o rm a l ra n g e w ith
th e h a p p in ess± sa d n ess ex p ressio n co n tin u um , a n d th e L arry H ag m an ±
D e nn is W a term a n id e ntity c o n tin u u m . In c o n tra st, D R w a s u n a b le to
rec og n ise th e fa cial ex p ressio n s in th e a n ger± fea r co n tin u u m a n d
ca teg o rised a ll 1 1 im a ge s a s a fra id . S E ’ s p erfo rm a n ce w ith th e a n g er±
fea r co n tin u u m w a s b etter, a n d h is resp o n se p a ttern fell w ith in th e n o rm a l
ra n g e. H o w ev er, as w e h av e e xp lain ed , th e b in a ry resp o n se ta sk o n ly
req u ir es tha t th e su b jec t is ab le to id en tify o n e o f th e e n d p o in ts of a
L arry H agman - D ennis Wa terman L arry H ag man - D ennis Waterman
(a ) (b )
FIG. 5. I d e n ti® c a tio n o f e m o tio n in m o r p h e d im a g e s ly in g a lo n g h a p p in e s s± sa d n e s s a n d

a n g e r ± fe a r e x p r e ss io n c o n tin u a , a n d r e c o g n it io n o f id e n tity in a c o n tin u u m p re p a r e d fr o m
L a r r y H a g m a n a n d D e n n is W a te r m a n . T h e p e r fo r m a n c e o f a g e -m a tc h e d c o n tr o ls is sh o w n
a lo n g s id e th a t o f D R ( F ig . 5 a ) a n d S E (F ig . 5 b ).
co n tin u u m Ð a n ge r in S E ’ s ca seÐ lea v in g th e rem ain in g en d p o in t to b e

ca teg o rised a s ``n o t a n g er.’ ’
T h ese sin gle co n tin u u m task s a ga in d em o n stra te th e circu m scrib ed
n a tu re o f th is im p airm en t o f fa cia l ex p ress io n reco g n itio n. D R sh o w s a n
a b ru p t ca teg o ry shift to th e h a p p in ess a n d sa d n ess co n tin u um , a n d 1 0 0%
co n sis ten cy in h e r selec tio n o f w h ich m o rp h s lo o k h ap p y a n d w h ic h lo o k
sa d . N eve rth eless, sh e is u n ab le to ch o o se b etw een m o rp h s p rep are d fro m
tw o ex p ressio n s (a n g er a n d fea r) tha t sh e h a s d i cu lty in reco g n isin g , ev en
w ith th is sim p le tw o -w a y fo rced - ch o ice ta sk . S im ila rly , a lth ou g h S E ’ s
p erfo rm a n ce w ith th e a n g er± fea r co n tin u u m is w ith in th e n o rm a l ran g e, h e
is m o re co n sisten t in his ch o ice o f w h ich im a g es lo o k h a p p y o r sa d th a n h e
is in ch o o sin g w h ich a re a n gry o r a fra id . F in a lly, as ex p e cted , b o th S E a n d
D R ca te go r ised th e id en tity co n tin u u m w ith relativ e ea se, a nd th eir
resp o n ses fell w ith in th e ra ng e o f th e a g e-m a tch ed co n tro ls.
D ISC US SION
W e h a v e p rese n te d d a ta fro m tw o p eo p le, b o th of w h om h a v e bila tera l
a m y g d ala d a m a g e an d sh o w im p a ired re co gn itio n o f so m e fac ia l
ex p ressio n s, esp ecia lly fea r. P rev io u s stu dies (Y o u n g et a l., 1 99 5 , 1 9 96 )
h a v e sh o w n th a t, a lth ou g h D R e xp erien ces p ro b lem s in reco g n isin g fac ia l
ex p ressio n s of em o tio n , sh e is a b le to re co gn ise th e id en tities o f fa ce s th a t
a re h ig h ly fa m ilia r to h er. H ere w e h a v e rep lic ated th ese ® n d in g s a n d
ex ten d ed th em to sh o w th at no t a ll em o tio n s a re co m p ro m ised to th e sa m e
ex ten t. D R c an se e h ap p in ess a n d sad n e ss in fac es, b u t h a s in crea sin g ly
sev ere p ro b lem s w ith disgu st, a n g er, an d fear. S E is a b le to id en tify
h a p p in ess, sa d n ess, a n d d isg u st, sh o w s m in o r ab n o rm a lities in th e
rec og n itio n o f a n ge r, a n d is a ga in seve rely im p aired a t rec o gn isin g fea r.
T h u s, a cro ss th e tests rep o rted , D R a n d S E w e re d isp ro p o rtio n a tely
im p aired a t rec o gn isin g fea r in co m p a riso n to o th er em o tio n s. A lt ho u g h
w e d o n o t see k to claim th at fea r is th e o n ly em o tio n w h ich crea tes
p ro b lem s fo r D R a n d S E , th eir im pa irm en ts in reco g n isin g fea r a re
d iŒe ren tia lly sev ere.
T h ese d ata are inter estin g fo r a n u m b e r o f rea so ns . F irst, th ey co n ® rm
th e d isso c ia b ility o f im pa irm en ts a Œectin g th e reco g n itio n o f id en tity a n d
ex p ressio n fro m th e fa ce . Se co n d , the y a re co n sisten t w ith th e h y p o th e sised
ro le o f th e h u m a n a m y g da la in th e reco g n itio n o f em otio n , a n d fe ar in
p a rticu la r (A d o lp h s et a l., 19 9 4 , 19 9 5 ; L e D o u x, 1 9 9 5 ); th is ra ises th e
p o ssib ility th a t b a sic em o tio n s m ay , to so m e ex ten t, b e link ed to sp eci® c
n eu ra l sub str ates. T h ird , th ey h a v e im p lication s for cu rren t c o nc ep tio n s o f
th e m en ta l rep re sen tation o f fa cia l ex p ress io n s o f em otio n . W e w ill d iscu ss
ea ch o f th ese p o in ts in tu rn .
Th e R ec o gnition o f Identity and E xp ression
A d eg ree o f ind e pe n d en ce b e tw een p e rcep tu a l m ech a n ism s in v o lv ed in

d eterm in in g ide n tity a n d ex p ression fro m th e fa ce h a s b een n o te d in
rea ctio n tim e ex p erim en ts w ith n o rm a l su b jects (B ru ce, 19 8 6 ; Y o u n g ,
M cW een y , H a y, & E llis, 1 9 8 6), in a P E T stu d y (S erge n t et a l., 1 9 94 ), in
n eu ro p h y sio lo g ica l w o rk (D esim on e , 19 9 1 ; H a sselm o et a l., 1 98 9 ), an d a s a
d o u b le d isso c ia tio n o f ne u rop sy ch o lo g ica l im p a irm e n ts (E tc oŒ, 1 98 4 ;
P a rry et a l., 19 9 1 ; Y o u n g e t a l., 1 99 3 ). H o w e v er, th e m a jo rity o f
n eu ro p sy ch o lo g ic al stu d ies ha ve co n cen tra ted o n th e rela tiv ely p reserv ed
p ro cess in g o f fa cia l ex p ressio n s fo u n d in so m e ca ses o f p roso p a g n o sia
(Y o u n g & B ru ce, 1 9 91 ), a n d stu d ie s sh o w in g th e o p p o site d isso c ia tio n o f
p reser ve d reco g n itio n o f id e ntity w ith im p aired ex p ress io n p ro cessin g h a v e
seld om p ro b ed v ery d e ep ly in to th e n atu re o f th ese im p a irm en ts.
O u r ® n d in g s w ith D R strik in g ly co n ® rm th a t it is p os sib le to reta in
n o rm a l reco g n itio n o f id en tity fro m th e fa ce w h en fa cia l exp re ssio n
rec og n itio n is im p a ire d ; D R sh o w ed n o ev id en ce o f im p a irm en t in
id e ntify in g th e fa ces o f fa m ilia r celeb rities m o rp h ed u sin g th e sa m e tec h niq u e
a s w a s a p p lie d to th e fa cia l e x p ressio n s. T h ese d a ta bo lster Y o u n g et a l.’ s
(1 9 95 ) p rev io u s ® n d in g th a t D R sh o w s p ro b le m s in rec o g n isin g fac ia l
ex p ressio n b u t no t fa cia l id en tity . A lth o u g h D R h a s be en fo u n d to h a v e
so m e p ro b lem s in lea rn in g n ew fa ces (Y o u n g et a l., 1 9 95 ), it seem s th a t o n ce
a face ha s b ee n lea rn t sh e re co gn ises its id en tity w ith o u t d i cu lty . A d o lp h s et
a l. (1 9 94 , 1 9 9 5) a lso rep o rte d th a t, d esp ite h er p ro b le m in reco g n isin g fac ia l
ex p ressio n s, S M sh o w e d no rm al reco g n itio n o f fa ce id en tity .
N ev erth ele ss, o n th e b a sis o f th e p rese n t d a ta fo r D R alon e , o n e co u ld
a rg u e tha t th e m o rp h ed fac ia l id en tity test m ig h t ju st b e slig h tly ea sier
th a n th e m o rp h ed ex p ression ta sk , an d th at D R ’ s p e rfo rm a n ce o f th ese
tw o ta sk s th erefo re re¯ e cts rela tiv e task d i cu lty rath er th a n a sp eci® c
im p airm en t in re co gn isin g fa cia l ex p ressio n . H o w ev er, th is a rg u m en t d o es
n o t sq ua re w ith S E ’ s p erfor m a n ce o n th e sa m e tw o tests. D esp ite
p erfo rm in g w o rse th a n D R o n th e m o rp h ed id e ntity ta sk, S E ’ s
p erfo rm a n ce o n th e m o rp h ed ex p ress io n task w a s if an y th in g ra th er
b etter. M o reo ve r, S E a lso sh o w ed a n eve n m o re restricte d im p airm en t in
rec og n isin g fa cial ex p ressio n s, w ith o n ly m in o r d i cu lties o n the p resen t
tests fo r em o tio n s o th er th a n fe ar. D R , o n th e o th er ha n d , sh o w ed a sev ere
im p airm en t w ith fea r, b u t a lso ra n in to p ro b lem s w ith a n g er a n d d isg u st.
A n ex p la n at io n in term s o f task d i c ulty w o u ld d em a n d th at th ere sh o u ld
b e a c on sisten t ran k o rd erin g o ‹f p e rfo rm a n ce fo r th e fa cia l id en tity a n d
fa cia l ex p ressio n ta sk s; S E p ro vide s ev id en ce th a t allo w s u s to re ject su ch
a n a cc o u n t.
O u r ® n d in g s th eref ore len d stro n g su p p o rt to p rev io u s cla im s th a t
p eo p le w ith b ila tera l a m y g d ala d am a g e ca n h a v e p ro b lem s in terp retin g
em otion fro m fac ia l ex p ressio n s th a t a re in d ep en d en t from a n y p r ob lem s

in rec og n isin g fa cial id en tity (A d o lph s et a l., 19 9 4 , 1 99 5 ; Y o u n g et a l.,
1 9 95 ). F o r S E , it is lik ely tha t h is p rob lem s in fa ce rec og n itio n re¯ e ct a n
a d d itio n a l im p a irm e n t d u e to righ t cereb ra l d a m a g e.
Th e Neural S ub strates o f E motion

C a se S M (A d o lp h s et al., 19 9 4 , 19 9 5 ) sh o w ed a d iŒeren tia lly sev ere d e® cit
fo r reco g n isin g fa cia l ex p re ssio n s o f fea r, b u t a lso h a d p rob lem s w ith o th er
em otion s in m o re d i cu lt ta sk s. O u r ® n d in g s sh o w th at D R an d S E a lso
h a v e d iŒeren tia lly sev ere p ro b lem s in reco g n ising fea r, b ut a ga in fea r is n o t
th e o n ly e m o tio n a Œected . T h e m eth o d s o f testin g u sed h ere are q u ite
d iŒe ren t fro m th o se em plo y ed b y A d o lp h s et a l. (1 99 4 , 1 9 9 5); ta k en
to g eth er, th ese stu d ies th us pro vid e co n v erg in g ev id en ce p oin tin g to w a rd
th e co n clu sio n th a t th e reco gn ition o f fea r ca n b e d isp ro p o rtio n a tely
im p aired after b rain in ju ry , an d b ila tera l a m y gd a la d a m a ge in p a rticu lar.
H o w ev er, it is ev id e nt fro m th e rep o rt b y H a m a n n et a l. (1 9 96 ) th a t
b ilatera l a m y gd a la d a m ag e d o es no t in ev ita b ly o r in v ariab ly in terfere w ith
th e p erc ep tio n o f fa cia l em otio n , sin ce th eir tw o p o st-en cep h a litic p a tien ts
m a d e n o rm al resp o n se s b o th to th e te st u sed b y A d o lp h s et al. (1 9 94 ) a n d
to a slig h tly m o d i® ed va ria n t o f th e p ro ced u re. H a m a n n et a l. (1 9 96 )
su g g est th a t fa cto rs su ch a s lo w in tellig en ce a n d ea rly -a cq u ire d o r
co n g en ita l le sio n s m a y lim it th e u se o f a ltern a tiv e stra te gies fo r reco g n isin g
em otion in so m e ca ses. A lth o u g h th is m a y pro v e to b e p art o f th e ev en tu a l
ex p la n a tio n , it c an n o t a cc ou n t fo r th e d ata w e p resen t h ere fo r S E , w h o
w a s n eu ro lo g ica lly n o rm a l u n til h e su Œere d en ce ph a litis a t a g e 55 a n d is o f
a v era ge in te lligen c e. F u r th er w o rk w ill th erefo re b e n ee de d to reso lv e th is
d isc rep a n cy. A t p rese n t, w e can o n ly n o te th a t th e a m y g da la ’ s ro le in th e
p erce p tio n of e m o tio n is lik ely to b e m o re co m p lex th a n ju st a fea r
d etecto r, a n d th at it p ro b a b ly fo rm s p a rt o f a m o re ex ten sive n eu ra l
sy stem co n trib u tin g to th is ta sk .
A t issu e h ere is th e fu n d am en ta l q u estio n of w he th er a sin gle sy stem is
u sed in reco gn isin g a ll fa cial ex p ressio n s o f em o tio n , o r w h eth er th ere a re
d ed ic ate d n eu ral su b stra tes fo r a t lea st so m e b a sic em o tio n s, a m o n g w h ich
fea r w o uld b e a p rim e ca n d id a te. A s w e n o te d , in ca ses o f p roso p a g n o sia
th e re co gn itio n o f a ll fa m ilia r fa ces is co m p ro m ise d to so m e d e gree , g iv en
d u e a llo w a n ce fo r th e d e gre e o f fam ilia rity ; b ra in in ju ry h a s no t b een
fo u n d to a Œe ct a b ility to reco g n ise po litician s b u t n o t p o p sta rs, or o n ly to
im p air reco g n itio n o f p a rticu la r ind ivid u a ls. It th u s seem s a n a tu ra l
sta rtin g p o in t to a ssu m e by a n alog y th a t im p a irm en ts o f fa cia l ex p ressio n
rec og n itio n w ill co m p ro m ise all em o tio n s; th is in tu itio n is em b o d ied in
m o d els lik e B ru ce a n d Y o u n g ’ s (19 8 6 ), w ith its sin g le bo x fo r exp ressio n
a n a ly sis. H o w ev er, th is is n o t w h at w e h a v e fo u n d . In stea d , o u r resu lts
sh o w th a t reco g n itio n o f so m e fac ia l ex p ressio n s o f em o tio n ca n c o lla p se

w h ilst th e reco g n itio n o f o th er em o tion s fro m th e fa ce (esp ec ia lly
h a p p in ess a n d sa d n ess) rem a in s rela tiv ely u n p ertu rb ed .
T h ere a re tw o d iŒeren t d irectio n s o n e ca n ta k e in in ter pre tin g su ch
d a ta. O n e d irec tio n in v o lv es a rg uin g th at B ru ce a n d Y o u n g ’ s (1 9 86 )
a ssu m p tio n th at a ll fa cia l ex p ressio n s of em o tio n a re a n alys ed w ith a
co m m o n p ercep tu a l m ech a n ism is co rrec t, b u t th a t so m e exp ressio n s a re
m o re v u ln era b le th a n o th ers to im p airm en t o f th is m ech a n ism . T h e m o st
lik ely re aso n w o u ld see m to b e th a t em o tio n s lik e fea r an d an g er in v o lv e
fa cia l ex p re ssio n s th at a re less p ercep tu ally distin ct th a n th e fac ia l
ex p ressio n s in v olv ed in em o tio ns lik e h a p p in ess a n d sa d n ess. F o r
h a p p in ess a nd sa d n ess, th e u p tu rn ed o r d o w n tu rn ed m o uth u su a lly
p ro v id es a p o w erfu l cu e, w h er eas the d iŒeren ces b etw een an g er a n d fea r
a re m o re su btle; o n e co u ld sp ecu la te th a t th ey p e rha p s in v o lv e co n jo in t
ch a n g es in fea tu re p o sition in g to w h ich p e o p le w ith am yg d a la d a m a g e
h a v e b eco m e in sen sitive . W e w ill ca ll this th e ``pe rcep tu al d i c u lty’ ’
h y p o the sis. T h e a ltern a tiv e d ire ctio n inv o lv es lo o k in g m o re c lo sely in sid e
B ru ce a n d Y o u n g ’ s (1 9 8 6) e xp ress io n a n alys is b o x , a n d a ccep ting th a t it
m a y frac tio n a te a lo n g fa u lt lin es rep res en ted b y at least som e o f th e b a sic
em otion s; w e w ill c all th is th e ``se pa ra te su b stra te s’ ’ h y p o th esis.
T h e m ost tellin g w a y to d ecid e w h ich is the m o st fru itfu l o f th ese
co m p e tin g th eo retica l d irectio n s w ill b e to ® n d o u t w h et he r fu tu re stu dies
co n sis ten tly rev ea l th e sa m e p a tte rn o f im p a irm en t a cro ss ca ses w ith
d iŒe ren t a etio lo g ie s, a s th e p ercep tu a l d i cu lty hy p o th esis p red icts, o r
d iŒe ren tia lly sev ere im p a irm en ts o f a t le ast so m e o th er b a sic em o tio n s, a s
m igh t b e ex p e cted o n the sep ara te su b stra tes h y p o th esis. A t pre sen t, w e
h a v e re po rted a sin g le d isso cia tio n b etw een th e re co gn itio n o f fea r a n d
o th er b a sic em o tio n s, a nd sin g le d isso ciation s a re op e n to a ra n ge o f
p o ssib le in terp retatio n s (Sh a llice, 1 9 88 ). H o w ev er, th e sep a ra te su b stra tes
h y p o the sis p red ic ts th a t d o u b le d issoc ia tio n s b etw een fea r a n d o the r b a sic
em otion s m a y b e o b serv ed in fu tu r e.
In th e a b se nc e o f su c h ev id en ce , th e p e rcep tu a l d i cu lty h y p o the sis
ce rta in ly h a s a n a p p ea lin g sim p licity. H o w ev er, the re a re a n u m b er o f
p o in ters in o u r da ta w h ic h c au tio n a ga in s t a ccep ting it to o rea d ily:
1 . O n the p e rcep tu al di cu lty h y p o the sis, w e w o u ld ex p ect D R a n d S E

to pe rfo r m w o rst o n ex p ress io n s th a t th e a g e-m a tch ed co n trols ® n d m o st
d i cu lt to reco g n ise . H o w ev er, th e pe rfo rm a nc es o f D R a n d S E w ith th e
6 0 fa ces fro m th e E k m a n a n d F riese n (1 9 7 6) series d o n ot co n fo rm to th is
p a ttern . A n g er w a s reco g n ised lea st w ell b y th e a g e-m a tch ed co n tro ls
(m ea n = 7.70 , S D = 1.42 ), y et S E ou tp erfo rm ed a ll o f th e co n tro ls on th is
ex p ressio n ; in co n tra s t, a ll o f th e co n tro ls o u tp erfo rm ed S E o n fea r. In
a d d itio n , th e a ge -m atch ed co n tro ls’ m e an reco g n itio n ra tes fo r fea r
(m ea n = 8.60 , S D = 1 .1 7), su rp rise (m e a n = 8 .5 0 , SD = 1 .5 8 ), an d sa d n ess

(m ea n = 8.70 , S D = 1.34 ) w e re v irtu a lly id en tica l, b u t S E o nly sh o w ed
p ro b lem s in reco g n isin g fea r o n th is test.
2 . O n th e p ercep tu a l di cu lty h y p o th esis, w e w o u ld a lso e xp ec t th a t it
w ill b e th e lea st go o d exa m p les o f th e fea r p ro to ty pe w h ich are h a rd est fo r
D R o r S E to rec og n ise. B u t o u r a n a ly sis o f th e reco g n isa b ilities to co n tro ls
o f th e fea r ex p ressio n s D R a n d S E d id o r d id n o t reco g n ise sh o w ed th a t
th is w as n o t th e ca se.
3 . A n a ltern a tiv e m ea n s o f a d d ressin g th e p ercep tu a l di cu lty
h y p o the sis is to loo k a t D R ’ s an d S E ’ s p e rform an ce o n a p ercep tu a lly
m o re d em a n d in g ta sk ; the m o rp h ed fa cia l ex p ressio ns test. E v en w ith th is
m o re d i c u lt ta sk D R a n d S E w e re still a b le to rec o gn ise ha p p ine ss a n d
sa d n ess a t n o rm a l lev els. A n ex p la n a tio n in term s o f p erc ep tu al di cu lty
w o u ld p red ict th at p ro b lem s sh o u ld start to sh o w u p w ith h ap p in e ss a n d
sa d n ess u n de r th ese m o re d e m a nd in g co n d ition s; h o w ev er, th ey d id no t.
4 . If p ercep tu a l d i cu lty w a s the m a in d eterm in a n t o f p erform an ce, w e
w o u ld ex pe ct D R ’ s a n d SE ’ s erro rs in th e m o rp h ed fa cia l ex p ress io n s test
m a in ly to in vo lv e m is reco g n itio n a s a n a d ja cen t p ro to ty p e in th e m o rp h ed
h ex a g on , sin ce th e p ro to ty p es w ere a rra n ge d a cco rd in g to the ir pe rcep tu a l
co n fu sa b ility to n o rm a l p erc eiv ers. H o w ev er, w h a t w e fo u n d w a s th a t
so m e 4 2 % o f D R ’ s erro rs a n d 5 7% o f S E ’ s erro rs in v o lv ed ch o ice o f a
rem ote (n o n -ad ja cen t) p ro to ty p e.
5 . W h en th e task w a s sim p li® ed to a tw o -w a y fo rced -ch o ice b etw een
fea r a n d a n g er, D R w a s still in gre at d i cu lty . O n th e p ercep tu a l di cu lty
h y p o the sis, w e m igh t h av e ex p ected m uc h im pr o ve d p erfo rm a n ce o n th is
sim p ler te st.
S o , fo r a ll th e n ew te sts o f ex pre ssio n reco g n itio n w e h a ve rep o rted ,

th ere a re gro u n d s fo r th in k in g th a t p ercep tu a l di cu lty d o es n o t g iv e a
v ery co n v in cin g acc o u n t of D R ’ s a n d S E ’ s p ro b le m s. N on e o f th ese
rea so n s are in the m selv es su cie n t to ru le o u t a n acc o un t in term s o f
p erce p tua l d i c u lty a t th is stag e; b u t to g eth er th ey im ply th a t th e
a ltern a tiv e id ea th at b a sic em o tio ns m a y to so m e e xten t b e lin k ed to
sp eci® c ne u ra l su b stra tes d o es ne ed to b e ta k en serio u sly.
C lea rly , th is b eg s th e q u estio n , w h y sh o u ld d iŒere nt em o tio n s h a v e
d iŒe ren t u n d erly in g n eu ra l su b stra te s? A n o b viou s acc o u n t is in term s o f
ev o lu tion . B as ic em o tio n s serve im p o rta n t an d d istin ct fu n ctio n s; E k m a n
(1 9 92 ) ch a rac terises th em a s fac ilita tin g ra pid resp o nse s to fu n d a m en ta l
life-ta sk s in w a ys w h ich w e re a d a p tive in o u r ev o lu tio n a ry p a st. F o r
ex a m p le , if a n a nim a l co m es in to co n ta ct w ith so m eth ing d a n ge ro u s it m a y
b eco m e frig h te ne d a nd ¯ ee , o r it m ay a g g ressiv ely sta n d its gro u n d ; d a n g er
in d u ce s a b a sic em o tio n , fea r, an d a set o f pre p a rato ry resp o n ses th a t a id
in th e p reserv a tio n o f life. O n e ca n su p p o se, th en , tha t a ny a n im a l th a t ca n
ex p erien ce fea r w ill b e b etter eq u ip p ed to su rv iv e th an o ne th a t ca n n o t.

S im ila rly , a n a n im a l th at is sen sitive to p erceivin g fe ar in o th er a n im a ls is
in a b e tte r p o sitio n to d ecid e w h en a ra p id e xit o r a d isp la y o f a g g ressio n
co u ld pa y o Œ. T his is n o t to d en y th a t em o tion s lik e fea r in vo lv e lea rn in g
a n d cu ltu ra l in ¯ u en ces, b u t th ese a re lik ely to b e b uilt u p on an ev o lv ed
su b stra te . A s a no th er ex a m p le , m u ch the sa m e is tru e fo r d isg u st, w h ere
th e w id e ra n g e o f stim u li w h ic h c an elicit d isg u st in h u m a n s (H a id t,
M cC a u le y, & R o zin , 1 9 9 4) c an b e se en a s resu ltin g fro m a n a ccretio n o f
n ew e licito r s to w h at w as or ig in a lly a re jectio n resp o n se to b a d ta stes
(R o zin , H a id t, & M cC a u ley , 1 9 93 ).
It is easy to see , th en , th a t em o tio n s m a y h a v e ev o lv ed in a p iecem ea l
m a n n er. H o w eve r, th ese e vo lution a ry a rg um en ts a p p ly m o st d irectly to th e
ex p erien ce of em otion , w h ere as w h a t ou r p resen t resu lts d em o n stra te is
im p aired reco g n itio n o f em o tio n in th e fa ce s o f o th ers . T h ere a re a lre ad y
g o o d g ro u n d s fo r th in k in g th a t th e a b ility to e xp erien ce fe ar is
co m p ro m ised afte r a m y gd a la d a m a g e; o n e o f th e m o st strik in g eŒec ts o f
a m y g d alo to m y in p rim ates is a lo ss of em o tio na l resp o n siv en ess, w h ich
ca n in clu d e a w illin g n ess to a p pro a ch p rev io u s ly frig h ten ing stim uli
(A g g leto n , 19 9 2 ; H a lg ren , 1 99 2 ; L eD o u x , 1 9 95 ). O u r ® n d ing s, a n d th o se o f
A d o lp h s et a l. (19 9 4 , 1 9 9 5) g o b ey o nd th is, in d em o n stra tin g th a t th ere is
a lso im p a ired re co gn itio n o f fea r in o th ers. T h is is co n sisten t w ith th e id ea
th a t fo r certa in b asic em otio n s th ere is a clo se m a p p ing of pe rcep tu a l
m e ch an ism s a n d co rre sp o n din g em o tio n a l ex p erie nc e (N ied en th a l &
H a lb e rstad t, 1 9 9 5). M ech a n ism s fo r p erceiv in g e m o tio n s in o th ers m a y
b e close ly lin k ed to th o se in v o lv ed in a ctu a lly ex p erien cin g th e eq u iv a len t
em otion s o n ese lf b eca u se th is h a s evo lve d as o n e o f th e m a in w ay s to lea rn
o u r em o tio na l rea ctio n s; m an y o f th e th ing s w h ich frig h ten u s d o so n o t
b eca u se w e h a v e d irect ex p erien ce, b u t b eca u se w e h av e le arn t fro m th e
rea ctio n s of oth ers . S u ch a m ec ha n ism o f le arn in g fro m th e rea ctio n s o f
o th ers h a s cle ar b io log ic al a d v a n ta g es, sin ce it a llo w s u s to lea rn ab o u t
d iŒe ren t ty p es o f d a n g er w ith o u t b ein g h arm ed o urse lv es.
M ental R ep resen tations o f F acial E xp ressio n s

F in a lly , w e co m e to an o th er im p o rta n t a sp ect o f th ese da ta ; th eir
im p lica tio n s fo r th e m en ta l rep re sen tatio n o f fa cia l ex p ressio n s. A n
o n g o in g d eb a te in th e em o tio n litera tu re c o nc ern s w h eth er fac ia l
ex p ressio n s (o r in d eed em o tio n s in g en era l) a re rep resen ted a s v ary in g
co n tin u o u sly alo n g certa in u n d e rly in g d im en s io n s (R u ssell, 1 9 8 0; W o o d -
w o rth & S ch lo sbe rg , 1 9 54 ), o r as b elo n g in g to q u a lita tiv ely d iscrete
ca teg o ries (E k m an , 1 97 2 , 19 8 2 ; Iz ard , 1 97 1 ). T h is issu e h as b een d i cu lt
to reso lv e be ca u se m a ny d a ta ca n b e a cco m m o d ated w ith in eith er ty pe o f
a cco u n t.
A h ig h ly in ¯ u en tia l sta tem en t o f th e d im en sio n al view w a s b y

W o o d w o rth a n d S ch lo sb erg (1 9 5 4), w h o id en ti® ed h a p p in e ss (in w h ich
th ey in clu d ed lo v e an d m irth ), su rp rise, fe ar (in c lu d in g su Œerin g ), a n g er
(a n d d eterm in a tio n ), d isg u st, a n d co n tem p t a s d istin ct em otion s, b u t
su g g ested o n th e b a sis o f th eir co n fu sa b ilities th a t th ey ca n b e co n sid ered
to b e lo ca ted a ro u n d th e circu m fere n ce o f a c ircle (ru n n in g h a p p in ess±
su rp rise± fea r± a n ge r± disg u st± c o ntem p t± h a p p in ess ), w ith tw o orth o g o n al
d ia g o n als co rresp on d in g to th e d im en sio n s p lea san t± u n p le asa n t (ru n n in g
fro m th e reg io n o f h a p p in ess to th e reg io n o f an g er) an d atten tio n ±
rejectio n (ru n n ing fro m th e su rp rise an d fea r b o u n d a ry to th e bo u n d a ry
b etw een d isg u st an d co n tem p t). T h is sch e m a is sh o w n in F ig . 6 a .
A m o d e rn va ria n t o f th is id e a is R u ssell’ s (1 9 80 ; R u ssell & F eh r, 1 9 87 )
circu m p lex m o d el, in w h ich m o re e xtre m e d e gre es o f a n em o tio n fall
a ro u n d th e ed g e o f a tw o -dim en sio n a l em o tio n sp a ce, a nd m ild er em o tio n s
m o re to w a rd th e cen tre. U n de rly in g R u ssell’ s (19 8 0 ) em o tio n sp a ce a re
b ip o la r d im en sio n s, o n e ran g in g from ex trem e d isp lea sure th ro u g h n eu tra l
to ex trem e plea su re, a n d th e o th er, m e asu r in g de g ree o f a ro usa l, fro m
sle ep thro u g h a n o rm a l w a k in g sta te to e xtre m e a rou sa l. T his p ro p o sa l is
sh o w n in F ig. 6 b , w h ere w e h a ve rep o sitio n ed the a xe s to m a k e clea r th e
sim ila ritie s a n d d iŒeren ce s fro m W o o d w o rth a n d S ch lo sb erg (1 9 5 4) , a n d
sim p li® ed th e rep rese n ta tio n so th a t it o n ly sh o w s th o se sta te s th a t
co rres p o nd to b a sic em o tio n s in th e E k m an a nd F riesen (1 9 76 ) se t (a ng ry
a n d a n n o y ed fo r a n g er; afra id an d a la rm ed fo r fea r; ex cit ed , h a p p y , a n d
p le ase d fo r ha p p ine ss; gloo m y , sa d , a n d m isera b le fo r sad n ess ).
T h e ex p lic it in ten tio n o f su ch m o d els is to crea te a tw o -d im e n sio n a l
so lu tio n to th e p ro b le m o f cla ssify in g fa cia l ex p ressio n s o f e m o tio n . A s
R u ssell a n d F e hr (1 9 8 7, p . 2 2 4 ) pu t it, ``th e em o tio n sp a ce is a g eo m e tric
m e ta p h o r fo r th e in tern al sca le o n w h ich a n y fa cia l ex p ress io n is ju d g ed ,’ ’
a n d ``to jud g e th e m ea n in g o f a p a rticu la r fac ia l e xp ress io n is to p la ce th a t
ex p ressio n w ith in th e em otio n sp a ce.’ ’ T o d em o n stra te th is, R u ssell a n d
F eh r (1 98 7 ) sh o w ed th a t v iew in g a n a n ch o r ex p ressio n sh if te d ju d g em en ts
o f th e e m o tio n rep o rted as seen in a seco n d ex p ress io n , a n d th a t th ese
sh ifts o ccu rre d in directio n s th a t co u ld b e p red icted b y th e circ u m p lex
em otion sp a ce m o d el.
N o w if fa cia l ex p ressio n s a re in d eed cla ssi® ed b y p ercep tu a l m ech a n -
ism s in term s of tw o u n d e rly in g d im en sio n s, w e w o u ld ex p ect th at w h en
b ra in in jury le ad s to p ro b lem s in reco g n ising fa cia l e xp ress io n s it is
b eca u se o f im p a ire d cla ssi® ca tio n alo ng on e o r b o th su ch d im en sio n s. In
th ese term s, an y d eg ree o f selec tiv ity c ou ld o nly o cc u r w h e n o n e d im e n sio n
w a s m o re sev ere ly co m p ro m ised th an th e o th e r, o r p erh a p s if o n ly o n e en d
o f o n e d im en sio n w a s a Œected (e.g . if th e c o d in g o f u n p le asa n t ex p ressio n s
w a s co m p ro m ised ev en th o u g h th e co d in g o f p lea sa n t e xp ressio n s
so m eh o w rem a in ed p o ssib le ). S u ch p ro b le m s w o u ld a lw a y s crea te
FIG. 6 a.
FIG. 6 b.
FIG. 6. T w o -d im e n s io n a l m a p s o f e m o tio n s p a c e . F ig . 6 a is a s p ro p o s e d b y W o o d w o r th a n d
S c h lo s b e r g ( 1 9 5 4 ) a n d F ig . 6 b a s p r o p o s e d b y R u s s e ll (1 9 8 0 ; R u s s e ll & F e h r , 1 9 8 7 ).
ch a ra cteristic p attern s o f p ro b lem s w ith p a rticu lar em otio n s, an d o n e o f

th ese p a tte rn s sh o u ld ® t ou r p resen t o b serv a tio n s fo r D R an d S E .
H o w ev er, th e ® t b etw een o u r o b serv ation s a n d th ese tw o -d im e n sio n a l
sch em a ta is n o t g o o d . C on sid er ® rst W o o d w o rth an d S ch lo sb erg ’ s (1 9 54 )
a cco u n t (F ig . 6 a ). P ro b lem s in th e reco g n itio n o f fea r w o u ld b e m o st lik ely
to re ¯ ect p oo r co d in g a lo n g th e atten tio n ± reje ctio n dim en sio n , o r a t th e
h ig h atte ntion en d o f th is d im en sio n , bu t it sh ou ld th en b e as d i cu lt to
tell h a p p in ess fro m su rp rise as to tell fea r fro m an g er. O n the le ss lik ely
a cco u n t (u sing W oo d w o rth a n d S ch lo sbe rg ’ s sch e m a ) o f p o or co d in g
a lo n g th e p lea sa n t± u n p le asa n t d im en sio n , it sh ou ld b e m o st d i cu lt to
rec og n ise a n g er. N eith er p a ttern ® ts w h a t w e h a ve fo u n d .
S im ila r p ro b le m s a rise fo r th e c ircu m p lex m o d el (F ig. 6 b ). F ea r lies in a
lo c atio n in R u ssell’ s em o tio n sp a ce c o rresp o n d in g to m o d era te d isp lea su re
a n d high a ro u sa l. If th ere w a s p o o r co d in g o f aro u sal, th e n w e m ig h t
ex p ect th a t th e reco g n itio n o f o th er em otio n s lik e h ap p in ess an d a n g er,
w h ich lo a d eq u a lly h igh ly o n a rou sal, sh o u ld b e a s im pa ire d a s th e
rec og n itio n o f fe ar. If th e re w a s po o r co d in g o f d isp l‹e asu re, th e n th e
rec og n itio n o f em o tio n s lik e a n ge r a n d sad n ess , w h ich loa d ev en m o re
h ig h ly o n d isplea su re, sh o u ld be a s im p a ired a s, or ev en m o re im p a ired
th a n , th e re co gn itio n o f fea r. A ga in , th ese pa ttern s do no t ® t o u r ® n d in g s.
W h ere R u ssell’ s (1 9 8 0; R u sse ll & F eh r, 1 98 7 ) m o d el d o es lo o k
a ttrac tiv e is th a t it p u ts a n g er a n d fe ar in th e sa m e q u a d ran t o f em o tio n
sp a ce, w h ich m igh t seem to g iv e so m e in sigh t in to w h y D R h a s pro b lem s
w ith fac ia l ex p ressio n s co rres p on d in g to b o th o f th ese em o tion s. H o w ev er,
S E ’ s p rob lem s w ere m o re circu m scrib ed , a Œectin g th e reco g n itio n o f fea r
fa r m o re th a n th e reco g n itio n o f a n ge r. W e c an no t a t p resen t see an y
rea d y e xp lan a tio n o f th is o n th e circu m p lex m o d el.
T h e p a ttern s o f b rea k d o w n o f em o tio n ca teg o ries sh o w n b y D R a n d b y
S E th u s pre sen t d i cu lties fo r a cco u n ts o f em o tio n p ercep tio n c ou ch ed in
term s o f a sm a ll n u m b er o f u n d e rly in g d im en s io n s. O f co u rse, it m a y b e
th a t fea r form s a sp ecial ca se, a n d th at d im e ns io n a l m o d els su ch as th o se
o f W o o d w o rth an d Sc h lo sb erg (19 5 4 ) an d R usse ll (1 9 80 ) a re a p p ro p ria te
fo r o th er (n o n -fea r) em otio n s. H o w ev er, w e susp e ct th is is n o t so . In stea d ,
w e thin k it w ill n ot p ro v e p o ssible to c rea te a n a d eq u a te tw o -d im e n sio n a l
so lu tio n to th e p ro b lem o f c la ssify in g fac ia l ex p ressio n s; th ere is certa in ly
little in ou r resu lts to en co u rag e th e view th a t th e v isu a l sy stem co d es
fa cia l ex p ressio n s solely in term s o f th e ir p o sition s w ith re sp ect to a sm all
n u m b er o f u n d erly in g d im en sion s. In ste ad , o u r ® n d in g s sit m o re ea sily
w ith th e v iew th a t dim en sio n s su ch a s p lea sa n t± u n p le asa n t c o rresp o n d to
in tellectu a l, n o t pe rcep tu a l, co n stru cts.
If d im en sio n al a cco u n ts ca nn o t e asily ac co m m o d a te th ese n eu rop sy -
ch o lo g ical d a ta, th en w h a t o f th e su g gest io n th at the fa cia l exp ressio n
co rres p o nd ing to ea ch b a sic em o tio n is rep res en ted a s a d iscrete c a te go ry
(E k m a n, 1 97 2 , 1 98 2 ; Iza rd , 1 9 71 )? O n th is ac co u n t, ea ch b asic em o tio n

u ses a sep ara te p ro to typ ica l rep resen ta tio n tha t is a ctiv ated fo llo w in g th e
p resen ta tio n o f th e a p p ro p ria te fa cia l ex p ress io n ; p ercep tu a l c la ssi® ca tio n
m e ch an ism s are tu n ed to th e co m bin at io n s o f fa cia l fea tu res tha t rep resen t
ea ch p a rticu la r em o tio n , a n d w e assign a seen fa cial exp ressio n
p erce p tua lly to th e ca teg o ry th at g iv es th e b est ® t. T o th e e xten t th a t
ea ch suc h ca teg o ry is a sep a rate en tity , w e m ig h t ex p ect tha t th ey ca n b e
sp eci® ca lly im p a ired . H en ce, th e d iŒeren tially sev ere im p a irm en ts o f fea r
rec og n itio n sh o w n b y D R a n d S E p ro v id e fu rth er ev id en ce co n sis te n t w ith
th e id ea th at fa cia l ex p ressio n s o f b asic em o tio n s are m en ta lly re p resen ted
a s categ o ries, rath er th a n a s d im en s io n s.
M a n u s c r ip t r e c e iv e d 2 7 N o v e m b e r 1 9 9 5
R e v is e d m a n u s c rip t re c e iv e d 2 2 M a r c h 1 9 9 6
M a n u sc r ip t a c c e p te d 2 5 M a r c h 1 9 9 6
R EF ERENC ES
A d o lp h s, R ., T r a n e l, D ., D a m a s io , H ., & D a m a s io , A . (1 9 9 4 ). Im p a ir e d re c o g n itio n o f
e m o tio n in fa c ia l e x p re s sio n s fo llo w in g b ila te r a l d a m a g e t o th e h u m a n a m y g d a la . N a tu r e ,
3 72 , 66 9 ± 6 72 .
A d o lp h s, R ., T r a n e l, D ., D a m a s io , H ., & D a m a s io , A .R . (1 9 9 5 ). F e a r a n d th e h u m a n
a m y g d a la . J o u r n a l o f N e u r o s c ien c e , 1 5 , 5 8 7 9 ± 5 8 9 1 .
A g g le to n , J .P . (1 9 9 2 ). T h e fu n c tio n a l e Œe c ts o f a m y g d a lo id le s io n s in h u m a n s: A c o m p a r is o n
w ith ® n d in g s fr o m m o n k e y s . I n J .P . A g g le to n (E d .), T h e a m y g d a la (p p . 4 8 5 ± 5 0 3 ). N e w
Y o r k / C h ich e s te r: W ile y - L iss .
A llm a n , J ., & B ro th e r s, L . (1 9 9 4 ). F a c e s , fe a r a n d th e a m y g d a la . N a t u r e , 3 7 2 , 6 1 3 ± 6 1 4 .
B e n to n , A .L . (1 9 9 0 ). F a c ia l re c o g n itio n 1 9 9 0 . C o r te x , 2 6 , 4 9 1 ± 4 9 9 .
B e n to n , A .L ., H a m s h e r, K . d e S ., V a rn e y , N ., & S p r e e n , O . (1 9 8 3 ). C o n t rib u tio n s to
n e u r o p sy c h o lo g ica l a s s e s s m e n t: A c lin ica l m a n u a l. O x fo rd : O x fo r d U n iv e r s ity P r e s s.
B r o t h e r s , L . (1 9 9 2 ). P e r c e p t io n o f s o c ia l a c ts in p r im a t e s : C o g n itio n a n d n e u r o b io lo g y .
S e m in a r s in th e N e u r o s c ien c e s , 4 , 4 0 9 ± 4 1 4 .
B r u c e , V . (1 9 8 6 ). In ¯ u e n c e s o f fa m ilia r ity o n th e p r o c e ss in g o f fa c e s . P e r c e p tio n , 1 5 , 3 8 7 ± 3 9 7 .
B ruce, V ., & Y oung, A . (1 9 8 6 ). U n d e r s ta n d in g fa c e r e c o g n itio n . B r itish J o u rn a l of
P s y c h o lo g y , 7 7 , 3 0 5 ± 3 2 7 .
B r u y e r, R . (1 9 9 3 ). F a ilu r e s o f fa c e p ro c e s sin g in n o r m a l a n d b r a in -d a m a g e d s u b jec ts . In F .
B o lle r & J . G r a fm a n (E d s .), H a n d b o o k o f n e u ro p sy c h o lo g y , V o l. 8 , S e c tio n I I : M e m o r y ,
d e m e n tia , p e rc e p tio n o f tim e , m u s ic a n d fa c e s (p p . 4 1 1 ± 4 3 5 ). A m s te rd a m : E ls e v ier .
C a ld e r, A .J ., Y o u n g , A .W ., P e r r e tt, D .I ., E tc o Œ, N .L ., & R o w la n d , D . (in p r e ss ). C a te g o r-
ic a l p e r c e p tio n o f m o r p h e d f a c ia l e x p re s s io n s . V isu a l C o g n itio n .
D a r w in , C . (1 8 7 2 ). T h e e x p r e ss io n o f th e e m o tio n s in m a n a n d a n im a ls . L o n d o n : J o h n
M urray .
D e s im o n e , R . (1 9 9 1 ). F a c e -s e le c tiv e c e lls in th e t e m p o r a l c o r te x o f m o n k e y s . J o u rn a l o f
C o g n itiv e N e u r o s c ie n c e , 3 , 1 ± 8 .
E k m a n , P . (1 9 7 2 ). U n iv e r s a ls a n d c u ltu r a l d iŒe r e n c e s in fa c ia l e x p r e ss io n s o f e m o tio n . I n
J . K . C o le ( E d .), N e b r a s k a S y m p o siu m o n M o tiv a tio n , 1 9 7 1 ( p p . 2 0 7 ± 2 8 3 ). L in c o ln , N B :
U n iv e r sity o f N e b ra s k a P r e s s .
E k m a n , P . (1 9 8 2 ). E m o t io n in t h e h u m a n fa c e . C a m b r id g e : C a m b r id g e U n iv e r s ity P r e s s .
E k m a n , P . (1 9 9 2 ). A n a r g u m e n t fo r b a s ic e m o tio n s . C o g n itio n a n d E m o tio n , 6 , 1 6 9 ± 2 0 0 .

E k m a n , P ., & F r ie s e n , W .V . (1 9 7 6 ). P ic tu re s o f fa c ia l a Œe c t. P a lo A lto , C A : C o n s u lt in g
P s y c h o lo g is ts P r e s s .
E tc o Œ, N .L . (1 9 8 4 ). S e le c tiv e a tte n tio n to fa c ia l id e n tity and fa c ia l e m o tio n .
N e u r o p sy c h o lo g ia , 2 2 , 2 8 1 ± 2 9 5 .
E tc o Œ, N .L . (1 9 8 6 ) . T h e n e u r o p sy c h o lo g y o f e m o tio n a l e x p r e s sio n . In G . G o ld s te in & R .E .
T a r te r (E d s.), A d v a n c e s in c lin ic a l n e u r o p s y c h o lo g y , 3 (p p . 1 2 7 ± 1 7 9 ). N e w Y o r k , N Y :
P le n u m P re s s.
E tc o Œ, N .L ., & M a g e e , J .J . (1 9 9 2 ). C a te g o r ica l p e rc e p tio n o f fa c ia l e x p re s s io n s . C o g n itio n ,
4 4, 2 2 7± 24 0 .
F ie ld , T .M ., W o o d so n , R ., G re e n b e rg , R ., & C o h e n , D . (1 9 8 2 ). D is c r im in a tio n a n d im ita tio n
o f fa c ia l e x p r e s s io n s b y n e o n a te s . S c ie n c e , 2 1 8 , 1 7 9 ± 1 8 1 .
G a in o tti, G . (1 9 8 9 ). T h e m e a n in g o f e m o tio n a l d is tu r b a n c e s re s u ltin g fr o m u n ila te r a l b ra in
in ju ry . I n G . G a in o tti & C . C a lta g iro n e (E d s .), E m o tio n s a n d th e d u a l b r a in (p p . 1 4 7 ± 1 6 7 ).
B e rlin : S p r in g e r- V e r la g .
H a id t , J ., M c C a u ley , C ., & R o z in , P . (1 9 9 4 ). I n d iv id u a l d iŒe r e n c e s in s e n s itiv ity to d is g u s t: A
s c a le s a m p lin g s e v e n d o m a in s o f d is g u s t e lic ito r s. P e r so n a lity a n d I n d ivid u a l D iŒe r e n c e s,
1 6, 7 0 1± 71 3 .
H a lg r e n , E . (1 9 9 2 ). E m o tio n a l n e u r o p h y s io lo g y o f th e a m y g d a la w it h in th e c o n te x t o f
h u m a n c o g n itio n . In J .P . A g g leto n ( E d .), T h e a m y g d a la ( p p . 1 9 1 ± 2 2 8 ). N e w Y o r k /
C h ic h e ste r: W ile y -L is s.
H a m a n n , S .B ., S te fa n a c c i, L ., S q u ir e , L .R ., A d o lp h s, R ., T r a n e l, D ., D a m a s io , H ., &
D a m a s io , A . (1 9 9 6 ). R e c o g n isin g fa c ia l e m o tio n . N a tu re , 3 7 9 , 4 9 7 .
H a s s e lm o , M .E ., R o lls , E .T ., & B a y lis , G .C . (1 9 8 9 ). T h e r o le o f e x p r e s s io n a n d id e n tity in
th e fa c e -s e lec tiv e r e sp o n s e s o f n e u r o n s in th e te m p o r a l v is u a l c o r te x o f th e m o n k e y .
B e h a v io u ra l B r a in R e s e a r c h , 3 2 , 2 0 3 ± 2 1 8 .
H e y w o o d , C .A ., & C o w e y , A . (1 9 9 2 ). T h e r o le o f th e ``fa c e -c e ll’ ’ a r e a in th e d is c r im in a tio n
a n d r e c o g n itio n o f fa c e s b y m o n k e y s . P h ilo so p h ic a l T r a n s a c tio n s o f th e R o y a l S o c ie ty ,
L o nd o n, B 3 35 , 3 1± 3 8.
I z a r d , C .E . (1 9 7 1 ). T h e fa c e o f e m o tio n . N e w Y o r k , N Y : A p p leto n -C e n tu r y -C ro fts .
L a w s , K .R ., E v a n s , J .J., H o d g e s , J .R ., & M c C a rth y , R .A . (1 9 9 5 ). N a m in g w ith o u t k n o w in g
a n d a p p e a r a n c e w it h o u t a s so c ia tio n s : E v id e n c e fo r c o n s tr u c tiv e p r o c e ss e s in s e m a n tic
m e m o ry ? M e m o r y , 3 , 4 0 9 ± 4 3 3 .
L e D o u x , J .E . (1 9 9 5 ). E m o tio n : C lu e s fr o m th e b r a in . A n n u a l R e v ie w o f P s y c h o lo g y , 4 6 , 2 0 9 ±
2 35 .
M c C a r th y , R .A ., E v a n s, J .J., & H o d g e s, J .R . (in p re s s ). T o p o g r a p h ic a m n e s ia : S p a tia l
m e m o ry d iso r d e r , p e r c e p tu a l d y s fu n c tio n o r c a te g o r y s p e c i® c s e m a n tic m e m o ry im p a ir-
m e n t? J o u r n a l o f N e u r o lo g y , N e u r o su r g e r y , a n d P s y c h ia tr y .
N e ls o n , H .E . (1 9 9 1 ). N a tio n a l A d u lt R e a d in g T e st ( N A R T ) : T e s t m a n u a l ( r e v is e d ) . W in d so r :
N F E R -N e lso n .
N ied e n th a l, P .M ., & H a lb e r s ta d t, J .B . ( 1 9 9 5 ). T h e a c q u is itio n a n d s tr u c tu re o f e m o tio n a l
r e s p o n s e c a t e g o r ies . I n D .L . M e d in (E d .), T h e p s y c h o lo g y o f le a r n in g a n d m o tiv a tio n :
A d v a n c e s in re s e a r c h a n d th e o ry , V o l. 3 3 (p p . 2 3 ± 6 4 ). N e w Y o r k , N Y : A c a d e m ic P r e ss .
P a r ry , F .M ., Y o u n g , A .W ., S a u l, J .S .M ., & M o s s, A . (1 9 9 1 ). D is s o c ia b le fa c e p ro c e s sin g
im p a ir m e n ts a fte r b r a in in ju r y . J o u r n a l o f C lin ic a l a n d E x p e r im e n ta l N e u r o p sy c h o lo g y , 1 3 ,
5 45 ± 5 5 8.
R o z in , P ., H a id t, J ., & M c C a u ley , C .R . (1 9 9 3 ) . D is g u s t. In M . L e w is & J .M . H a v ila n d
(E d s.), H a n d b o o k o f e m o t io n s (p p . 5 7 5 ± 5 9 4 ) . N e w Y o r k , N Y : G u ilfo r d .
R u s s e ll, J .A . (1 9 8 0 ). A c ir c u m p le x m odel of a Œe c t. J o u rn a l o f P e rs o n a lity a nd S o c ia l
P s y c h o lo g y , 3 9 , 1 1 6 1 ± 1 1 7 8 .
R u s s e ll, J .A ., & F e h r , B . (1 9 8 7 ). R e la tiv ity in th e p e r c e p tio n o f e m o tio n in fa c ia l e x p r e s s io n s.

J o u r n a l o f E x p e r im e n ta l P s y c h o lo g y : G e n e ra l, 1 1 6 , 2 2 3 ± 2 3 7 .
S e r g e n t, J ., O h ta , S ., M a c D o n a ld , B ., & Z u c k , E . (1 9 9 4 ). S e g r e g a te d p r o c e ss in g o f f a c ia l
id e n tity a n d e m o tio n in th e h u m a n b r a in : A P E T s tu d y . V is u a l C o g n itio n , 1 , 3 4 9 ± 3 6 9 .
S h a llic e , T . ( 1 9 8 8 ). F r o m n e u r o p s y c h o lo g y to m e n ta l s tr u c tu r e . C a m b r id g e : C a m b r id g e
U n iv e r sity P r e s s .
W e c h s le r , D . (1 9 8 1 ). W e c h sle r A d u lt I n te llig e n c e S c a le± R e v is ed . N e w Y o r k , N Y : P s y c h o lo -
g ica l C o r p o r a tio n , H a r c o u r t B r a c e J o v a n o v ic h .
W o o d w o r th , R .S ., & S c h lo s b e r g , H . (1 9 5 4 ). E x p e r im e n ta l p sy c h o lo g y : R e v ise d e d itio n . N e w
Y o r k , N Y : H e n r y H o lt.
Y o u n g , A .W . (1 9 9 2 ). F a c e r e c o g n itio n im p a ir m e n ts. P h ilo s o p h ic a l T r a n s a c tio n s o f th e R o y a l
S o c ie ty , L o n d o n , B 3 3 5 , 4 7 ± 5 4 .
Y oun g, A .W ., A g g le to n , J .P ., H e lla w e ll, D .J ., Jo h n so n , M ., B r o k s, P ., & H a n le y ,
J .R . ( 1 9 9 5 ). F a c e p r o c e ss in g im p a ir m e n ts a f te r a m y g d a lo to m y . B r a in , 1 1 8 , 1 5 ± 2 4 .
Y oun g, A .W ., & B ru c e, V . (1 9 9 1 ). P e r c e p tu a l c a te g o rie s and th e c o m p u ta tio n of
``g ra n d m o th e r .’ ’ E u r o p e a n J o u r n a l o f C o g n itiv e P sy c h o lo g y , 3 , 5 ± 4 9 .
Y o u n g , A .W ., H e lla w e ll, D .J., v a n d e W a l, C ., & J o h n s o n , M . (1 9 9 6 ). F a c ia l e x p r e s s io n
p r o c e ss in g a fte r a m y g d a lo to m y . N e u r o p s y c h o lo g ia , 3 4 , 3 1 ± 3 9 .
Y o u n g , A .W ., M c W e e n y , K .H ., H a y , D .C ., & E llis , A .W . (1 9 8 6 ). M a tc h in g fa m ilia r a n d
u n fa m ilia r fa c e s o n id e n tity a n d e x p r e s s io n . P s y c h o lo g ica l R e s e a r c h , 4 8 , 6 3 ± 6 8 .
Y o u n g , A .W ., N e w c o m b e , F ., d e H a a n , E .H .F ., S m a ll, M ., & H a y , D .C . (1 9 9 3 ). F a c e
p e r c e p tio n a fte r b r a in in ju r y : S e le c tiv e im p a irm e n ts a Œe c tin g id e n tity a n d e x p r e s s io n .
B r a in , 1 1 6 , 9 4 1 ± 9 5 9 .
AP P END IX
P ho to graphs U sed in E motion R ec o gnition Te sts
Expressio n R ec o gn ition ( Y oun g et al., 1 9 9 5 )
P r a c tic e : I d e n ti® e r in E k m a n a n d F r ies e n ( 1 9 7 6 ) s e r ies :
H a p p in e ss 7 4 P E -2 -1 2 ; S u r p r is e 9 0 P F -1 -1 6 ; F e a r 1 0 4 W F -3 -1 6 ; S a d n e ss 7 6 P E -5 -0 7 ; D is g u st
5 A -1 -2 5 ; A n g e r 1 0 6 W F -3 -0 4
T e s t: I d e n ti® e r in E k m a n a n d F r ies e n ( 1 9 7 6 ) s e rie s , a n d p e r c e n ta g e re c o g n itio n a s t h is e m o tio n
in th e ir n o r m s:
H a p p in e ss (m e a n = 1 0 0 % ): 2 9 J B -1 -0 9 ; 3 4 J J -4 -0 7 ; 4 8 M F -1 -0 6 ; 5 7 M O -1 -0 4
S u r p r is e (m e a n = 9 6 % ): 1 1 C -1 -1 0 ; 3 9 J J -4 -1 3 ; 4 5 J M -1 -1 6 ; 5 4 M F -1 - 0 9
F e a r (m e a n = 9 3 % ): 1 6 E M -5 -2 1 ; 5 9 M O -1 -2 3 ; 7 9 P E -3 -2 1 ; 8 8 P F - 2 -3 0
S a d n e s s (m e a n = 9 6 % ): 3 6 J J -5 -0 5 ; 4 3 J M -3 -1 1 ; 6 7 N R -2 -1 5 ; 8 7 P F -2 -1 6
D isg u s t (m e a n = 9 6 % ): 2 0 E M -4 -1 7 ; 9 1 P F -1 -2 4 ; 9 8 S W -1 -3 0 ; 1 0 8 W F -3 -1 1
A n g e r (m e a n = 9 8 % ): 3 A -1 -1 4 ; 5 3 M F -2 -0 7 ; 6 2 M O -2 -1 3 ; 9 6 S W -1 -0 9
R ec o gnition o f S pec ific Emo tions

P r a c tic e : I d e n ti® e r in E k m a n a n d F r ies e n ( 1 9 7 6 ) s e r ies :
H a p p in e ss 2 2 G S -1 -0 8 ; S u r p ris e 2 6 G S -1 -1 6 ; F e a r 2 4 G S -1 -2 5 ; S a d n e s s 2 3 G S -2 - 0 1 ; D is g u st
2 7 G S -2 -2 5 ; A n g e r 2 5 G S -2 -2 5
T e s t: I d e n ti® e r in E k m a n a n d F r ies e n ( 1 9 7 6 ) s e rie s , a n d p e r c e n ta g e re c o g n itio n a s t h is e m o tio n
in th e ir n o r m s:
H a p p in e ss (m e a n = 9 9 % ) : 7 C - 2 -1 8 ; 1 4 E M -4 -0 7 ; 3 4 J J - 4 -0 7 ; 4 8 M F -1 -0 6 ; 5 7 M O -1 -0 4 ; 6 6
N R -1 -0 6 ; 7 4 P E -2 -1 2 ; 8 5 P F -1 -0 6 ; 9 3 S W -3 -0 9 ; 1 0 1 W F -2 -1 2
S u r p r is e (m e a n = 9 1 % ) : 1 1 C -1 -1 0 ; 1 9 E M -2 -1 1 ; 3 9 J J -4 -1 3 ; 5 4 M F -1 -0 9 ; 6 3 M O -1 -1 4 ; 7 0
N R -1 -1 4 ; 8 1 P E -6 -0 2 ; 9 0 P F -1 -1 6 ; 9 7 S W -1 -1 6 ; 1 0 7 W F -2 -1 6
F e a r (m e a n = 9 0 % ): 9 C -1 -2 3 ; 1 6 E M -5 -2 1 ; 3 7 J J -5 -1 3 ; 5 0 M F -1 -2 6 ; 5 9 M O -1 -2 3 ; 6 8 N R -1 -
1 9 ; 7 9 P E -3 -2 1 ; 8 8 P F -2 -3 0 ; 9 5 S W -2 -3 0 ; 1 0 4 W F -3 -1 6
S a d n e s s (m e a n = 9 0 % ): 8 C -1 -1 8 ; 1 5 E M -4 -2 4 ; 3 6 J J -5 -0 5 ; 4 9 M F -1 -3 0 ; 5 8 M O -1 -3 0 ; 6 7 N R -
2 -1 5 ; 7 5 P E -2 -3 1 ; 8 6 P F -2 -1 2 ; 9 4 S W -2 -1 6 ; 1 0 2 W F - 3 -2 8
D isg u s t (m e a n = 9 3 % ): 1 2 C -1 -0 4 ; 2 0 E M -4 -1 7 ; 4 0 J J -3 -2 0 ; 5 5 M F -2 -1 3 ; 6 4 M O -2 -1 8 ; 7 1 N R -
3 -2 9 ; 8 2 P E -4 -0 5 ; 9 1 P F -1 -2 4 ; 9 8 S W -1 -3 0 ; 1 0 8 W F - 3 -1 1
A n g e r (m e a n = 9 0 % ): 1 0 C -2 -1 2 ; 1 8 E M -5 -1 4 ; 3 8 J J -3 -1 2 ; 5 3 M F -2 -0 7 ; 6 1 M O -2 -1 1 ; 6 9 N R -
2 -0 7 ; 8 0 P E -2 -2 1 ; 8 9 P F -2 -0 4 ; 9 6 S W -4 -0 9 ; 1 0 5 W F - 3 -0 1
I d entific ation of M orp hed F ac ial E xpressions

P r o to ty p e im a g e s: I d e n ti® e r in E k m a n a n d F rie s e n ( 1 9 7 6 ) s e r ies , a n d p e rc e n ta g e r e c o g n it io n a s
th is e m o tio n in th e ir n o r m s :
H a p p in e ss 3 4 J J -4 -0 7 (1 0 0 % ); S u r p ris e 3 9 J J -4 -1 3 (9 7 % ); F e a r 3 7 J J -5 -1 3 (9 6 % ); S a d n e s s 3 6
J J -5 -0 5 (9 3 % ); D is g u st 4 0 J J -3 -2 0 (8 8 % ); A n g e r 3 8 J J -3 -1 2 (7 6 % ).
N e u tr a l m a s k fa c e 4 1 J J -3 -0 4 .

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C O G N I T I V E N E U R O P S Y C H O L O G Y , 1 9 9 6 , 1 3 (5 ), 6 9 9 ± 7 4 5

F a c ia l E m o tio n R e co g n itio n a fter B ila ter a l A m y g d a la

A lth o u g h th e a m y gd a la is w id ely b eliev ed to h a ve a ro le in th e r ec o g n itio n

em otion fro m fa cia l ex p ression s (A d o lph s, T ra n el, D a m a sio , & D am a sio ,

T h ere w a s also so m e a d d itio n a l ex tra -a m y g da la su b co rtica l d am ag e in

N europ syc holo g y

S u m m a ries o f a ssessm en ts o f in tellige n ce, visio n , a n d fac e pro cessin g a re

S c o r e s w it h s u p e r s c rip ts a r e s ig n i® c a n tly im p a ire d in c o m p a ris o n to th e p e r fo rm a n c e o f

In sh o rt, D R w a s g o o d a t reco g n isin g fa m ilia r fac es b u t h ad pro b lem s

p erfo rm a n ce on th e B en to n test o n a p rev io u s o cc asio n , w h e n h e sco red

a n d ask e d to ca teg o rise ea ch w ith th e ap p ro p ria te em otio n la be l. W e th en

R ec o gnition of Sp e cific E mo tion s

S c o r e s w ith s u p e r s c r ip ts a r e s ig n i® c a n tly im p a ir e d in c o m p a r iso n to th e

S in ce E k m a n a n d F rie sen (19 7 6 ) ga v e n o rm s fo r th e reco g n isa b ility o f

w a s 8 9.4% . S im ila rly , th e E k m a n an d F riese n n o rm s sh o w ed n o reliab le

th e re m ain in g fac es w ill b e ca teg o rised as ``h a p p in ess’ ’ (C alde r et a l., in

Identific ation of M o rph ed F acial E xp ressions

S ta ge 1: D elin ea tio n. O n e hu n d red a n d eig h ty -six p o in ts w ere

S ta ge 2 : S h a pe In terp o la tio n. A co n tin u u m o f fa ce sh ap es w a s

S ta ge 3: P ro du cin g a C o ntin u o u s-to n e Im a g e. T h e ® n al sta g e cre ated a

T h e resu ltin g m o rp h ed fa ces a re sh o w n in F ig . 1 . In to ta l, th e re a re 3 0

la b els (h ap p in ess, su rp rise, fea r, sa d n ess, d isg u st, a n d an g er). E a c h su ch

G ive n th a t n o rm a l su b jec ts o cca sio n a lly m ista k e co n fu sab le p ro to ty p e

th a t D R w a s a lso slig h tly d o w n o n a n g er a n d d isg u st in co m p a riso n to

Identific ation of M o rph ed F acial Identities

p erim eter o f th is h ex a go n w ere th en g en era te d b y b len d in g b etw een

R o b ert H a rd y, M ich a el A sp el, R o g er M o o re, P rin c ess A n ne , an d S u e

Two- way F o rc ed- choic e Task s

F ro m th e tests d escrib ed so fa r w e esta b lish ed th a t D R w a s p a rticu la rly

w ith o ur in ten tio n to m ak e th e ta sk co m p a ra tive ly e asy , u n lim ited

L arry H agman - D ennis Wa terman L arry H ag man - D ennis Waterman

FIG. 5. I d e n ti® c a tio n o f e m o tio n in m o r p h e d im a g e s ly in g a lo n g h a p p in e s s± sa d n e s s a n d

co n tin u u m Ð a n ge r in S E ’ s ca seÐ lea v in g th e rem ain in g en d p o in t to b e

Th e R ec o gnition o f Identity and E xp ression

A d eg ree o f ind e pe n d en ce b e tw een p e rcep tu a l m ech a n ism s in v o lv ed in

em otion fro m fac ia l ex p ressio n s th a t a re in d ep en d en t from a n y p r ob lem s

Th e Neural S ub strates o f E motion

sh o w th a t reco g n itio n o f so m e fac ia l ex p ressio n s o f em o tio n ca n c o lla p se

1 . O n the p e rcep tu al di cu lty h y p o the sis, w e w o u ld ex p ect D R a n d S E

(m ea n = 8.60 , S D = 1 .1 7), su rp rise (m e a n = 8 .5 0 , SD = 1 .5 8 ), an d sa d n ess

S o , fo r a ll th e n ew te sts o f ex pre ssio n reco g n itio n w e h a ve rep o rted ,

ex p erien ce fea r w ill b e b etter eq u ip p ed to su rv iv e th an o ne th a t ca n n o t.

M ental R ep resen tations o f F acial E xp ressio n s

A h ig h ly in ¯ u en tia l sta tem en t o f th e d im en sio n al view w a s b y

ch a ra cteristic p attern s o f p ro b lem s w ith p a rticu lar em otio n s, an d o n e o f

(E k m a n, 1 97 2 , 1 98 2 ; Iza rd , 1 9 71 )? O n th is ac co u n t, ea ch b asic em o tio n

E k m a n , P . (1 9 9 2 ). A n a r g u m e n t fo r b a s ic e m o tio n s . C o g n itio n a n d E m o tio n , 6 , 1 6 9 ± 2 0 0 .

R u s s e ll, J .A ., & F e h r , B . (1 9 8 7 ). R e la tiv ity in th e p e r c e p tio n o f e m o tio n in fa c ia l e x p r e s s io n s.

R ec o gnition o f S pec ific Emo tions

I d entific ation of M orp hed F ac ial E xpressions

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1 . O n the p e rcep tu al di cu lty h y p o the sis, w e w o u ld ex p ect D R a n d S E