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Thermal and water vapor resistance of the elastic and conventional cotton
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Article  in  Textile Research Journal · September 2012

DOI: 10.1177/0040517512445337

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Original article
Textile Research Journal
82(14) 1498–1506

Thermal and water vapor resistance ! The Author(s) 2012

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of the elastic and conventional cotton DOI: 10.1177/0040517512445337
trj.sagepub.com
fabrics

Dunja Šajn Gorjanc, Krste Dimitrovski and Mateja Bizjak

Abstract
The research focuses on the influence of elastane (Spandex) incorporation in the weft direction of cotton fabrics, and the
structural properties (fabric density, type of weave) on the thermal and water vapor resistance level.
For that purpose, woven fabrics, in plain and twill weave with two different densities (17 and 20 yarns/cm) in the weft
direction, were made from 100% cotton (conventional) and from a mixture cotton/elastane in the ratio 93.8%/6.2%
(elastic fabric) intended for men’s shirts for the summer season.
Thermal and water vapor resistance were determined with two novel methods, which were compared with the well-
known Permetest method. The thermal resistance was calculated according to the thermal conductivity method which
was established by the faculty research laboratory and with the Permetest, while the water vapor resistance was
measured with the water cup method (developed by Professor D. Jaksic) and with the Permetest.
The research results indicate that cotton fabrics in twill weave with elastane in the weft direction have higher thermal and
water vapor resistance compared to conventional cotton fabrics. The reason lies in the higher yarn density of fabrics
with elastane in the weft direction in twill weave (from 24 to 29–31 yarns/cm in the warp direction) compared to the
plain weave (from 24 to 28 yarns/cm in the warp direction).

Keywords
Thermal resistance, water vapor resistance, elastic fabrics, conventional fabrics

comfort in relation to fiber fineness,2 while others dealt

Introduction
The garments intended for the summer season (e.g.
shirts, blouses) are often made from natural fibers
(cotton and flax). Cotton and flax garments are
strong, comfortable and cool and they allow the body
to breathe. Therefore, they are widely used in the
manufacture of shirts and blouses for the summer
season.
The clothing comfort, especially the sense of cool-
ness, has become very important for the wearer. The
clothing comfort depends mainly on the thermal and
water vapor transfer properties of the fabric.1
In the literature of the last few years, a wide number
of papers dealing with the thermal and water vapor or
moisture transmission have been written. Some
researches studied the impact of structural variations
in hollow yarn on the heat and water vapor transmis-
sion.1 Some authors wrote about thermophysiological
with the thermal comfort properties of knitted fabrics
and thermal properties of knitted fabrics made from
cotton and regenerated bamboo cellulosic fibers.3,6–8
Many researches have investigated the moisture trans-
mission properties of different fabrics.9–12 Moreover,
numerous methods for the determination of the heat
and water vapor transmission have been introduced in
the literature.4,13,14
University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering,
Slovenia
Corresponding author:
Dunja Šajn Gorjanc, University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Natural Sciences
and Engineering, Snežniška 5, Ljubljana 1000, Slovenia
Email: dunja.sajn@ntf.uni-lj.si

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Gorjanc et al.
Based upon the abovementioned facts, the influence
of incorporation of elastane in the weft direction of
cotton fabrics and the influence of structural properties
(i.e. fabric density, type of weave) on the thermal and
water vapor resistance level were analyzed.
For the purpose of this research, woven fabrics in
plain and twill weave with two different densities in the
weft direction were made from 100% cotton (conven-
tional and non-elastic) and from a mixture of cotton/
elastane yarns (elastic fabric) intended for men’s shirts
for the summer season.
In the research, two novel methods for the determin-
ation of the thermal and water vapor resistance were
used and compared with the well-known Permetest
method.13 The first method was the thermal conductiv-
ity method – a comparative method, to calculate the
thermal resistance, whereas the second method was
the water cup method14 to calculate the water vapor
resistance. The water cup method was developed by
Professor D. Jaksic,14 while the thermal conductivity
method was established by the faculty research
laboratory.
The aim of the research was to find out how strong
the correlation between the results of thermal resistance
obtained with the thermal conductivity method and
with the Permetest is, and the results of the water
vapor resistance obtained with the water cup
method14 and with the Permetest.13
Thermal resistance
Heat transfer can occur by radiation (R), convection
(C), conduction (K), evaporation (E), and respiration
(Eres). Heat transfer by radiation occurs constantly
between a body and the environment where the body
dwells, i.e. in both directions, depending on differences
in the body skin temperature and the temperature of
other surfaces.
The heat transfer by convection is caused by the air
flow around the body or by the movement of liquid
drops if the body is in the water. Conduction means
the rate of the temperature exchange between two sub-
stances, while evaporation is the changing of liquid
water into vapor, requiring a large amount of energy.5,6
With the research the heat transfer by conduction
was evaluated. The quotient between the heat conduc-
tion (H), and cross-sectional area (A), presents the
density of the heat conduction (q), which is the vector
with the definite direction to the region with lower tem-
perature. The density of the heat conduction, q, is pro-
portional to the quotient,
T d , which presents the
difference in the temperature regarding the fabric thick-
ness in the heat conduction direction. The quotient
T
d is
the negative temperature gradient –grad T.
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1499
The negative temperature gradient is a vector with
direction to the region with lower temperature.
The law of heat conduction, also known as Fourier’s
law, states that the time of heat transfer, q, through a
material is proportional to the negative temperature
gradient and to the area at right angles, to the gradient
through which the heat is flowing, and can be calcu-
lated with equation (1).
q ¼ gradT ð1Þ
The heat conduction of a fabric presents the transfer
of the heat from a body to the environment through a
fabric with the thickness, d, and the cross-sectional
area, A, and is calculated with equation (2).

M
T
H¼ ¼A ð2Þ

t d
where
M
t is the rate of the heat flow (J/s),  is the
thermal conductivity (W/mK), A is the total cross-sec-
tional area of a fabric (m2),
T is temperature differ-
ence (K) and d is the fabric thickness (m).
The heat conduction is also expressed as the tem-
perature difference and thermal resistance, R, and fol-
lows equation (3).

M
T
¼ ð3Þ

t R
Thermal conductivity, , is the property of fabric
that indicates its ability to conduct heat.
The rate of the heat flow is proportional to the tem-
perature difference,
T, and the cross-sectional area, A,
while it is inversely proportional with the fabric thick-
ness, d. The intensity of the heat conduction depends on
the thermal conductivity, , of a material. Higher ther-
mal conductivity means higher heat conduction cross
the fabric.5–8
With equations (2) and (3), the thermal resistance, R,
is expressed with equation (4).
d
R¼ ð4Þ

The thermal resistance, R, means the resistance of
fabric with the thickness, d, to the thermal conduction,
, from the region with higher temperature to the
region with lower temperature, and is expressed in
m2K/W.5–8
Water vapor resistance
Perspiration is the process of losing body heat due to
the moisture evaporation from the skin to the
1500
environment. In this case, the perspiration is trans-
ported as vapor through the air gaps between the
yarns in the fabric.9
Fabrics present the media between the human body,
skin and environment. If water vapor permeability is
high, the water vapor transport is higher through the
textile material to the environment. The latter is of
extreme importance in a hot environment where a
cloth must allow the water vapor transfer from the
skin into the environment.
The water vapor transport, called diffusion, runs
from the region of high concentration to the region of
low concentration until the concentrations
dm level out.10
The rate of the transport dt of the diffusing sub-
stance across the area, A, and concentration gradient,
c
d, is given with the Fick’s Equation (5).
dm c
¼ DA ,
dt d
where D is called the diffusion coefficient (m2/s).
The Fick’s law describes the water vapor transfer
and could also be presented as equation (6).
W between -1 and 1. The positive value of coefficient of
U¼
tA
where U is the water vapor transfer, g/m2h, A is the
area of the sample, m2, W is the weight change, g,
and t is time, h.
The water vapor diffusion resistance is the reciprocal
quantity of water vapor permeability and is also given
with the Ficḱs law.9,10

c
Rt ¼ , ð7Þ
m faculty research laboratory and is used in common to
where Rt is the total water vapor diffusion resistance,
g/m,
c is the water vapor concentration difference
through the fabric, g/m2, m is the rate of diffusion of
the mass of water vapor per unit area through the
sample.10–12
Methods
The research is focused on thermal and water resistance
of conventional (100% cotton) and elastic cotton fab-
rics with 6.2% of elastane in the weft direction, which
are made on the Picanol OMNI looms with the warp
density 24 yarns/cm. The fabrics are lightweight,
intended for the summer season, in plain and twill
weave with different densities in weft direction, 17
and 20 yarn/cm (Table 1). Thermal and water vapor
resistance are determined with the three different meth-
ods, where two of them present novel methods.
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Textile Research Journal 82(14)
The thermal resistance is calculated with the thermal
conductivity method (established by the faculty
research laboratory) and with the Permetest,13 while
the water vapor permeability is measured with water
cup method14 and with the Permetest.13
The significance of the variations was determined
with ANOVA using SigmaPlot9 software. The signifi-
cance of the parameters (the influence of yarn density
increase in the weft direction from 17 to 20 yarns/cm,
the elastane incorporation in the weft direction, the
type of weave – plain or twill) was examined with
p-values. If the p-value of a parameter was higher
than 0.05 (p  0.05), the parameter was not significant
for the observing variable – thermal or water vapor
resistance.16
The correlation analysis is used to compare the rela-
tion between the resulting values of the thermal resist-
ance and water vapor resistance obtained with the
ð5Þ
presented methods. The correlation coefficients present
the strength of the association between two variables –
the results obtained with the two methods. The coeffi-
cient of determination (R2), was used to measure the
strength of the linear association between variables.
The value of the coefficient of determination ranges
ð6Þ
determination means that the values obtained with two
methods are proportionally linear. If the coefficient of
determination, R2, is +1, this presents the maximum
positive correlation; if it is + 0.8, this means a strong
positive correlation; and if the correlation coefficient is
zero, this means zero correlation.16
Thermal conductivity method (comparative method)
The thermal conductivity method was established by the
evaluate the thermal conductivity properties. Measuring
the thermal conductivity is based on the transport of the
heat flow from a warmer to cooler region, from the
bottom of the apparatus to the top. The massive frame
of the apparatus has the insulating plate with block 1.
On block 1, the thick copper plate is placed, with the
temperature T ¼ 60  C which has the weight of 706 g.
On that plate, the glass plate with known thermal con-
ductivity is put, then a thin copper plate (m ¼ 353 g),
after that a sample is placed and finally, a cooler
copper plate with T2 ¼ 20 C is added, and a block 2
with the weight 2150 g (Figure 1). Between the blocks,
there is a sample with an area of 100 cm2 and a reference
glass sample with known thermal conductivity, and an
area which also amounts to 100 cm2. Both blocks and
three measuring plates are connected with Ni/Cr/Ni
thermoelements, with diameter 0.5 mm, to the tempera-
ture measuring instrument, ALMENO 2590. The whole
system is isolated with thin grains of cork.
Gorjanc et al. 1501

Table 1. Basic properties of analyzed fabrics

Density, g (yarn/cm) Fineness, Tt (tex)

Fabric Thickness, Type of
mark Composition Warp Weft Warp Weft Mass, M (g/m2) d (mm) weave

1 Cotton – OE yarn 24 17 20.3 20.5 86.8 0.174 plain

2 Cotton – OE yarn 24 20 19.6 20.5 94.0 0.169 plain
3 Cotton/elastane 28 17 19.4 21.6 101.8 0.209 plain
OE yarn/core-spun yarn
4 Cotton/elastane 28 21 19.4 21.6 107.2 0.197 plain
OE yarn/core-spun yarn
5 Cotton – OE yarn 24 17 20.3 21.0 86.0 0.224 twill
6 Cotton – OE yarn 24 20 19.7 20.7 93.0 0.253 twill
7 Cotton/elastane 31 17 19.4 21.7 106.6 0.331 twill
OE yarn/core-spun yarn
8 Cotton/elastane 29 21 19.7 21.6 111.0 0.347 twill
OE yarn/core-spun yarn

the temperature of the middle thin copper plate and

T4 the temperature of the warmer thin copper plate.
With equation (4), the thermal resistance
R (m2K/W) is calculated.

Water vapor diffusion resistance method (water cup

Figure 1. The principle of measuring thermal conductivity
(using comparative method).
The measuring instrument, ALMENO 2590 has four
available measuring places to measure temperatures T2,
T3 and T4. With equation (8), the thermal conductivity
x is calculated.
Thermal conductivity is inversely proportional to
the temperature differences between the blocks (equa-
tion (8)).
dx ðT4  T3 Þ
x ¼ n   ,
dn ðT3  T2 Þ
where x is the thermal conductivity of a sample, n is
the thermal conductivity of the glass plate
(n ¼ 1.0319 W/mK), dx the sample thiskness, dn the
thickness of the reference glass plate (dn ¼ 4 mm), T2
the temperature of the cooler thick copper plate, T3
method with PES monofilament fabric)
The water cup method with the PES monofilament
fabric14 is similar to the water vapor diffusion measur-
ing method according to the standard ASTM E96-00.17
The sample with the area A ¼ 50 cm2 is set onto the
round shaped cup, which is covered with the PES
monofilament fabric (Figure 2). The five round cups
which are covered with the PES monofilament fabric
are filled with distilled water with levels, L, of 12 mm,
13.5 mm, 15 mm, 17.5 mm and 20 mm under the cov-
ered PES monofilament. The sample is placed under
the cover with PES monofilament fabric (Figure 2).
The other five round cups with the PES monofilament
fabric are without the sample, however, with the same
levels of distilled water.
Before measuring the water vapor permeability, the
weight of a sample is controlled. Afterwards, the
sample with the area A ¼ 50 cm2 is put onto the water
cups with different water levels and after one hour, the
weight of a sample is controlled again (Wo). The mea-
ð8Þ suring is repeated after 20 hours (W1). The water vapor
transfer is calculated using equation (6).
The quantity of water vapor (W-mass) which trans-
fers from the cup in a unit of time (
t ¼ 20 h) is irre-
versely proportional to the height of the air layer, L (i.e.
the distance from the water level to the PES monofila-
ment fabric; L ¼ 12 mm, 13.5 mm, 15 mm, 17.5 mm and
20 mm), if the height of the air layer is lower than

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1502 Textile Research Journal 82(14)

Figure 2. The principle of measuring of water vapor permeability with the water cup method.14

Figure 3. Graphical method to determine the water vapor resistance, R (1/U); the values of height of the air layer, L (mm), are set on
the x-axis, while the water vapor resistance values, R (1/U), are figured on the y-axis.

20 mm. The water vapor transfer is expressed as the for the measurements without a sample (section on
height of the air layer. The measurements were taken the y-axis which is marked a0).14
with different heights of the air layer for the results to
The water vapor resistance, R, is calculated from the
be presented in a graph (Figure 3) with the height of the
graph (Figure 3) and is presented as the difference
air layer, L (mm), on the x-axis and the water vapor
between the two heights of the air layer, L, with equa-
resistance, R (1/U), on the y-axis. The obtained graph
tion (12) and is expressed in millimeters (mm).
presents two straight lines with the sections on the
y-axis, i.e. a0 and b0, one straight line shows the results
for the measurements with a sample (section on the 1=U2  1=U1
R ¼ L1  L2 ¼ , ð12Þ
y-axis which is marked b0) and another straight line a1

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Gorjanc et al. 1503

Table 2. Thermal resistance values obtained with the thermal conductivity method – comparative method
and Permetest

Thermal resistance, Rct (m2K/W)

Thermal conductivity method

– comparative method Permetest

Fabric Coefficient of Coefficient of

mark Average variation, CV (%) Average variation, CV (%)

1 0.00251 1.80 0.0086 2.79

2 0.00254 1.34 0.0098 2.30
3 0.00243 1.67 0.0092 1.85
4 0.00277 1.98 0.0099 2.22
5 0.00301 2.01 0.0116 2.50
6 0.00307 2.15 0.0118 2.64
7 0.00305 2.18 0.0132 2.27
8 0.00339 2.23 0.0133 2.88

where L1 is the height of the air layer in the cup without The section of the straight line on the y-axis for the
a sample, L2 is the height of the air layer in the cup with measurements of the water vapor transfer without a
a sample, a1 is the straight line coefficient which is cal- sample, a0, is expressed with the same equation (15).14
culated directly from the experimental straight line.
A more specific method is the analytical method
where the straight line coefficient, a1, is calculated
Results and discussion
with equation (13). Thermal resistance
P P 1  Thermal resistance is calculated from heat permeability
P  Li  (equation (4)), which is measured with two different
L  U1i  N
Ui

methods, i.e. the thermal conductivity method (com-

a1 ¼ P 2 ð13Þ
P Li parative method) and the Permetest.13 The results of
L2i  N the thermal resistance obtained with both methods
are given in Table 2. The correlation between the two
The water vapor resistance, R, which is obtained values of thermal resistance obtained with the thermal
with the analytical method (equation (14)) is the quo- conductivity method – comparative method and the
tient between the difference between the section of the Permetest – is shown in Figure 4.
straight line on the y-axis for the measurements with a An increase in the fabric density and weight
sample (b0) and the section of the straight line on the y- increases the thermal resistance due to the incorpor-
axis for the measurements without a sample (a0), and ation of elastane in the yarn. The incorporation of elas-
the straight line coefficient (a1). All the mentioned par- tane in the yarn (in the weft direction) causes an
ameters (a0, b0 and a1) are calculated with equations increase of the yarn density in the warp direction,
(13) and (15). Both straight lines have the same straight with fabrics 1–4 in plain weave, from 24 to 28 yarns/cm,
line coefficient, a1, which means that they are parallel. while the fabrics 5–8 in twill weave have a higher dens-
ity increase in the warp direction, i.e. from 24 to
b0  a0 29–31 yarns/cm (Table 1).
R¼ ð14Þ According to Table 2, by increasing the density in
a1
the weft direction from 17 yarns/cm to 20 yarns/cm, the
The section of the straight line on the y-axis for the rise in the thermal resistance is very low and is statis-
measurements of the water vapor transfer with a tically insignificant (p ¼ 0.118). The significance of the
sample, b0, is expressed with equation (15). thermal resistance increase level was calculated by com-
paring fabrics 1, 3, 5, 7 with 17 yarns/cm and 2, 4, 6, 8
P P with 20 yarns/cm. Means that the weft density increase
1
Ui  a1  Li by 3 yarns/cm has statistically insignificant influence on
b0 ¼ ð15Þ
N the thermal resistance increase. Based upon the results

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1504 Textile Research Journal 82(14)

Figure 4. Relationship between thermal resistance, Rct, obtained with Permetest and with thermal conductivity
method – comparative method, R2 ¼ 0.8726.

Table 3. Water vapor diffusion resistance values obtained with the warp density increase (Table 1), which increases the
water cup method and Permetest thermal resistance value by more than 20%.
The highest statistically significant increase
Water vapor resistance
(p ¼ 0.00515) of thermal resistance (by about 30–40%)
Water cup Permetest, Ret was calculated with fabrics 5–8 in twill weave, which is
method, R (mm) (m2Pa/W) compact and elastic in comparison with plain weave.
The correlation coefficient between variables (ther-
Coefficient of Coefficient of
mal resistance) evaluated with the thermal conductivity
Fabric variation, variation,
mark Average CV (%) Average CV (%)
method (established by faculty research laboratory)
and the Permetest method is 0.8726, which indicates a
1 2.370 1.18 0.468 2.82 strong positive correlation.
2 2.370 1.43 0.550 1.66
3 2.500 1.56 0.590 2.00
Water vapor diffusion resistance
4 2.700 1.36 0.600 2.27
5 3.220 2.01 0.640 2.09 The results of water vapor diffusion resistance obtained
6 3.330 2.18 0.700 2.38 using the water cup method with PES monofilament
fabric14 are listed in Table 3. Table 3 also presents the
7 3.750 2.23 0.790 2.75
results of water vapor diffusion resistance which were
8 3.770 2.22 0.850 2.15
obtained with the Permetest method.13
The water vapor resistance, R, obtained with the
water cup method15 is presented as the height of the
air layer and is expressed in millimeters (mm).
of thermal resistance, it could be stated that yarn dens- The correlation between the two values of water
ity increase in the weft direction (by 3 yarns) is not high vapor resistance obtained with the water cup method
enough to give a significant thermal resistance increase (developed by Professor D. Jaksic) and Permetest is
of analyzed fabrics, even if the yarn density in the warp demonstrated in Figure 5.
direction increased in that way from 24 to 28 yarns/cm The analysis of the results of water vapor resistance
and fabrics with elastane increased from 24 to 29– of both methods indicates that the water vapor resist-
31 yarns/cm). ance increase, with increasing fabric density and weight,
A statistically significant increase was calculated by is statistically significant (p ¼ 0.0134) (Table 3). The
comparing the values of thermal resistance between latter means that increasing the fabric density in the
fabrics 3, 4, 7, 8, which have incorporated elastane in weft direction from 17 to 20 yarns/cm has a significant
the weft direction and conventional cotton fabrics 1, 2, influence on the water vapor resistance increase
5, 6 (p ¼ 0.0122). The elastane incorporation also causes (by about 30–40%).

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Gorjanc et al.
Figure 5. Relationship between water vapor resistance, Ret, obtained with Permetest and with water cup method, R2 ¼ 0.9025.
As it can be seen from the results, the type of weave
has a statistically significant influence (p ¼ 0.00295) on
the water vapor resistance increase. The water vapor
resistance increases by about 40% using twill weave,
this means that fabrics 5–8 have about 40% higher
water vapor resistance value than fabrics 1–4 in plain
weave.
Twill weave is more compact and elastic, and conse-
quently influences the water vapor resistance level
(Table 3).
The elastane incorporated in the weft direction
(fabrics 3, 4, 7, 8) causes an increase in the density
of warp yarns and increases the water vapor resist-
ance value by approximately 20%. The elastane
incorporation in the weft direction significantly
influences the water vapor resistance increase
(p ¼ 0.0134).
The values of the water vapor resistance are the
highest in the case of the twill weave with elastane in
the weft direction (fabrics 7 and 8). The water vapor
resistance of fabrics 7 and 8 is approximately 40%
higher than with other used fabrics.
The correlation coefficient between the variables
(water vapor resistance) obtained with the water cup
method and the Permetest method is 0.902, indicating
a strong positive correlation.
Conclusions
According to the research of the influence of elastane
(Spandex) incorporation in the weft direction of
cotton fabrics and the structural properties (fabric
density, type of weave) on the thermal and water
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1505
vapor resistance level, the following conclusions were
drawn:
. Thermal and water vapor resistance is the highest
with fabrics in twill weave, which is more compact
and elastic than plain weave.
. Increasing the density in the weft direction by
3 yarns/cm (from 17 to 20 yarns/cm) causes an insig-
nificant increase in the thermal resistance of ana-
lyzed fabrics (comparing fabrics 1, 3, 5, 7 with
17 yarns/cm and 2, 4, 6, 8 with 20 yarns/cm). It
could be stated that the yarn density increase in
the weft direction (by 3 yarns) is not high enough
to influence significantly the increase in the thermal
resistance of analyzed fabrics.
. In contrast, increasing the fabric density in the
weft direction from 17 to 20 yarns/cm causes a
significant water vapor resistance increase (from
30–40%).
. The elastane incorporation of cotton fabrics (fabrics
3, 4, 7, 8) increases the thermal and water vapor
resistance by about 20%.
. The use of twill weave increases the thermal and
water vapor resistance by about 30–40%, compared
with plain weave.
. Comparing the presented methods, thermal conduct-
ivity method – comparative method and the water
cup method – with the well-known Permetest
method, it becomes clear that a strong positive cor-
relation exists among them.
Based upon the conclusions, it is clear that by choos-
ing cotton mixtures with elastane (Spandex) in the weft
direction for the shirts which are intended for the
1506
summer season, it is better to decide for plain weave
with lower density (with the research 17 yarns/cm).
Furthermore, the research results indicate that the
elastane incorporation in the cotton yarn increases the
thermal and water vapor resistance by about 20%.
That value is not so high, compared with the weft dens-
ity increase (from 17 to 20 yarns/cm), which increases
the thermal and water vapor resistance by about 40%.
To make a compromise, lower density (17 yarns/cm)
cotton fabrics in plain weave with elastane are chosen
for the summer season shirts.
Funding
This research received no specific grant from any funding
agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
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