CHILD AND ADOLESCENT

DEVELOPMENT
 THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
 PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY( Psycho-sexual
development)
 SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY
 PSYCHO-SOCIAL THEORY
 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY(Intellectual
development)
 THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
 Freud’s Stages of
Psychosexual Development

Freud in 1921
 An Overview

 The Psychosexual Stages

 Define how human personality develops from our birth up
to and including early adulthood.
 Freud believed that children experience unconscious sexual
fixations as they grow older.
 These sexual urges change drastically after each stage.
 Oral / Anal / Phallic / Latency / Genital
 Without a proper resolution following each stage, we may
experience faults in our future personalities.
 The Oral Stage (0 - 2)

 In this stage, the mouth is the infant’s primary erogenous

zone, meaning that the oral cavity is where libidal energy is
most focused.
 Gains pleasure through sucking and eating; the child
ultimately develops a sense of comfort through oral
stimulation.
 However, the child eventually must become less dependent
on caretakers as it grows.
 In theory, an infant who is neglected (under-fed) or
overprotected (over-fed) may become orally fixated with
the onset of adulthood.
The Oral Stage (continued)
 Fixation in this stage may result in
issues with dependency and
aggression.
 Moreover, this fixation can lead to
issues with eating, drinking, smoking,
and even obsessive habits like nail-
biting.
 If the child is not able to successfully
resolve his or her sexual urges in
the oral stage, then the child will not
be able to move on to the next
stage of psychosexual development,
the Anal Stage.
 The Anal Stage (2 -4)

 The anal stage begins near the age of one, when the child is
just beginning to toilet train.
 The erogenous zone shifts from the oral cavity to the anal
region with the realization that going to the bathroom is a
pleasurable event.
 Freud believed that the unconscious mind was going
through a conflict during this time.
 The “id” of our unconscious represents the part of our
being that finds pleasure in expelling feces, while the “ego”
and “superego” signify culture’s pressure to resist
succumbing to bodily functions.
 The Anal Stage (continued)

 Reoccurring theme: self-control

 Two things can go wrong in this stage- too much control or too
little control. Both lead to anal fixation.
 If parents exhibit either of these extremes during toilet training,
then a child may grow up to be anally expulsive or anally
retentive.
 “Anally expulsive” – limited levels of self-control, defiance,
hostility, are disorganized / scatterbrained
 “Anally retentive” – Rigid, obsessively organized, and overly
subservient to authority.
 After moving past the Anal Stage, the child will transition into the
Phallic Stage.
The Phallic Stage (4-6)

 The most intricate of the five stages; erogenous

zone shifts from the anus to the genitals.
 Freud developed his theory from the male
perspective (thus, “phallic” = “penis”)
 Males have the potential to develop an Oedipal
Complex, while females can develop an Electra
Complex.
 Oedipus Complex: Males are sexually intrigued
by their mothers and jealous of their father’s
intrusion. (mamas boy)
 Castration anxiety may develop as the boy
understands that his mother does not have a
penis; the child will repress his love for his
mother and attempt to become like his father,
Oedipus the King, solving the
thus developing a “superego”.
Riddle of the Sphinx
 The Phallic Stage (continued)

 Electra Complex: Girls begin to become attracted to their

fathers, and fall into a “penis envy” period (in contrast to
castration anxiety).(papas girl)
 Failure to resolve either of the complexes can lead to
fixation in this stage.
 Phallic character: recklessness, resoluteness, self-
assuredness, and narcissism.
 Unresolved incestuous complexes can lead to a difficulty in
dealing with authority figures and a tendency to have
trouble with loving relationships.
 The Phallic Stage (continued)

 Some believe that children who develop in single-parent or

abusive households never move past the Phallic Stage,
leading to “daddy issues”, etc.
 Freud also believed that fixation in this stage sometimes
resulted in homosexuality due to the child’s inability to
identify properly with a rival parent (gender identity
problems).
 If the Phallic Stage is resolved properly by the ego, the child
will then move into the Latency Stage, which is the most
peaceful interval in a person’s psychosexual development.
 The Latency Stage (6-12/Puberty)

 Not necessarily a stage in psychosexual development; is more

of transitioning period between the Phallic and Genital Stages.
 Sexual drive is dormant during this time
 Children in this stage repress their sexual desires to focus on
areas like academics and athletics, etc.
 Same-sex friendships develop during this time as well (not to
be confused with homosexual relationships)
 The Latency Stage is vital to a person’s exploration of
academic pursuits and subjects that are not sexually oriented;
however, this perspective soon changes radically.
 The Genital Stage (From Puberty-?)
 Following the Latency Stage, the
child’s sexual urges are aroused once
more; this time, the erogenous zone
shifts to the genitals.
 This stage is inversely related to the
other psychosexual stages, meaning
that less exposure in the other stages
will results in higher levels of sexual
expression in the Genital Stage.
 For example, if a child were to focus
on the Phallic Stage, then he would
establish Oedipal defense
mechanisms and would not move
into the Latency Stage properly (and
then on to the Genital Stage).  Improper transitioning into the
Genital stage may result in
failure to form heterosexual
relationships in the future.
 Conclusion

 According to Freud, proper movement through each of the five

psychosexual stages shouldn’t result in any consequences.
 However, conflicts in specific psychosexual stages can impact the
life of an individual drastically.
 Furthermore, the shifting of the erogenous zones from stage to
stage represents a child’s maturation and development.
 Freud thought that these stages symbolized our desires and
conflicts within our unconscious minds.
 However, not many psychologists still recognize his work
(including these stages) as valid because of a lack of any evidence
or proper research.
Personality Structure according to Freud

ID-a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy constantly striving to satisfy basic drives
to survive, reproduce, and aggress.

The id operates on the pleasure principle: If not constrained bu reality,

it seeks immediate gratification.

Ego-the largely conscious, “executive” part of personality that, according to Freud,

mediates the demands of the id, superego, and reality.

The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id’s desires in
ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.

Superego-represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the

conscious) and for future aspirations.
Freud’s Psychosexual Stages

 FOCUS
STAGE
Oral (0-24 months)
Pleasure centers on the mouth-sucking,
chewing, biting
Anal (24-48 months) Pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder
elimination; coping with demands for control
Pleasure zone is the genitals; coping with
incestuous sexual feelings
Phallic (4-6 years)

Dormant sexual feeling

Latency (6 to puberty)
Maturation of sexual interest

Genital (after puverty)

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY
 This is based on Lev Vygotsky’s ideas.
 Vygotsky was born in Russia in 1896
 He proposed that social interactions profoundly
influences cognitive development.
 He believed that this life long process of development
was dependent on social interactions and that social
learning actually leads to cognitive development.
Social Development Theory, cont…
 Cognitive development and language are shaped by a
person’s interaction with others.
 Children’s knowledge, values and attitudes develop
through interaction with others.
 Social interactions that assists in learning increase a child’s
level of thinking.
 Students will learn best through activity.
 Students should be encouraged to communicate
frequently with self and with teacher.
Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of
Development
Psychosocial Development
 There were two psychologists who had developed
famous psychosocial theories: Freud, and Erikson.
 Erikson believes that personality develops in a series of
stages.
 Freud’s theory is well known but also very controversial.
History of Psychosocial Theory
 Erikson was one of the first psychologists to become
aware of the influence of culture on behavior.
 He placed more emphasis on the external world, meaning
depression and wars.
 The three key factors to Erikson’s theory are the
interaction of the body, mind, and cultural influences.
Erikson’s Philosophy
 His basic philosophy rests on two themes:
 The world gets bigger as we go along
 And failure is cumulative.
 If an individual has dealt with a terrible past as a child,
they might not be able to cope with scenarios that life
presents later on.
 However, human spirit can always be ignited and
overcome these problems.
Overview
 Erikson has eight developmental stages that gives people
an idea of what to expect throughout life.
 Behavior is based on culture experiences.
 Each person has the ability to choose their path when it
comes to his eight stages.
Erikson’s Theory of Development
 Shows impact of social experiences across ones whole
lifespan.
 There are eight stages over a lifespan showing the
development.
 The main elements behind his theory is the identity of
ones ego.
 According to his theory when conflicts arise people have
the opportunity to grow or fail equally.
Trust vs. Mistrust
 Occurs in infancy. (birth-
18 months).
 Babies must learn to trust
their parents care and
affection.
 If not done the babies
could develop a distrust
and view the world as
inconsistent and
unpredictable.
 Questions ones hope.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
 Occurs in the toddler age.
(18 months-3 years).
 Child learns to feed
themselves and do things
on there own.
 Or they could start feeling
ashamed and doubt their
abilities.
 Questions the child's
willpower.
Initiative vs. Guilt
 Preschool age (3-6 years
old).
 Using initiative in planning
or carrying out plans.
 Or develop a sense of
guilt over misbehavior
regarding parents limits.
 Questions ones purpose
and role in life.
Industry vs. Inferiority
 School age (6-12 years of
age).
 Learn to follow the rules
imposed by schools or
home.
 Or the child can start
believing they are inferior
to others.
 Questions competency.
Identity vs. Role Confusion
 Adolescence (12-18 years
of age).
 Acquire a sense of
identity.
 Or can become confused
about ones role in life.
 Questions who you are
and if your happy.
Intimacy vs. Isolation
 Young adulthood (18-24
years of age).
 Develop a relationship and
joint identity with a
partner.
 Or can become isolated
and stay away from
meaningful relationships.
 Questions if the person is
ready for new
relationships, or if there is
a fear of rejection.
Generativity vs. Stagnation
 Middle adulthood (24-54
years of age).
 Making use of time and
having a concern with
helping others and guiding
the next generation.
 Or can become self-
centered, and stagnant.
 Questions what the
person will do with their
extra time.
Integrity vs. Despair
 Late adulthood (60-and
up).
 Understand and accept
the meaning of temporary
life.
 Or complains about
regrets, not having enough
time, and not finding a
meaning throughout life.
 Questions ones overview
of their entire life.
 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY
 Thistheory was advocated by Jean
Piaget, who believed that a child
enters the world lacking virtually all
the basic cognitive competencies of
the adult, and gradually develops this
competencies by passing through a
series of stages of development.
 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY
Sensorimotor stage(birth to 2 years)
▪ Learning is based on sense
perception
▪ The child is unaware of his
environment
 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY
Sensorimotor stage is characterized by:
1. Primary circular reaction-repeated actions
centered on the infant’s body. e.g. thumb sucking

2. Intentional Behavior- the child repeats actions so as

to prolong interesting/pleasant events. e.g. crying to attracts attention.

3. Object permanence-knowledge of the existence of

objects in his environment, independent of the child’s action emerges
such that the child starts to search for missing objects like toys.

4. Representation-allows the child to seek necessary

solutions through manipulation of internal symbols instead of physical
objects. e.g. trial and error to solve the problem, manipulation of toys
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY
Pre Operational stage(2-7 years)
▪ Emergence of language skills
▪ Interpret experiences
▪ Words become symbols for objects
▪ Child thinking is egocentric
▪ Child thinking is irreversible
 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY
Concrete Operations(7-11 years)
▪ The child begins to learn symbols and
concepts, time, space, shape, size, etc
▪ The child’s thinking becomes more
logical and systematic
Major events:
1. Conservation- is the ability to conceptualize the retention and
preservation of the same quantity under various transformation.
2. Reversibility- the ability to understand the completion of certain
operations in reverse order but ending up the same.
 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY
Formal Operations(11 to 16 years)
▪ Develops logical reasoning skills
▪ Decreases egocentricity
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY
Pre Operational stage(2-7 years)
▪ Emergence of language skills
▪ Interpret experiences
▪ Words become symbols for objects
▪ Child thinking is egocentric
▪ Child thinking is irreversible
Kohlberg’s Theory on
Moral Development
Biography
 Lawrence Kohlberg born in 1927
 Grew up in Bronxville, New York
 Died on January 17th, 1987 at the age of 59
 Kohlberg became a professor of education and social
psychology at Harvard in 1968
 His book on moral development is used by teachers
around the world to promote moral reasoning.
THREE LEVELS
LEVEL ONE
Preconventional Morality
Stage 1
Obedience & Punishment

 Earliest stage of moral

development
 Common in young
children
 They see rules as fixed and
absolute.
 Morality is external
 At this stage, children see
rules as fixed and absolute.
 Obeying the rules is
important because it is a
means to avoid punishment.
Stage 2
Individualism and Exchange
 At this stage of moral
development, children account
for individual points of view and
judge actions based on how they
serve individual needs.

 In the Heinz dilemma, children

argued that the best course of
action was the choice that best-
served Heinz’s needs.

 Reciprocity is possible at this

point in moral development, but
only if it serves one's own
interests.
LEVEL TWO
Conventional Morality
Stage 3
Interpersonal Relationships
 Often referred to as the "good boy-
good girl" orientation.

 At this stage children who are by

now usually entering their teens, see
morality as more than simple deals.

 Stage of moral development is

focused on living up to social
expectations and roles (of the family
and community). There is an
emphasis on conformity, being
"nice," and behave in "good" ways.

 Good behavior means having good

motives and interpersonal feelings
such as love, empathy, trust, and
concern for others.
Stage 4
Maintaining Social Order

 People begin to consider

society as a whole when
making judgment.

 Law and order

 focus on maintaining law and
order and obeying laws
 Heinz’s motives
 Consequences of breaking the
law
Stage 4 contd.

 Stage 1 and stage 4 are giving the same response

 Similarity is they both agree that breaking the law is wrong
 Differences is for Stage 1 the child can’t explain why it is
wrong, while Stage 4 the adults are able to deliberate
 Education
 Follow rules and guide lines
 It is compulsory for all school-age students to attend school
 Respect property of others
 Wear appropriate uniform, appropriate shoes to be worn
LEVEL THREE
Post-Conventional Morality
Stage 5
Social Contract and Individual Rights
 At this stage, people begin
to account for the
differing values, opinions
and beliefs of other
people.

 Rules of law are important

for maintaining a society,
but members of the
society should agree upon
these standards.
Stage 6
Universal Principles
 Based upon universal ethical
principles and abstract reasoning.

 Based on respect for universal

principle and the demands of
individual conscience
 Takes an idealized look at how people
might coordinate their interests

 At this stage, people follow these

internalized principles of justice, even
if they conflict with laws and rules.

 Define the principles by which

agreement will be most just.

 If children are to reorganize their

thinking, they must be more active.
 Principled conscience
Criticisms
 Does moral reasoning necessarily
lead to moral behavior?
 Kohlberg's theory is concerned with moral
thinking, but there is a big difference between
knowing what we ought to do versus our
actual actions.

 Is justice the only aspect of moral

reasoning we should consider?
 Critics have pointed out that Kohlberg's
theory of moral development
overemphasizes the concept as justice when
making moral choices. Factors such as
compassion, caring and other interpersonal
feelings may play an important part in moral
reasoning.

 Does Kohlberg's theory

overemphasize Western
philosophy?
 Individualistic cultures emphasize personal
rights while collectivist cultures stress the
importance of society and community.
Eastern cultures may have different moral
outlooks that Kohlberg's theory does not
account for.
Work Cited
Pictures
 http://delicium.wordpress.com/200
9/03/20/eriksons-developmental-
perspective/
 http://www.drurywriting.com/keith
/development.middle.age.htm
 http://www.eruptingmind.com/erik
-eriksons-stages-of-psychosocial-
development/
Information
 http://www.psychpage.com/learnin
g/library/person/erikson.html
 http://psychology.about.com/od/ps
ychosocialtheories/a/psychosocial.
htm
 http://www.learningplaceonline.co
m/stages/organize/Erikson.htm
 http://www.learning-
theories.com/eriksons-stages-of-
development.html
 http://delicium.wordpress.com/200
9/03/20/eriksons-developmental-
perspective/