Systems Architecture

Chapter 38
38.1 Advisory Control
38.2 Supervisory Control
38.3 Direct Digital Control
38.4 Integrated Control
38.5 Distributed Control
38.6 Programmable Logic Controllers
38.7 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
38.8 Management Information Systems
38.9 Computer Integrated Manufacturing
38.10 Open Systems
38.11 Comments

Architecture is the term used to describe the struc-
ture of a computer control system. It is directly re-
lated to the organisation of the system’s I/O chan-
nels. New architectures have evolved over the years
as the technology of computer control has ad-
vanced. This chapter surveys systems architecture
and provides a historical perspective.Common ter-
minology used to describe different architectures
is explained. Detailed descriptions of systems ar-
chitecture and terminology are provided by most
of the major suppliers in their technical literature.
38.1 Advisory Control
Early computer systems were so unreliable that
they could not be used for control, so the first sys-
tems used were in an off-line advisory mode, as
depicted in Figure 38.1. The computer system op-
erated alongside the conventional analogue instru-
mentation which controlled the plant. It was con-
nected up to the input signals by means of an input
interface (IIF) and was used for monitoring and
data logging purposes only. From a control point

Controllers Actuators
+_

VDU Computer IIF Transmitters

Recorders

Fig. 38.1 Advisory control system

 280 38 Systems Architecture
of view, the computer system achieved very little
and the expenditure could only be justified under
some research budget. The first advisory system
was installed by Esso at their Baton Rouge refinery
in Louisiana in 1958.
Note that double lines with arrows are used to
indicate multiple signals.
38.2 Supervisory Control
Given that the inputs were being monitored, it
made sense to put some optimisation programs
into the computer and use them to generate set
points. These were output to the analogue con-
trollers by means of an output interface (OIF).
Hence the so-called supervisory system, as de-
picted in Figure 38.2. Note that when the com-
puter system failed the set points would stay put
and the analogue loops would continue control-
ling the plant. In practice, the optimisation pro-
grams were often too complex for the computing
OIF Controllers
+_
VDU Computer IIF
Recorders
Fig. 38.2 Supervisory control system
OIF
VDU Computer
IIF
Fig. 38.3 Direct digital control (DDC) system
power available and their benefits proved to be elu-
sive. Whilst there were some marginal hardware
savings, mainly in terms of reduced numbers of
analogue recorders, the principal benefits realised
were experience and confidence. The first supervi-
sory system was installed by Texaco at their Port
Arthur refinery in Texas in 1959.
38.3 Direct Digital Control
The next stage of development was to incorpo-
rate the computer system within the control loops.
This is known as direct digital control (DDC) and
is depicted in Figure 38.3. DDC enabled the con-
trol, display and recording functions to be realised
by means of software. All the analogue controllers
and recorders, apart from a few retained on critical
loops, were replaced by visual display units (VDU),
keyboards and printers. Because these were shared
between the various loops, this enabled substantial
economic benefits in terms of hardware. Given the
Actuators
Transmitters
Actuators
Plant
Transmitters

reliability constraints and the lack of an analogue
fall-back position, the early applications had to be
on non-critical plant. The first implementation of
DDC was on an ICI soda ash plant at Fleetwood in
Lancashire in 1962 using a Ferranti Argus system,
as reported by Thompson (1964).
Note that the term DDC initially referred to an
architecture which was centralised, or monolithic,
in nature. However, over the years, it has become
a more generic term and is now synonymous with
digital devices being an integral part of the loop.
38.4 Integrated Control
This centralised type of architecture was used in
particular for the control of complex batch plant.
The systems evolved with advances in technology.
In particular, from the early 1970s onwards, they
became microprocessor based. Initially they were
Actuators
OCS PCU PIU
Transmitters
Fig. 38.4 Integrated control system (ICS)
Actuators
OCS PCU PIU
Transmitters
Fig. 38.5 Dual integrated control system
38.4 Integrated Control 281
based upon single processors but, with the ever
increasing demands for power and functionality,
multiple processors became commonplace. Such
systems were referred to as integrated control sys-
tems (ICS), as depicted in Figure 38.4. An ICS es-
sentially consisted of three parts with dedicated
links between: a plant interface unit (PIU), a pro-
cess control unit (PCU) and an operator control
station (OCS).
The PIU handled all the field I/O signals: it was
sometimes referred to as a plant multiplexer as-
sembly. The PCU supported all the control soft-
ware.Note that,although functionally different,the
PIU and the PCU were usually housed in the same
cabinet. The OCS, often referred to simply as the
operator station, was the human interface. An im-
portant point to appreciate is that the OCS was
more than just a VDU and keyboard and, typically,
had a processor which pre-processed signals from
the PCU for display purposes.
Plant
Plant
 282 38 Systems Architecture
The obvious drawback to the ICS was that “all its
eggs were in one basket” and, when the system
failed,control of the plant was lost.Thus,for critical
applications, it was necessary to have a dual system
with common I/O signals, as shown in Figure 38.5,
so that the stand-by system could take over when
the controlling system failed. Fortunately, it was
not usually necessary to have to go to the lengths,
not to mention cost, of putting in dual systems.
ICS, as an architecture, fell into disuse as re-
cently as the 1990s.
38.5 Distributed Control
The year of 1975 saw a step change in architecture
with the launch by Honeywell of their micropro-
cessor based TDC 2000 system. This was the first
distributed control system (DCS) on the market
and, in many respects, it became the de-facto stan-
dard for the next decade or so. The principal fea-
ture of the architecture of a DCS is its decentralised
structure, consisting of PIUs, PCUs and OCSs in-
terconnected by means of a proprietary highway.
Figure 38.6 illustrates a so-called multi-drop type
of DCS architecture. Note that the acronyms used
are not universal.
AM HM OCS1
PCU1 PCU2 PCU3
PIU1 PIU2
Plant
Fig. 38.6 Multi-drop type of distributed control system (DCS)
The highway provides for communications be-
tween the PCUs and the OCSs, with current values
and status information being passed from PCU to
OCS and control commands in the opposite di-
rection. It is usual for the highway to be dual to
provide for redundancy, each PCU and OCS be-
ing connected to both highways. In the event of
one highway failing, units can continue to commu-
nicate over the other. Indeed, this facility enables
units to be connected to and removed from the
system, one highway at a time, without disrupting
operations.
Other modules are invariably connected to the
highway, such as history modules (HM) and appli-
cation modules (AM). Typically, an HM provides
bulk memory for archiving purposes which en-
ables much larger quantities of historical data to
be stored and processed than is feasible in the
memory of a PCU alone. Similarly, an AM enables
advanced control packages to be run that require
more processor power than is normally available
in a single PCU. Such packages would be for opti-
misation or statistical process control or an expert
system for decision support.
The PIUs and PCUs are normally organised on
a local basis, handling the I/O signals and taking
the control actions for a relatively self contained
OCS2
Highway

area of plant. This is a principal advantage of DCS:
it enables processor power to be targeted very ef-
fectively. DCS lends itself to the control of continu-
ous plant consisting of relatively autonomous pro-
duction units. With modern DCSs, a single node
consisting of a PIU, PCU and OCS is powerful
enough to be considered as an ICS in its own right.
38.6 Programmable Logic
Controllers
Programmable logic controller (PLC) systems have
a different pedigree to PCUs. They emerged within
the manufacturing industries as a microprocessor
based alternative to hard wired relay logic circuits.
Their architecture is not dissimilar to that of DCS
systems, to the extent that a PLC has to have a PIU
to handle plant I/O and that the PLCs and OCSs
communicate over a highway, as depicted in Fig-
ure 38.7. However, from a software point of view,
there are some very important differences. PLCs
are discussed in more detail in Chapter 47.
OCS1
PLC1 PLC2 PLC3
PIU1 PIU2
Plant
Fig. 38.7 Programmable logic controller (PLC) system
38.6 Programmable Logic Controllers 283
38.7 Supervisory Control and
Data Acquisition
Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA)
is a term which is ambiguously used to describe
a type of application rather than an architecture.
Historically, SCADA was mainly associated with
utilities and offshore applications but nowadays it
is much more commonplace. In general, SCADA
systems are used for monitoring and data logging
purposes. Their control capability tends to be re-
stricted to adjusting the set points of controllers:
supervisory control rather than DDC.Thus SCADA
systems have large numbers of inputs and rela-
tively few outputs, as depicted in Figure 38.8.
In terms of hardware, SCADA systems are di-
verse. Hierarchically speaking, a typical system
consists of a local area network (LAN) of personal
computer (PC) type operator stations sitting on
top of other systems. These other systems may be
any combination of DCS nodes, PLCs, single loop
controllers (SLC) and “packaged” instrumentation
such as analysers. Connections to the network are
by means of gateways (GW). These are micropro-
cessor based devices which convert data from the
protocol of one highway or network to that of an-
OCS2
Highway
 284 38 Systems Architecture
PC1 PC2
LAN
OCS1
GW1 GW2
Highway
PLC
PCU
PIU2
PIU1
Fig. 38.8 Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system
other. Gateways also provide buffering to accom-
modate the different speeds of communication.
38.8 Management Information
Systems
A management information system (MIS) typically
consists of one or more“host” computers, typically
file servers, connected up to the highway of a DCS
by means of a gateway to provide access to the field
I/O, as depicted in Figure 38.9. All the information
within the DCS,and other systems connected to the
highway, is thus available for storage and manipu-
lation within the host and is typically available at
PC type terminals or workstations. Connection of
other systems to the highway is by means of other
gateways.
The information stored in the database of an
MIS is extensive and accessible to personnel be-
yond those directly concerned with the operation
of the DCS.An MIS enables plant wide calculations,
on-line, typically using model based methods that
would be too complex or too extensive to be car-
ried out within a PCU. Examples of such calcu-
GW3
SLC
lations are of process efficiencies, plant utilisation,
materials inventory and utilities consumption. The
database is invariably of a relational nature, as dis-
cussed in Chapter 99.
38.9 Computer Integrated
Manufacturing
Computer integrated manufacturing (CIM) is in
many respects an extension of MIS. The essential
difference is that in CIM management information
is used for controlling the plant. Thus informa-
tion flows in both directions between the host and
PCUs. For example, production may be scheduled
in order to maximise throughput or performance
optimised to minimise costs. CIM calculations are
in real-time and have to take into account pro-
duction requirements, availability of raw materi-
als, plant utilisation, etc. It is normal within CIM
to adopt a clustered approach, as depicted in Fig-
ure 38.10. Within a cluster, PCUs and OCSs send
data to each other over the highway, such that each
cluster can function independently of the others.
Thus only data that needs to be transferred from
 38.9 Computer Integrated Manufacturing 285

PC1 PC2

Ethernet
Host

OCS1 GW2
GW1

Highway

PLC

PCU1 PCU2

PIU3

PIU1 PIU2

Fig. 38.9 Management information system (MIS)

LAN 2 PC1
Host

Ethernet

GW1 GW2 PC2

Highway 1
Highway 2

OCS1 PCU1 PCU2 PLC

PIU1 PIU2 PIU3

Fig. 38.10 Computer integrated manufacturing (CIM) system

 286 38 Systems Architecture
FS1 WS PC1
Host
OCS
HM AM GW1
PCU PLC
GW2
SLC
PIU1 PIU2
Fig. 38.11 Open system architecture
one cluster to another is transmitted over the net-
work. MIS and CIM are covered in more detail in
Chapter 100.
38.10 Open Systems
The advent of open systems is leading to flatter
architectures as depicted in Figure 38.11.
In effect, evolution of systems is resolving it-
self into two distinct domains. The information
domain is based upon a network, normally Ether-
net, for management information and the control
domain consists of devices connected to a highway
for control purposes. Central to the concept of an
open system is the use of industry standards for
communications, databases, displays, etc., which
enable integration of non-proprietary equipment.
Note the use of workstations (WS) and file servers
(FS) on the networks for handling the very large
databases associated with management informa-
tion, communications, etc. It is not inconceivable
Ethernet
FS2 PC2
Highway
Fieldbus
with the advent of real-time Ethernet that evolu-
tion will result in just a single domain.
Aspects of communications and open systems
are covered more fully in Chapters 40 and 49 re-
spectively. Field bus is covered in Chapter 50.
38.11 Comments
There are many varieties of architecture and
the distinctions between some of them, such as
SCADA, MIS and CIM, are rather fuzzy. No partic-
ular architecture is “correct” for any given plant,
although there are many examples of systems that
have been installed that are inappropriate for the
application. The golden rule is that the architec-
ture of the system should match that of the plant.
For example, as indicated, DCS are appropriate
for continuous plant consisting of relatively au-
tonomous production units, SCADA for applica-
tions with diverse control systems which need to
be co-ordinated, PLCs when there are localised se-
quencing requirements, and so on.