J Ethn Foods 4 (2017) 254e261

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Journal of Ethnic Foods

journal homepage: http://journalofethnicfoods.net

Original Article

Gastronomy as an element of attraction in a tourist destination:

the case of Lima, Peru

rez Ga
Jesús Claudio Pe
lvez a, 1, Toma

s Lo
n b, *, Franklin Cordova Buiza c, 2,

pez-Guzma
Miguel Jesús Medina-Viruel a, 1
a
rdoba, Spain
Department of Applied Economics, Agrifood Campus of International Excellence, ceiA3, Spain, Faculty of Law and Economics, University of Co
b
Department of Applied Economics, Agrifood Campus of International Excellence, ceiA3, Spain, Faculty of Labour Sciences, C/ Adarve, 30 14071-Co
rdoba

rdoba, Spain
(Spain), University of Co
c
Department of Economics, Jr. Junín 355, Miraflores, Continental University of Lima, Peru

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In recent years, gastronomy has become one of the main sources of attraction in the tourist destinations.
Received 29 August 2017 The objective of this study is to present the results of a research conducted on the foreign tourists in the
Received in revised form city of Lima, a World Heritage Site, which is considered as one of the main gastronomic leaders of the
31 October 2017
world.. The principal results indicate that foreign tourists have different attitudes toward the local
Accepted 1 November 2017
gastronomy. Therefore, the foreign tourists were arranged, following the model developed by Bjo € rk and
Available online 10 November 2017
Kauppinen-R€ €nen (2016), in three different groups: survivors, enjoyers, and experiencers. Further-
aisa
more, it shows that the foreign tourists have different motivations regarding gastronomy, which we have
Keywords:
Gastronomy grouped into three dimensions: new food experience, culture, and socialization. The results show that
Latin America the dimensions new food experience and socialization contribute to a greater degree to gastronomic
Lima satisfaction.
Segmentation © 2017 Korea Food Research Institute. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the
Tourism CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction analyzing their motivations are essential for understanding the

The World's 50 Best Restaurants List corresponding to the year
2017 indicates that two of the 10 best restaurants of the world are
found in the city of Lima (Peru). Specifically, they are the Central
Restaurant (position 4) and the Maido Restaurant (position 8). This
data reinforce the importance of Peruvian gastronomy in recent
years. In fact, culinary resources are currently one of the great
images that Peru holds as a tourist destination [1] and one of the
greatest commitments of the country [2].
This article aims to contribute to the existing academic literature
on the gastronomic experiences of the visitors in tourist destina-
tions. It presents research that focuses on the segmentation, moti-
vation, and satisfaction of the foreign tourists visiting the city of
Lima (Peru) in relation to gastronomy. Segmenting the tourists and
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: dt1pegaj@uco.es (J.C. Pe
rez Ga
lvez), tomas.lopez@uco.es

pez-Guzma
(T. Lo
n), fcordova@continental.edu.pe (F.C. Buiza), mjmedina@uco.es
(M.J. Medina-Viruel).
1
Phone: þ 34 957 2 88 33.
2
Phone: þ 51 01 2132760.
importance of local food. Therefore, although all the tourists
necessarily consume food, their perceptions and their motivations
in relation to gastronomy can be very different [3,4]. The travelers
can be interested in the local food and in obtaining gastronomic
experiences, and these experiences can even play an important role
in the choice of the destination [5,6] and in their level of satisfaction.
The study of gastronomic tourism involves the analysis of the
visitor's behavior. A tourist who is not especially interested in the
gastronomy of the site or who does not travel with the principal or
secondary intention of trying behaves like a visitor who only needs
to have nourishment during his time in the chosen destination. On
the contrary, the tourists interested in gastronomy are found. They
travel with the principal and/or secondary motivation of discov-
ering a different cuisine, learning more about it, relaxing by tasting
the typical local dishes, cultural enrichment, etc. Therefore, in this
regard, it is important to analyze the perception that the visitors
have with respect to the local food, especially in the developing
countries [7], and the authenticity of the local gastronomy [8,9].
Furthermore, the relationship between food and tourism can be
examined from three different perspectives [10]: consumer, pro-
ducer, or destination development.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jef.2017.11.002
2352-6181/© 2017 Korea Food Research Institute. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

lvez et al / Gastronomy as an element of attraction
J.C. P
erez Ga
2. Review of the literature
2.1. Segmentation of tourists according to gastronomy
With respect to the importance gastronomy has in the seg-
mentation of the tourists of a certain destination, it is necessary to
respond, following Kivela and Crotts [11], to three different issues:
first, the analysis of the relationship the tourists have with
gastronomy, in other words, whether or not gastronomy is a prin-
cipal or secondary motivation for visiting the destination, while at
the same time, determining the sociodemographic profile of each of
the groups; second, the analysis of the relationship that each of the
groups has with respect to the local food; and third, the study of the
economic impact that each of these groups of tourists has on the
city.
In relation to the segmentation of the travelers and their rela-
tionship with the local food, one of the first segmentations that was
made, and which has been useful as a basis for an entire series of
subsequent research, is that made by Charters and Ali-Knight [12]
where the tourists are divided according to their interest in wine
(and gastronomy). In this way, Charters and Ali-Knight [12]
segmented this type of tourists into four different groups: the
wine lover, the connoisseur, the wine interested, and the wine
novice. Hjalager [3], focusing exclusively on gastronomy,
segmented the travelers into four different groups: recreational,
existential, diversionary, and experimental gastronomy tourists. In
turn, Hall et al [9] presented a segmentation model of the gastro-
nomic tourist that allows using tools to identify the importance that
gastronomy and/or wine has in the tourist destinations.
The scientific literature approaches the segmentation of the
visitors based on gastronomy in three different fields: tourist des-
tinations [11,13] and food festivals [14]; involvement and perceived
satisfaction [6]; and food markets [15].
In this research, the model developed by Bjo € rk and Kauppinen-
R€ais€anen [16] is followed. This model is based on segmenting the
visitors by analysis of the responses to three questions: how
important are food and eating as motives for traveling; how
important are food and eating experiences when choosing a
destination; and how important are food and eating for travel
satisfaction. In line with these questions, Bjo € rk and Kauppinen-
R€ais€anen [16] indicated three types of travelers: first, experiencers,
those who travel to gain food experiences; second, enjoyers, those
with a positive attitude toward food; and third, survivors, those
with very little or no interest in food.
In accordance with the review of the literature, the following
hypothesis would be examined:
H1. Tourists show different attitudes toward gastronomy as a
determining variable in their choice of destination.
2.2. Socioeconomic characteristics
The analysis of the sociodemographic profile of tourists and
their relationship with gastronomy is carried out in different
studies. McKercher et al [13] indicated that the general academic
level of the tourists most interested in gastronomy is the university,
and they are aged between 36 and 45 years and have a high salary

pez-Guzma
level. Lo
n and Sa
nchez-Can ~ izares [17] indicated that the
educational level is high because 65% of the surveyed tourists
interested in gastronomy presented university studies and a mean
age of around 40 years. Mgonja et al [7] showed that the visitors
interested in gastronomy are usually middle-aged, with university
education and high economic income.
According to the literature review, the hypotheses to examine
would be the following:
255
H2. The more favorable attitude toward the local gastronomy
increases with the age of the tourist.
H3. The travelers with special interest in gastronomy have a
higher academic level.
2.3. Motivations and gastronomy
The study of gastronomic tourism involves referring to the vis-
itor's behavior. In line with Fields [8], it is possible to identify four
types of gastronomic motivations associated with tourism: the
physical type, the cultural type, the interpersonal type, and the
status and prestige type. Therefore, based on the motivations in
relationship with gastronomy, Quan and Wang [18] presented a
conceptual model of the tourist experience in which the tourist,
when traveling, is found with different primary and secondary
motivations. Gastronomy would be framed as a primary or sec-
ondary motivation. It would be a primary motivation, for example,
for those people who visit a certain place with the principal aim of
enjoying its culinary offer. It would be a secondary motivation, for
example, for those people who, although their primary motivation
is not that of knowing the gastronomic wealth of a destination,
consider this option as very important in planning their trip.
Anderson et al [10] grouped these motivations into different ex-
periences that can be obtained: sensory, cultural, and social. In turn,
Babolian Hendijani [19] indicated that the gastronomic experience
can be a fundamental motivation for visiting a certain destination.
In line with the literature review, the following hypothesis
would be examined:
H4. The culinary motivations are heterogeneous and conditioned
by a tourist's attitude toward gastronomy on his/her trips.
2.4. Gastronomy and satisfaction
A tourist destination is something more than a conglomerate of
natural, cultural, or artistic resources because it also has to reflect
the experience that the traveler seeks [20]. Based on this, the
destinations should consider the importance of gastronomy as a
tool that contributes to a unique experience [21]. Babolian Hendi-
jani [19] indicated that satisfaction that the tourist has with the
local food depends on the cultural heritage of the cuisine and on the
ingredients used being fresh and healthy.
Therefore, gastronomy as a primary or secondary motivation is
considered an essential aspect of the traveler's satisfaction [16,6],
bringing together the concepts of motivation, experience, and
satisfaction.
In line with the literature review, the hypotheses to examine
would be the following:
H5. Gastronomy is a factor that contributes and conditions the
experience and, therefore, tourist satisfaction.
H6. The degree of satisfaction with the local gastronomy is
conditioned by the culinary motivations of the tourist.
3. Methodology
3.1. Survey design
The methodology used in this research is based on conducting
field work through a representative sample of foreign tourists who
visited the city of Lima, with the aim of getting to know their
opinion in relation to gastronomy. The surveys were conducted in
different culinary establishments of the historic city center, on
256 J Ethn Foods 2017; 4: 254e261

different days, and at different times to try to collect in this way the
widest possible range of people and situations. Furthermore, the
surveyed tourists had spent a certain amount of time in the city
and, therefore, could give an informed opinions [22,23]. The survey
used in this research was based on different prior articles [24,16].
As for its structure, the questionnaire was divided into three
large blocks. The first block focused on the interest of those sur-
veyed toward gastronomy, and the assessment of its importance
when traveling. The second block focused on the motivations that
contribute to a traveler's experience in relation to the local
gastronomy and his/her level of satisfaction. Finally, the third block
included sociodemographic characteristics of the visitors such as
age, gender, economic level, place of origin, and level of education.
The survey used questions with dichotomous-type (yes/no) an-
swers, questions with open-ended answers and multiple choice,
and questions where a Likert five-point scale (1 ¼ not very
important; 5 ¼ very important) was used. Photograph 1e7.
Photograph 2. Tacu-tacu de mariscos (seafood Tacu-Tacu), Tacu-Tacu has a creole
origin, made traditionally with all the food that was to spare (its name comes from
3.2. Data collection takuy, which means mix different things together). The original version of it is pre-
pared with boiled rice and stewed vegetables. Among its most known recipes, the
seafood Tacu-Tacu is the most remarkable; its ingredients are boiled beans, boiled rice,
The surveys were conducted by a team of interviewers from the
steamed or boiled seafood (shrimps, cuttlefish, prawns, octopus, etc.), red onions, large
School of Business Science of Universidad Continental (Peru). The tomatoes, oregano, coriander, soy sauce, salt, and pepper.
questionnaires were provided in two languages (Spanish and
English).
A total of 572 surveys were obtained, of which 544 were valid,
between the months of February and July 2016. A nonprobabilistic
sampling technique was used, often utilized in this type of research
where the interviewees are available to be surveyed in a certain
place and time [25]. They were not stratified by gender, age, edu-
cation, nationality, or by any other variable because of not having
any prior studies available that would support this stratification.

3.3. Sampling and sampling error

The specific framework of this research is foreign visitors who

visit the city of Lima. There are no official data on the number of
foreign tourists who visit the city. The only information available
is provided by the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Tourism (MIN-
CETUR) [2] where it indicated that the number of foreign visitors
who entered the country in the year 2013 was 3,890,298. Hence,
the study data in this research are the data provided by MINCE-
Photograph 3. Seco de cabrito, the seco is an Arab origin stew, and it is known since
TUR. Therefore, starting from 3,890,298 foreign visitors, the colonial times, when it was called seco tajime. The main ingredient of this dish is baby
goat's meat; it is served with beans, cooked with garlic and onions and also rice added
to the side. Coriander is the main spice added to it. Chicha de jora (unsweetened), red
onion, diced tomatoes, ground garlic, pumpkin, olive oil, pepper, and salt can be also
added.

sampling error of this research, for a confidence interval of 95%,

would be ±4.22%.

3.4. Data analysis

The tabulation and statistical analysis of the data was conducted

Photograph 1. Lomo saltado, this delicious dish has indigenous European and Asian
influences due to its way of being saute
ed in the Chinese style. The original recipe
includes ingredients such as beef, salt, cumin, pepper, green chillies, red or white
vinegar, potatoes, oil, tomato, and parsley. Sometimes, some sillao or pisco are added
to the mixture, pisco being one of the most emblematic Peruvian drinks.
using the SPSS, version 22, computer program. Statistics was used
to assess the reliability and validity of the response to the applied
questionnaire (Cronbach a). Next, the multivariate technique of
grouping cases was applied (K-mean clusters) with the aim of
analyzing the similarity existing between those surveyed, taking as
a reference the variables indicated of greater or lesser interest in
gastronomy as elements of interest when traveling. From the
groups or segments obtained, statistics and measurements of as-
sociation were applied, which provided information required to
study the possible association patterns existing between variables
starting with a table of two-dimensional contingencies. In a similar

lvez et al / Gastronomy as an element of attraction
J.C. P
erez Ga
Photograph 4. Pulpo al olivo, this dish is one of the most popular dishes in the Nikkei
cuisine (Japanese and Peruvian fusion cuisine). This dish, considered the king of Nikkei
cuisine, has octopus as the main ingredient. It is cooked with the following in-
gredients: fresh onion, black olives, eggs, olive oil, lemon or lime juice, vinegar, salt,
pepper, and celery. It is typical to serve the plate with lettuce and parsley, just for the
presentation.
Photograph 5. Carapulcra, the carapulcra is an exquisite potage of Lima's cuisine. The
dish is cooked with boiled potatoes stewed with chicken and pork, chillies, garlic,
peanuts, and other spices. The carapulcra has an indigenous origin but with an in-
fluence of Spanish cuisine and also some slave-related culture to it, which adds some
spices and ingredients unknown at first by locals or Spanish conquerors.
manner, statistical procedures were applied to carry out examina-
tions of hypotheses on means starting with the post hoc univariate
analysis of variance (ANOVA) to verify which specific mean differed
and, therefore, to control the rate of error.
4. Results
4.1. Segmentation of tourists according to their assessment of
gastronomy
With the aim of analyzing and segmenting the interest in
gastronomy of the surveyed tourists, they were asked to assess the
importance of gastronomy on their trips, using three different
questions, as indicated in the model developed by Bjo €rk and
Kauppinen-Ra €isa
€nen [16]. Based on the scores of these questions,
the value of Cronbach a coefficient (0.737) constituted a reliable
scale (F ¼ 383.245 < 0.000) and a nonhierarchical cluster analysis.
Under the criteria of maximizing the variance between types and
minimizing the variance within each of them, the best solution that
257
Photograph 6. Ceviche de marisco, the ceviche is the most well-known dish of the
country. The main ingredients of a typical Peruvian ceviche are the diced fresh fish,
onion, and juice of Tamborgrande valley's lemon. For the marination, the chef chooses
citrus relying on his own taste, but the most common are lemon and lime. As a result of
the influence of Mediterranean cuisine, sour orange and onion are also added. Also
coriander is added and yuca or camote comes normally as a side.
Photograph 7. Parihuela, The parihuela is a very popular soup in the coastal areas of
Peru. Its ingredients are mainly seafood and fish, being their main source of nutrients.
Among the fish and seafood, we can find white fish, shrimps, octopus, muscles, crabs,
and abanico shells (scallops). It is also common to use seaweed and other vegetables or
yuyos, which reinforce the coastal identity of the plate.
fulfills the criteria is that which establishes three clusters or seg-
ments. Table 1 shows the characterization of the clusters from the
means of the three items that are intended to measure the
importance of gastronomy when the surveyed tourists visit a
certain destination.
We have called each of these segments, following the model
developed by Bjo €rk and Kauppinen-Ra €isa€nen [16], survivors, en-
joyers, and experiencers. According to Table 1, the first of the
clusters is integrated by 28.7% of the surveyed foreign tourists,
being the group that had significantly lower scores in all the items.
This cluster is called survivors because of being a group of tourists
that is characterized by low interest in gastronomy. The second
group, which represents 47.2% of the sample, is characterized by
having intermediate scores in the different items. This cluster,
which groups the tourists with a moderate interest in gastronomy,
is called enjoyers. The third group is characterized by having high
scores in the three items and represents 24.1% of those surveyed.
This cluster, which groups tourists with greater interest in
gastronomy, is called experiencers. These results allow examining
258 J Ethn Foods 2017; 4: 254e261

Table 1
Characterization clusters from gastronomy attitude.

Gastronomy attitude Food clusters ANOVA

Survivors Enjoyers Experiencers F Significance

* * *
How would you rate your knowledge on gastronomy? 2.52 2.86 4.12 157.374 <0.000
How would you rate your interest in gastronomy? 1.55* 3.76* 4.23* 600.805 <0.000
How much has Lima's gastronomy influenced your visit to the city? 1.42* 3.06* 3.81* 394.692 <0.000

ANOVA, analysis of variance.

*
The values in bold type present significant differences in two of three means clusters in the post hoc ANOVA. To be able to test for the significant differences between the
different means, the Games-Howell test was applied.
Source: Own elaboration.

one of the posed research hypotheses: tourists show different at-
titudes toward gastronomy as a variable of interest in their choice of
destination (H1).
4.2. Socioeconomic characteristics of the foreign tourists surveyed
Of the 544 people interviewed, 53.7% were men and the
remaining 46.3% were women, with no significant differences
existing in the data collection throughout different months. The
surveyed visitors are, in general terms, young. Therefore, 75% of the
sample were below the age of 40 years, thereby a positive associ-
ation was detected between the age and the attitude
toward gastronomy (gamma coefficient ¼ 0.194; p ¼ 0.003). The
oldest tourists are more represented in the experiencer cluster of
tourists (Snedecor's F test of ANOVA ¼ 16.003; p ¼ 0.000). This
result allows examining the posed research hypothesis: the more
favorable attitude toward the local gastronomy increases with the
age of the tourist (H2).
The young tourists usually travel accompanied by their spouse
and/or friends or colleagues, thereby an association is detected
between the age and the company with whom they travel (con-
tingency coefficient ¼ 0.594; p ¼ 0.000). The academic level of
those surveyed is very high. The high number of university grad-
uates should be highlighted; 92.6% of those surveyed state having a
university or postgraduate degree. Similarly, differences are
detected between gastronomic clusters. In this regard, the survivor
cluster is characterized by a lower presence of tourists with post-
graduate studies (Snedecor's F test of ANOVA ¼ 17.444; p ¼ 0.000).
These results support the posed research hypothesis (H3) on the
greater interest toward gastronomy by those travelers with higher
academic training [11,26].
4.3. Motivations and gastronomy
After conducting a pretest, a dozen items were selected on a
Likert five-point scale, with 1 being little and 5 being much, to
determine the relative importance of a series of motives in the
decision to consume local food. The items were grouped into three
different gastronomic dimensions: new food experiences, culture,
and socialization.
Table 2 shows the different motivations that the survey re-
spondents have for consuming local gastronomic products.
Cronbach a coefficient of the final scale reached a value of 0.854 and
indicates high internal consistency. The results reveal that the
reasons grouped in the new food experience category are the most
relevant motivational dimension of the foreign tourists in relation
to local gastronomy. Therefore, 41% of those interviewed consid-
ered “the taste of the dish is different from the one prepared in my
region” as one of the principal reasons for tasting the local
gastronomy. On the contrary, the dimension with the least rele-
vance is socialization, with culture being in the intermediate po-
sition. The least powerful reasons for consuming local products are
the following: “enjoy pleasant moments with family and/or
friends” and “being able to convey my experiences with local food”.
The gastronomic cluster analyses only allowed comparing sig-
nificant differences in the motivational dimension of new food
experiences (Table 3). The experiencer tourists are characterized by
having the highest scores in each of the three motivational di-
mensions, being significantly higher with respect to the other
clusters in the dimension new food experiences. The results make it
clear that the culinary motivations of the tourists are heteroge-
neous and are conditioned by their attitude toward and/or interest
in gastronomy on their trips (H4).
4.4. Gastronomy and satisfaction
The mean level of satisfaction declared on a Likert five-point
scale is high (4.13 points), with a high percentage of tourists who
declare being fully satisfied (40.7% of them indicated 5 points). The
experiencer tourists are found with the greatest frequency (61.5%)
in this group. Furthermore, referring to the scant importance of the
not-at-all satisfied answers, only 2.8% of those surveyed showed a

Table 2
Food motivational dimensions.

Food motivational dimensions Mean Ranking

New food experiences Alpha de Cronbach (0.718), mean (4.06) The taste of the dish is different from the one prepared in my region 4.12 1
It excites me to taste local food in its place of origin 4.07 3
It is different from what I eat every day 4.06 4
An authentic experience 4.06 5
Discover something new 3.99 6
Culture Alpha de Cronbach (0.634), mean (3.95) Discover the taste of local food 4.09 2
Increase my knowledge about different cultures 3.89 7
It offers a unique opportunity to understand local culture 3.88 8
Socialization Alpha de Cronbach (0.796), mean (3.84) Give advice about gastronomical experiences to other travelers 3.87 9
Taste of local food increases family and friendship bonds 3.83 10
Being able to transmit my experiences with local food 3.83 11
Enjoy pleasant moments with family and/or friends 3.81 12

Source: Own elaboration.


lvez et al / Gastronomy as an element of attraction
J.C. P
erez Ga 259

Table 3
ANOVA of motivation and demand of local food.

Food motivational dimensions Food clusters ANOVA Homogeneity variances Equality of means

Survivors Enjoyers Experiencers F Significance Levene Significance Welch Significance

*
New food experiences 3.90 4.04 4.24 8.874 <.000 0.560 <.572 d d
Culture 3.95 3.90 4.03 0.969 <.380 17.465 <.001 0.916 <.401
Socialization 3.75 3.92 3.90 2.826 <.060 0.030 <.971 d d

ANOVA, analysis of variance.

*
The values in bold type present significant differences in two of three means clusters in the post hoc ANOVA. To be able to test for the significant differences between the
different means, the Scheffe test was applied.
Source: Own elaboration.

score less than or equal to 2. The results, therefore, present evi-
dence of the positive influence of gastronomy on the experience
and satisfaction of the tourist [21,6] (H5).
Having verified that the visitors leave very content with the
cuisine of Lima, we went in depth in this aspect, analyzing what
relationship could exist with the reasons or motivations for tasting
the local gastronomy. Therefore, each of the three dimensions
expressed above discriminated significantly in relation to the de-
gree of perceived gastronomic satisfaction (Table 4). Despite not
being very high, Spearman's rho corroborates the concordance
between the degree of satisfaction and the three motivational di-
mensions. The data point out that a greater presence of reasons
related to the new food experience and socialization dimensions
contribute in greater measure to the perceived satisfaction in
relation to the local gastronomy.
From the segmentations made, it is necessary to analyze the
possible relations existing between each of the segments obtained
with its level of satisfaction (Table 5). The analysis revealed a very
positive valuation of the gastronomic experience obtained by the
three segments of visitors, being significantly distinct as it is more
or less related to the reasons that motivate the consumption of local
products. The valuation is greater in the experiencer tourists and
presents evidence of how the higher relevance of the three moti-
vational dimensions is translated into higher levels of gastronomic
satisfaction.
This fact has a clear management implication for tourist com-
panies and the public sector of the city because the initiatives
aimed at incrementing the gastronomic satisfaction of visitors
should start with an analysis of the reasons that motivate their
consumption and influence the presence and correct the provision
of the tourist product. And, in this respect, one of the principal
contributions of this study is the verification that local gastronomy
is a tool that conditions the tourist experience (H6).
5. Discussion
The segmentation of tourists in the tourist destinations using
gastronomy as a basic element is analyzed in different prior
research articles [11,13,27,16]. From all these research articles and in
this article, it is concluded that tourists show different attitudes
toward gastronomy as a variable of interest in the choice of desti-
nation. Furthermore, different studies conclude that in the seg-
mentation of the tourists, one of the groups is very interested in
gastronomy, whereas another group has very little interest.
Therefore, with respect to what in this research are called experi-
ences, following the model developed by Bjo €rk and Kauppinen-
€isa
Ra €nen [16], Hjalager [3] calls them experimental gastronomy
tourists and McKercher et al [13] calls them definite culinary
tourists. The opposite occurs with the group called survivors in this
research; therefore, Hjalager [3] characterizes one of the groups as
recreational, McKercher et al [13] as nonculinary tourists, and
Thompson and Prideaux [27] as a group not interested in
gastronomy.
In relation to the sociodemographic profile of the tourists, there
are two principal results obtained in this research: first, the older
the tourist, the greater his interest in gastronomy; second, the
tourists with a higher educational level show greater interest in
gastronomy. In this regard, this type of tourists would be

Table 4
ANOVA of food satisfaction and motivational dimensions.

Motivational dimensions ANOVA Homogeneity variances Equality of means Spearman's rho

F Significance Levene Significance Welch Significance

New food experiences 17.139 <.000 19.626 <.000 28.238 <.000 0.24*
Culture 5.482 <.000 11.226 <.000 8.336 <.000 0.17*
Socialization 23.926 <.000 7.330 <.000 37.901 <.000 0.35*

ANOVA, analysis of variance.

*
The correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (bilateral).
Source: Own elaboration.

Table 5
Characterization cluster from the variable food satisfaction.

Food clusters ANOVA Homogeneity variances

Survivors Enjoyers Experiencers F Significance Levene Significance Welch Significance

3.94 4.16 4.38* 11.020 <.000 8.716 <.000 12.420 <.000

ANOVA, analysis of variance.

*
The values in bold type present significant differences in two of three means clusters in the post hoc ANOVA. To be able to test for the significant differences between the
different means, the Games-Howell test was applied.
Source: Own elaboration.
260 J Ethn Foods 2017; 4: 254e261
predominant in the segment that was called experiencers. These
results are supported by prior research [28,26] where the impor-
tance of age is shown with respect to the interest of the tourist in
local food. Tse and Crotts [28] indicate age as one of the axes for the
segmentation of the tourists and their relationship with
gastronomy. Mgonja et al [7] show that visitors aged older than 50
years are the most interested in local food. On the other hand, the
result showing that the tourists more interested in gastronomy are
those with a higher level of education is also reinforced by prior
research, such as that conducted by Kivela and Crotts [11], Mgonja
et al [7], and Pe
rez-Ga
lvez et al [26].
The results of this research make it clear that the culinary mo-
tivations of the tourists are heterogeneous and are conditioned by
their attitude and/or interest toward gastronomy on their trips.
Therefore, these motivations have been grouped into three different
gastronomic dimensions: new food experiences, culture, and so-
cialization. Prior literature assessed the motivations regarding
gastronomy of the destination through different dimensions
[24,29,30,16]. Anderson et al [10] analyzed these motivations
through different experiences that could be obtained: sensory,
cultural, and social. Meanwhile, Baldoni Hendijani [19] indicated the
following factors as the most outstanding: heritage, serving, food
environment, variety, availability, sensory, and ingredients.
This research corroborates the results of the prior literature
[16,6] because the local gastronomy contributes to increase the
degree of satisfaction of the tourists and his/her experience. In this
regard, Haven-Tang and Jones [21] indicated that the tourist des-
tinations should consider the importance of gastronomy as a
tool that contributes to a unique experience. In turn, Babolian
Hendijani [19] indicated the importance that gastronomy has in the
tourists' satisfaction based on the cultural heritage of that place. In
fact, for this reason, it is essential that research is conducted to
bring together the concepts of tourism, heritage, and gastronomy in
destinations that were registered as World Heritage Sites, as in the
case of the city of Lima. Crespi-Vallborna and Dimitrovski [15]
indicated the importance that taste has in the visitor's satisfaction.
6. Conclusions
Currently, gastronomic tourism is perceived nowadays as one of
the significant commitments for strengthening or consolidating
certain tourist destinations, due to the importance, increasingly
greater, that the knowledge of everything related to gastronomic
culture has for the travelers. In fact, there are already certain
travelers who consider going to a specific restaurant or simply
getting to know the cuisine of a specific geographic area better as
the primary motivation for their trip.
In this article, an analysis has been conducted on the opinion of
the foreign tourists who visited the city of Lima with regard to
gastronomy. The local gastronomy plays a direct role as a tourist
attraction, being a relevant objective when visiting a tourist desti-
nation. In this regard, this research concludes that the foreign
tourists show different attitudes toward the local gastronomy as a
variable of tourist development. According to the interest declared
toward gastronomy on their trips, empiric evidence is obtained on
the presence of three types of tourists, whom we have called,
€rk and Kauppinen-Ra €isa
€nen
following the model developed by Bjo
[16], survivors, enjoyers, and experiencers.
The greater or lesser interest in gastronomy also conditions the
culinary motivations and the perception of satisfaction that the
tourist experiences. Considering the culinary motivations of the
tourist, empirical evidence is obtained on the presence of three
motivational dimensions, which we have called new food experi-
ence, culture, and socialization. One of the principal contributions
of this research is to verify that the degree of satisfaction toward the
local gastronomy is conditioned by culinary motivations. The re-
sults show that the new food experience and socialization di-
mensions contribute to a greater extent to gastronomic satisfaction.
The visitors indicated high satisfaction with their culinary experi-
ence, with the significant valuation being different according to the
interest declared toward gastronomy.
The principle aim of this article is to show the results of research
carried out on the relationship between gastronomy and tourism in
a World Heritage Sites in Latin America. In this respect, this
research contributes to reinforce the studies conducted on the
relationship between tourism and gastronomy in different places of
the world, although mostly in Asia and Europe. In fact, this article
includes one of the first studies conducted on this subject in Latin
America.
The study provides not only theoretical implications but also
practical ones. The main practical application of this research is to
contribute to understanding the characteristics of the different
groups of foreign tourists identified and the valuation that they
give about the local gastronomy with the aim of conceiving tourist
and cultural products that better satisfy their needs and, at the
same time, are compatible with the sustainable management of
the local gastronomy. In this regard, with the aim of the local
gastronomy becoming another tool of tourist competition, it be-
comes necessary to establish measures that favor financing for the
improvement and modernization of the culinary establishments of
the city of Lima.
The main limitation of this research is the time period in which
it was conducted. We consider that it would be advisable to extend
the research to tourism in the city during all the months of the year.
As a future line of research, we recommend reinforcing the research
that studies the importance of gastronomy from the point of view
of the author.
Conflicts of interest
All authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.
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