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Cortland - Reconstructing and Deconstructing The Self PDF
Cortland - Reconstructing and Deconstructing The Self PDF
forms of mindfulness meditation [11]. Recent theoretical Box 1. Forms of attentional meditation
models have advanced our understanding further by In both traditional and clinical contexts, the capacity to sustain a
attempting to identify potential cognitive and neural heightened awareness of thoughts, behaviors, emotions, and per-
mechanisms in different forms of meditation and to classify ceptions is thought to be a central feature of mindfulness meditation
different forms of contemplative practice [12–17]. While [18,20,28,96–98]. Although there is considerable discussion concern-
some models have proposed specific cognitive and biologi- ing the exact nature of mindfulness practice and its relation to the
construct of mindfulness in traditional Buddhist frameworks [28,99–
cal processes that inform the practice of mindfulness med- 102], there is general agreement that the cognitive process that we
itation [18–20], theoretical accounts of other families of refer to here as meta-awareness has a central role across a broad
meditation are lacking, especially models that identify spectrum of meditation practices. Following our prior categorization
important mechanisms in other styles of practice. Thus, [11], here we propose two main categories of attentional meditation,
while these pioneering efforts provide crucial insights for along with two new subcategories that allow for a more nuanced
discussion of different styles of practice in this family.
the scientific study of meditation, rigorous efforts to exam- Focused-attention practices involve a narrowing of attentional
ine the psychological processes involved in different fami- scope and the cultivation of one-pointed concentration on a single
lies of meditation are needed to understand the precise object [11,48]. The presence of meta-awareness distinguishes the
manner in which they might impact various aspects of attentional stability achieved through this form of meditation from
other forms of absorption, such as the stable attentiveness that
well-being.
occurs when one is engaged in an engrossing conversation or
In this article, we expand our original framework to playing an interesting game. Open-monitoring (OM) practices simi-
accommodate a broader range of traditional and contem- larly involve the cultivation of meta-awareness, but they do not
porary meditation practices, grouping them into attention- involve selecting a specific object to orient one’s attention. Rather,
al, constructive, and deconstructive families. According to attentional scope is expanded to incorporate the flow of perceptions,
thoughts, emotional content, and/or subjective awareness. OM med-
this model, the primary cognitive mechanisms in these
itation can be further divided into ‘object-oriented OM’, which in-
three families are: (i) attention regulation and meta- volves directing one’s attention to whatever thoughts, percepts, and
awareness; (ii) perspective taking and reappraisal; and sensations enter the field of awareness, and ‘awareness-oriented
(iii) self-inquiry, respectively. To illustrate the role of these OM’, referring to the sustained recognition of the knowing quality of
processes in different forms of meditation, we discuss how awareness itself. Both forms of OM meditation are similar in many
ways to practices discussed below in the context of the deconstruc-
experiential fusion, maladaptive self-schema, and cogni- tive family. What distinguishes them from deconstructive forms of
tive reification are differentially targeted by these process- meditation is that their primary objective is the stabilization of meta-
es in the context of Buddhist meditation, integrating the awareness in relation to a particular attentional configuration. As we
perspectives of other contemplative, philosophical, and see below, in the deconstructive family, a similar configuration of
clinical perspectives when relevant. The mechanisms attention may be used, but for different purposes (such as the
cultivation of insight into the nature of sensory experience).
and targets we propose are drawn from cognitive science
and clinical psychology. Although these psychological pro-
cesses are theoretically complex, as are the meditation To illustrate the difference between meta-awareness
practices that target them, we propose this novel frame- and experiential fusion, let us consider an example. Imag-
work as a first step in identifying specific cognitive mecha- ine that you are watching an enthralling movie. In one
nisms to aid in the scientific study of different families of moment, you might be experientially fused with the movie,
meditation and the impact of these practices on well-being. to the point when you are no longer consciously aware that
you are sitting in a movie theater. In the next moment, you
The attentional family: meta-awareness and might suddenly become aware of your surroundings and
experiential fusion the fact that you are viewing images on a screen. In both
The group of meditative practices that we refer to here as moments, you may be attentive to the movie, but only in
the ‘attentional family’ trains a variety of processes related the second moment are you also aware of the process of
to the regulation of attention. These include the capacities watching the movie.
to manipulate the orientation and aperture of attention, to In this example, paying attention to the images and
monitor, detect, and disengage from distractors, and to sounds that constitute the movie is a form of awareness. If
reorient attention toward a chosen object [20–23]. We someone tapped you on the shoulder and asked you what
propose that a shared characteristic of all meditation just happened in the movie, you could answer. However, if
practices in this family is the systematic training of the you were asked whether you were conscious of sitting in a
capacity to intentionally initiate, direct, and/or sustain movie theater in the moment before being asked, you
these attentional processes while strengthening the capac- would probably answer no. The awareness that you were
ity to be aware of the processes of thinking, feeling, and watching a movie, in this case, would only be retrospective.
perceiving (Box 1 and Table 1). Across a range of traditional and contemporary contem-
In scientific literature, the term ‘meta-awareness’ has plative traditions, the absence of meta-awareness is
been used to describe the cognitive function of being aware viewed as an impediment to various forms of self-monitor-
of the processes of consciousness [24]. In the absence of ing, self-regulation, and self-inquiry [27–29].
meta-awareness, we become experientially ‘fused’ with
what we experience. We may be aware of the objects of Experiential fusion and the training of attention
attention, yet unaware of the processes of thinking, feeling, The inability to regulate attentional processes has been
and perceiving. This state of experiential fusion has been linked to attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
referred to using a variety terms in the study of metacog- [30], addiction [31], and other forms of psychopathology
nition, including ‘cognitive fusion’ and ‘object mode’ [25,26]. [32,33], as well as to abnormalities in brain structure and
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Opinion Trends in Cognitive Sciences September 2015, Vol. 19, No. 9
function [34]. Experiential fusion in particular has re- in attentional blink in relation to open-monitoring (OM)
ceived a great deal of attention in several contemporary meditation relative to focused-attention (FA) practices [47]
therapeutic interventions. Although associated with over- (Box 1). Reducing experiential fusion with emotional
lapping constructs, including ‘cognitive distancing’, ‘cogni- experiences should facilitate the regulation of emotions
tive defusion’, and ‘decentering’, reversing states of by decreasing their perseveration. This prediction is in line
experiential fusion through the cultivation of meta-aware- with findings that expert meditators exhibited less amyg-
ness is considered to be especially important in the culti- dala activity in response to negative emotional stimuli
vation of mental health [26,35–38]. relative to controls [48]. A similar effect was found when
Clinical studies have shown that a diminished ability to patients with anxiety disorders underwent training in
step back and observe one’s internal processes of thinking mindfulness meditation [49].
and feeling has an important role in a variety of psychiatric One avenue through which meta-awareness might im-
conditions, including depression [39] and anxiety [40]. In pact well-being lies in its relation to mind wandering. Mind
one recent study, authors found that decreases in psycho- wandering has been found to consume as much as 50% of
logical processes related to experiential fusion were found our waking life and is tied to our sense of well-being [50]. If
in patients undergoing treatment for depression who re- training in attentional forms of meditation does strengthen
ceived training in mindfulness-based cognitive therapy but meta-awareness, we might expect this to impact both the
not in control groups, and that these changes were associ- incidence and impact of mind wandering. Recent studies
ated with positive changes in depressive symptomology have found that meditation training alters patterns of
[41]. Similar findings have been found in relation to the task-unrelated thought, showing that even brief trainings
treatment of addiction [42]. A study on smoking cessation, in mindfulness meditation decrease the behavioral indica-
for example, demonstrated that mindfulness practice at- tors of mind wandering [51,52]. Although meta-awareness
tenuated cigarette smoking, in particular by altering the and self-referential processes are difficult to operationa-
relation between addictive craving and the behavior of lize, a few recent studies seem to indicate that brain
smoking [43]. regions associated with self-referential processing [53–
As recently reviewed, mindfulness-related practices 55], such as the medial prefrontal cortex and the posterior
have been shown to train many of the attentional processes cingulate cortex, may be downregulated by mindfulness-
described above and to induce functional and structural related practices [56,57]. In one of these studies, this
changes in attention-related networks in the brain pattern was linked to enhanced coupling between these
[9,44]. For instance, there is growing evidence that atten- midline regions and attentional brain networks associated
tional stability increases with mindfulness training, as with executive function, such as the dorsolateral prefrontal
measured by reduced response time variability and electro- cortex and the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex [57]. In the
encephalogram (EEG) brain response variability during other, this pattern was linked to a decreased coupling
continuous performance tasks [7,45]. Similarly, intensive between the medial prefrontal cortex and an interoceptive
meditation training has been shown to reduce both behav- region, the insular cortex [56]. It was speculated that these
ioral and EEG markers of attentional blink, a phenomenon patterns reflected decreased self-referential thought and
that reflects the propensity for attention to become fused enhanced present-centered awareness [56,57]. These inter-
with a perceptual target [46]. This effect is also modulated pretations require further investigation, particularly be-
by different forms of meditation, with enhanced reductions cause mind wandering recruits multiple brain regions,
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Opinion Trends in Cognitive Sciences September 2015, Vol. 19, No. 9
some of which may also have roles in attention and inter- Box 2. Ethics and forms of constructive meditation
oception [54]. It is also unclear how meta-awareness affects The cultivation of virtuous qualities is a common pursuit in many
one’s ability to use the constructive aspects of mind wan- contemplative and philosophical traditions [27,79,103]. The construc-
dering more effectively, and how activation patterns in tive family of meditation is one important method that allows for this
brain regions associated with self-referential thought cultivation. While practices in this family necessitate the presence of
change when periods of mind wandering coincide with meta-awareness, and also serve to strengthen and sustain meta-
awareness, the approach taken in this family is markedly different
meta-awareness. from practices in the attentional family, insofar as this style of
practice involves actively changing cognitive and affective content,
The constructive family: reappraisal, perspective taking, as opposed to simply observing or noting the presence of thoughts,
and self-schema emotions, and perceptions.
The style of practice that we refer to as the ‘constructive Although there are many different styles of constructive meditation,
we have identified three important subgroups, which we refer to as the
family’ includes a variety of meditation practices that ‘relation orientation’, ‘values orientation’, and ‘perception orientation’.
strengthen psychological patterns that foster well-being. The relation orientation emphasizes nurturing harmonious relations
We propose that one avenue through which these practices with others. In Buddhist meditation, this style of practice often involves
may affect well-being is by targeting maladaptive self- the extension of kindness and compassion first to specific individuals,
and eventually to all beings [104]. This subgroup of meditation may
schema and replacing them with more adaptive concep-
impact specific psychological factors, by decreasing in-group bias, for
tions of self. In cognitive psychology, latent beliefs and example [105], and thereby enhance important dimensions of well-
conceptions about the self, referred to as ‘self-schema’, are being, such as positive relations and meaning in life [2].
thought to underlie and inform thoughts and emotions Practices in the values orientation subgroup involve the integration
[58], and to impact patterns of brain function [59]. In of ethical frameworks or values into one’s ongoing perspective. One
common practice in this subgroup is the contemplation of one’s own
contrast to attentional practices, which often focus on
mortality, which is found in Buddhist practice as well as in Greco-
simply monitoring cognitive and affective patterns, con- Roman philosophy. In Platonic philosophy, for example, contempla-
structive meditations involve systematically altering the tions of death functioned to bring the individual into contact with a
content of thoughts and emotions. Some constructive prac- sense of self that transcends the boundaries and needs of the
tices are designed to cultivate qualities, such as patience physical body [27], while in Buddhism contemplating the fragility
and fleeting nature of life is often intended to reorient the mind
and equanimity, that safeguard the mind from the stress- toward what is truly meaningful in life [106].
ors of daily life. Others aim to bring about a restructuring Practices that involve a perception orientation aim to alter percep-
of priorities and values and a reorienting of the mind tual habits as a way to induce shifts in implicit self-schema. A
toward what is truly meaningful in life. Still more address common practice in Tibetan Buddhism, for example, is the so-called
interpersonal relations by nurturing prosocial qualities, ‘development stage’ [107], a form of meditation that aims to alter
both the perception of sensory objects as well as the subjective
such as kindness and compassion (Box 2 and Table 1). perspective itself. This perceptual shift may instantiated by imagin-
The variety of practices in this family, as well as their ing oneself to be the embodiment of compassion, for instance, and
individual complexity, makes identifying core cognitive viewing other individuals and one’s environment from that perspec-
mechanisms challenging. Nevertheless, several processes tive. Preliminary data suggest that this practice enhances one’s
ability to access heightened visuospatial processing resources [15].
appear to be central to a broad spectrum of constructive
meditations. Two mechanisms that appear to be especially
important in this family are cognitive reappraisal and perspective taking, but rather that differences in perspec-
perspective taking. Cognitive reappraisal refers to the tive (imagining oneself experiencing pain versus another
process of changing how we think about situations and experiencing pain, for example) recruit different brain
events in such a way that our response to them is altered networks [65].
[60]. Reappraisal is an important strategy in the regulation In constructive meditation practices, cognitive reap-
of emotion [61] and recruits brain regions related to cogni- praisal and perspective taking are hypothesized to be
tive control, including the dorsomedial, dorsolateral, and important mechanisms used to target maladaptive or neu-
ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, as well as the posterior tral psychological processes and replace them with more
parietal cortex [62]. In a study of reappraisal in those with adaptive patterns. One common example is the transfor-
social anxiety disorder (SAD), for example, results showed mation of empathy into compassion (Box 3). Hearing a
that the use of reappraisal reduced negative affect in both crying baby on an airplane, for example, might first elicit a
patients with SAD and healthy controls, but that, in feeling of distress followed by aversion. This experience can
healthy controls, different patterns of activity in regulatory be transformed by taking the perspective of the baby’s
brain regions were associated with reduced amygdala mother, thereby triggering a sense of warmth and compas-
activity compared with patients with SAD [63]. sion, and also by reinterpreting the sound of the baby’s
The second core process that we propose to be central in cries, viewing the experience as an opportunity to cultivate
many constructive meditations is that of perspective tak- kindness and concern rather than an impediment to one’s
ing, the act of considering how oneself or another would feel own well-being. By systematically cultivating compassion
in a particular situation [64]. Perspective taking is espe- in this manner, responding to aversive stimuli with altru-
cially important as a contributor to the experience of social istic concern may eventually become automatic. Thus, such
emotions [65]. As a critical component of healthy interper- changes may be studied within the framework of habit
sonal relations, for instance, it is found to be diminished in formation, which is associated with various facets of phys-
psychopaths [66] and also to be a central mediator in ical and psychological well-being [68].
reducing intergroup prejudice [67]. Imaging studies indi- To date, constructive meditation practices have received
cate that there is no single neural mechanism related to less attention than other forms of meditation in scientific
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Opinion Trends in Cognitive Sciences September 2015, Vol. 19, No. 9
Box 3. Empathy, compassion, and the brain Box 4. Cognitive reification and forms of deconstructive
One of the most widely studied practices in the constructive family is
meditation
the cultivation of compassion. Compassion training is held to alter The deconstructive family represents a range of meditation practices
core self-related processes, initiating a shift from self-oriented cog- that use self-inquiry to elicit insight into in the nature and dynamics of
nitive, affective, and behavioral patterns to patterns that are oriented conscious experience. We have identified three subgroups of the
toward the well-being of others [108]. In the field of psychology, deconstructive family: ‘object-oriented insight’, ‘subject-oriented in-
empathy is characterized as the ability to understand or resonate with sight’, and ‘non-dual-oriented insight’. Object-oriented insight prac-
another’s emotional state [109–112] and compassion as a concern for tices use self-inquiry to investigate the objects of consciousness. This
the suffering of another accompanied by the motivation to help may involve, for example, investigating physical sensations and not-
[109,113]. In the absence of compassion, empathic distress can lead ing how they are constantly changing [102]. Subject-oriented insight
to negative affect [64,114], while compassion is associated with well- practices involve inquiries into the nature of thought, perception, and
being and positive emotions [114,115]. other cognitive and affective processes. In this style of practice one
Research into the neural correlates of empathy has found that may, for instance, dissect thoughts and emotions into their component
similar regions, including the insula, the anterior and mid-cingulate parts [72]. Non-dual-oriented practices are designed to elicit an ex-
cortices, and the supplementary motor area, are activated across periential shift into a mode of experiencing in which the cognitive
various forms of empathy [111,116,117]. By way of contrast, compas- structures of self/other and subject/object are no longer the dominant
sion is linked to regions associated with reward, positive affect, and mode of experience. These practices often emphasize the importance
feelings of affection, such as the ventral striatum and medial orbito- of releasing attempts to control, direct, or alter the mind in any way and
frontal cortex [70,114]. Studies of compassion training have also found also serve to undo the reification of a witnessing ‘observer’ that is
increased activation in regions associated with executive function, separate from the objects of awareness [14,100]. The goal of all three
including the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex [118] and the anterior styles of practice in the deconstructive family is not simply to maintain
cingulate cortex [70,119]. Although further research is required to awareness of different aspects of experience, as we find with the
determine the unique roles of each of these regions in the development attentional family, but rather to gain direct, experiential insight into
of compassion, these preliminary findings suggest that cultivating the nature and dynamics of experience.
compassion strengthens multiple networks, each of which may affect Although deconstructive meditations are used to inquire into many
distinct psychological processes and thereby contribute to well-being facets of conscious experience, the nature of the self is a topic of inquiry
in different ways. in a broad range of contemplative and philosophical practices. To give
Empathy and compassion also affect the peripheral biology of the two important examples, examining the self is linked to the highest
human body. Perceiving stress in another individual has been linked good in ancient Greek philosophy [27] and as the key to undoing the
to elevated cortisol levels, a relation that is more robust in those with cycle of suffering in Buddhism [78]. In Buddhist meditation, the pri-
high trait empathy [120], whereas compassion has been linked to lower mary target of many self-inquiry practices is cognitive reification, the
levels of cortisol reactivity [121]. Preliminary studies of compassion implicit belief that thoughts, emotions, and perceptions are accurate
training have found associations between the amount of time spent depictions of reality [124]. Deconstructive practices in this tradition are
engaging in compassion training and inflammatory biomarkers, with especially concerned with the view that the self is enduring and unitary,
more compassion training leading to decreased levels of both C-reactive since a reified sense of self is believed to be the primary cause of
protein and interleukin 6 [122,123]. These findings suggest that the suffering and states of discontent [78]. Therefore, Buddhist decon-
mind can be trained to orient itself toward the well-being of others structive practices often involve exploring the experience of subjec-
and that this shift from self- to other-orientation impacts both the tivity by inquiring into the various components that comprise the self,
brain and the peripheral biology of the body and, in particular, the for example [125], or by examining the relation between the self as
way the body responds to environmental stressors. Further re- agent or observer and the objects it interacts with [126].
search is required to elucidate the precise mechanisms through
which these states affect the body, and also to investigate how
changes in peripheral biology reciprocally impact psychological
processes and the relationship between these processes and patterns by exploring the dynamics of perception, emotion,
well-being. and cognition and generating insights into one’s internal
models of the self, others, and the world. We propose that a
central mechanism in the deconstructive family is ‘self-
research, although a few studies have begun to explore inquiry’, which we define as the process of investigating the
practices related to this family, including the cultivation dynamics and nature of conscious experience. Although
of compassion [69,70] and imagination-based meditations self-inquiry has received little attention as a subject of
[15]. Therefore, the precise role that reappraisal and per- scientific research, various forms of inquiry are used across
spective taking have in constructive styles of meditation is a range of contemplative traditions [71–73]. Self-inquiry
not yet known; neither is it clear how these processes relate may involve discursive analysis or a direct examination of
to the recruitment of specific brain networks. Nevertheless, conscious experience, and often involves explorations of
investigations of the cultivation of compassion, a widely self-related processes (Box 4 and Table 1). Discursive
practiced style of meditation in this family, provide useful analysis might entail identifying the assumptions that
information regarding the cognitive and neural mechanisms underlie the reification of a particular object or experience
of constructive meditations. Preliminary findings indicate and subsequently thinking about and questioning the
that this practice may affect the regulation of emotion and logical consistency of these assumptions. If you are anx-
corresponding brain networks (Box 3). Although further ious, for example, you might identify the fearful assump-
work is needed to clarify the role of reappraisal and per- tions that underlie the emotion and then inquire into the
spective taking in other forms of constructive meditation, rational basis for your beliefs. Another approach would be
these data suggest one possible mechanism through which to directly examine your experience, for example by dis-
specific forms of meditation may impact well-being. secting the feeling of anxiety into its component parts and
noticing how the thoughts, feelings, and physical sensa-
Deconstructive family: self-inquiry and insight tions that comprise the emotion are constantly changing.
The group of meditations that we refer to as the ‘de- In the context of Buddhist meditation, this process of
constructive family’ aims to undo maladaptive cognitive inquiry is often applied to beliefs about the self, although
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Opinion Trends in Cognitive Sciences September 2015, Vol. 19, No. 9
it can similarly be applied to the nature and dynamics of training increased creative problem solving relative to
perception, to the unfolding of thoughts and emotions, or to training in progressive muscle relaxation [80]. Moreover,
the nature of awareness. this difference was linked to heightened activation in a
In the deconstructive family, self-inquiry is practiced to variety of brain regions, including the right cingulate
elicit insight. Insight has been framed as a shift in con- gyrus, insula, putamen, and inferior frontal gyrus, and
sciousness, often sudden, that involves a feeling of know- the bilateral middle frontal gyrus, inferior parietal lobule,
ing, understanding, or perceiving something that had and superior temporal gyrus [80]. Further study is needed
previously eluded one’s grasp [74]. Scientific studies of this to determine whether specific forms of meditation, and
phenomenon have focused on the burst of understanding deconstructive meditations in particular, enhance the ca-
that can occur in relation to solving simple mathematic or pacity to arouse and sustain insight, and also to investigate
semantic problems [75]. Research has found that this form the psychological and biological correlates of insight
of insight is linked to hemispheric differences in the brain, experiences. Thus, studying the relation between different
with recent studies demonstrating that facilitatory direct forms of meditation and well-being calls for a more com-
current stimulation of the right frontal-temporal cortex prehensive account of the varieties of insight, their neural
along with inhibitory stimulation of the corresponding correlates, and the conditions and interventions that may
region in the left hemisphere greatly enhanced insight- facilitate their occurrence.
based problem-solving capacity [76,77]. To date, the scien-
tific study of insight has not investigated forms of insight Self-related processing and the brain
that may arise through self-inquiry; neither has there been As noted above, inquiring into the nature of the self is an
a systematic investigation of the relation between insight important practice in a variety of contemplative tradi-
and well-being. This is an area that calls for future re- tions, including both Buddhist meditation and Greco-
search, especially since a variety of meditative traditions Roman contemplative exercises [27,78]. One of the most
hold that specific forms of insight, such as insight into the compelling aspects of our sense of self is the ongoing
nature of the self, are of particular importance when it personal narrative that weaves together the various
comes to the cultivation of well-being [27,71,78]. aspects of our lives into a coherent, unified experience.
In Buddhist meditation practice, insights that would This inner interpreter has been linked to activity in the
ordinarily be fragile and fleeting are systematically stabi- left cerebral hemisphere in patients with a split brain
lized and integrated with one’s experience, first in formal [81] and to activity in the medial prefrontal cortex and
meditation and subsequently in daily life. Thus, the posterior cingulate cortex in brain-imaging research [82–
heightened awareness of present-moment experience cul- 84]. The narrative self can be contrasted with the first-
tivated through attentional meditations and the self-inqui- person subjective experience that is not extended in
ry carried out in deconstructive meditations are considered time. This aspect of selfhood has been referred to as
important, although distinct, processes [79]. To give an the ‘minimal self’ [85] and ‘minimal phenomenal self’ [86]
example of the relation between these two processes, con- and has been hypothesized to be instantiated in cortical
sider the feeling of being overcome by anger. When your activity in regions related to interoception, such as the
sense of self is fused with the presence of anger (i.e., the anterior insula [87–89], the temporoparietal junction
feeling ‘I am angry’), the arising of anger is not seen clearly, [90], as well as in the hypothalamus, brainstem, and
but instead forms the lens through which you view experi- other subcortical regions associated with homeostatic
ence. Attentional family practices train the capacity to functioning [91].
recognize the occurrence of anger and other states of mind, Given that there is still a paucity of empirical evidence
enabling one to notice the presence of angry thoughts, relating to deconstructive meditation practices and their
physiological changes, and shifts in affective tone. This impact on neural processes, this is an area that calls for
process of sustained recognition allows for the investiga- more intensive study in the future. Some data highlight the
tion of the experience of anger, an approach taken with possibility of using meditation to willfully manipulate core
deconstructive meditations. With this added element, one aspects of identity [57,92,93], although it is not clear
is not only sustaining awareness of the experience of anger, whether insight into the nature of experience disrupts
but also investigating its various components, inquiring rigid and/or maladaptive self-related processes; neither
into its relation with one’s sense of self, and/or uncovering is it clear how alterations of these processes might be
the implicit beliefs that inform the arising of anger and instantiated in the brain. Nevertheless, there does appear
then questioning the validity of these beliefs in light of to be some overlap between the insights that are said to
present-moment experience (Box 4). This investigation of arise in forms of meditation that explore the nature of the
conscious experience is said to elicit an experience of self and recent research in the arena of cognitive neurosci-
insight, a flash of intuitive understanding that can be ence, which suggests that self-processing in the brain is not
stabilized when linked with meta-awareness. Thus, instantiated in a particular region or network, but rather
meta-awareness sets the stage for self-inquiry and allows extends to a broad range of fluctuating neural processes
for the stabilization of the insight it generates while nev- that do not appear to be self specific [94,95]. Future studies
ertheless being a distinct process. may explore this convergence by using contemplative prac-
To date, only one study has investigated the relation tices, specifically those from the deconstructive family, to
between meditation training and insight. Although the probe the malleability of self-related processes, their in-
form of meditation used in the study was not deconstruc- stantiation in the brain, and their relation to both suffering
tive in nature, results showed that short-term meditation and well-being.
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Opinion Trends in Cognitive Sciences September 2015, Vol. 19, No. 9
Concluding remarks and future directions spur further discussion about the nature of contemplative
Scientific research on the effects of meditation is in the practice and how scientific study of meditation may help us
early stages. Although preliminary findings suggest that better understand the causes and conditions of human
meditation and other forms of mental training produce flourishing (Box 5).
demonstrable changes in subjective experience, behavior,
patterns of neural activity, and peripheral biology, rigor- Acknowledgments
ous studies are still needed to uncover the precise mecha- Support for our research described here was provided by NCCIH NIH
nisms that underlie these changes. In particular, P01AT004952, ERC Consolidator Grant (BRAINandMINDFULNESS,
617739), and several gifts to the Center for Investigating Healthy Minds
randomized trials, active control groups, and longitudinal at the University of Wisconsin-Madison (CIHM_UW). R.J.D. is Founder
studies that examine within- and across-subject changes and President of the Center for Investigating for Investigating Healthy
over time, as well as across-practice comparisons, will be Minds, Inc., (CIHM, Inc) a nonprofit corporation associated with CIHM-
especially important in determining the efficacy of medi- UW. C.J.D. is Chairman of Tergar International, a nonprofit organization
tation training paradigms [127]. In addition, subjective, that coordinates a global network of meditation centers.
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