Principles and Practices of

Culturally Responsive
Pedagogy©

Meeting the needs of diverse

learners in physical activity through
a social justice focus
Brian O. Culp, Ed.D
Culturenmotion.com

(August 2016 Edition)

 ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Brian Culp is a professor of kinesiology, specializing in physical

education teacher education at Kennesaw State University. He holds
degrees in health and physical education (B.S., University of Georgia,
1999), sports administration (M.S., Georgia State University, 2001) and
curriculum and instruction (Ed.D., University of Georgia, 2005).
His scholarship focuses on interpreting semiotics, archetypes,
social justice, physical activity infrastructure and organizational
change. In addition to creating and facilitating opportunities for
students to participate in research and civic engagement, he has helped
design funded community based intergenerational programing for
various populations.
Dr. Culp has been involved with groups such as SHAPE America,
NASPE, Physical Education Health Education Canada, The Centers for
Disease Control, and the National Board for Professional Teaching
Standards in policy development for active living. A recipient of several
awards for his efforts, Culp was a Fulbright Scholar in Montreal,
Canada in 2014-2015 and has recently been selected as the 2017
Delphine Hanna Lecturer by the National Association for Kinesiology
in Higher Education.

Selected works and a curriculum vitae can be found here:

Principles and Practices of Culturally Responsive Pedagogy: A brief guide to meeting
the needs of diverse learners through a social justice focus is protected by US and
International copyright laws.

August 2016

How to cite this document:

APA 6th edition

Culp, B. (2016). Principles and Practices of Culturally Responsive Pedagogy: A brief

guide to meeting the needs of diverse learners through a social justice focus. Retrieved
from https://culturenmotion.com/

Principles and Practices of Culturally Responsive Pedagogy, Culp 1

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE 6

HOW TO USE THIS RESOURCE 6

CHAPTER 1- ON SOCIAL JUSTICE 8

SOCIAL JUSTICE OVERVIEW 9

CHAPTER 2- WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO BE CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE 11

WAKE UP CALL 11
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE TEACHING 14
NOT THE SAME 16
STRATEGIES 18

CHAPTER 3- THE ROLE OF BIAS IN INFLUENCING OUR PRACTICES 19

THE FOUNDATIONS OF BIAS 21

HOW BIAS IMPACTS OUR LEARNERS 24

CHAPTER 4- LEARNING STYLES AND APPLICATIONS 27

CONSIDERATIONS FOR SPECIFIC CULTURAL GROUPS 29

CHAPTER 5-BECOMING MORE CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE 37

BECOME CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE EDUCATORS IN THIS GENERATION 40

A FINAL NOTE 42

APPENDIX 44

THE CONCEPT OF CULTURAL BACKGROUND PIES 48

BOOK RESOURCES 55

*A more expanded table of contents can also be accessed by accessing the bookmark tab at
the left of this document
FOR THE PEOPLE
 PREFACE

This is the third update of this resource since 2006. While a lot has happened
since then, the one thing that has been consistent is the fact that today’s
environments for physical activity reflect an array of differences in regards to race,
social class, gender, sexuality, religion, languages, cultural practices, and activity
choices. In order to promote equitable environments for learning, it is imperative
that culturally responsive methods of instruction are used to assist in delivering
content that will aid in the promotion of lifelong wellness.

Thus, this supplement was created as a means of aiding in this process, with
the specific focus on selected racial and ethnic groups in the United States. Even
this is a tricky proposition, as even within any group there can be differences in
behaviors, interactions, and choices. Again, I reiterate: there is no one singular
method which you can learn how to be culturally responsive in a manner of hours or
days. A focus on pedagogy of this sort takes intention by the individual along with
patience, a commitment to application, and reflection.

In this age of assessment, where test scores and bottom lines have dominated
education, a focus on culturally responsive practice harkens back to the basic
fundamentals of teaching. It strives to answer the question of “How can I provide a
teaching and learning environment which puts all of my students in the best
possible position to excel?”

How to use this resource

Whether you are a professor, teacher candidate, practitioner, or in a role

where you are working in health and physical activity, I would hope that you use
this resource how it was intended: as a supplement. Why? Well, the main reason
is because there is much more literature on these topics than when I first began this
endeavor. In fact, this might be the last incarnation of this work due to the
importance physical activity professionals have now placed on this topic. In this
resource, I have some updated links that will take you to some books on many of the
topics discussed in the next few pages.

These scholars are colleagues of mine and I have also been fortunate enough
to have contributed to many of their works. Notably, you may find some overlap
between many of the articles that I have published and what is found here. If you
see similar information, you should cite from the published article. When I first
started training people to work in diverse communities, one of the things I noticed
was the lack of knowledge people had on historical policies, racism, stereotyping,
bias, and power dynamics.

As I have continued throughout my career, my personal hypothesis is that the

lack of education on these topics have resulted in large part because we have an
6
educational system that actively works to suppress these discussions. Combined
with television and media that too often gives the illusion of cohesion, when in fact
the reality is much more complex. I don’t get surprised at what people don’t know
(see “surface diversity” at culturenmotion.com).

Some would say that I’m letting people “off the hook” by even mentioning the
role of media. Yes, students should take responsibility for their learning, but
concepts have to be introduced so that critical thinking to change the process of
teaching and learning can take place. If you are new to this resource, you will see
that there are some concepts that are basic and “stripped down”. This is intentional.

For example, when I first began teaching in higher education, the concept of
“white privilege” was incredibly difficult to navigate given that the vast majority of
my students had never been introduced to the concept. In fact, some days were akin
to a near-death experience. I joke, but talking about difference and disparity forces
people to uncover ugly histories, policies, and events that are still impacting our
global society.

After a few years of teaching about issues related to diversity, I decided that
in my introductory classes I would start with a basic concept, (in the case of this
example) “privilege” and then build upon concepts throughout the program. So a
discussion on being able-bodied, with resources, and choices of activities deemed
“popular” in schools can evolve into a discussion of the Invisible Napsack (McIntosh,
1989) and the isms (i.e. racism, sexism, classism). It’s not how everyone approaches
teaching about disparities, but I have found that it works well for me and my
students.

Concluding thoughts

To this end, this supplement will hopefully get you thinking about how to best
meet the needs of diverse learners in our communities. This information is not
the definitive manual. Nothing is. We have an enormous responsibility that often
gets degraded by the public, but in fact we are change agents. Yes, change agents!
Not only do we facilitate opportunities to help the physical body, but through our
efforts we have the ability to change the health outcomes and mental state of our
communities.

On to the resource!

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1 On Social Justice

By and large, our educational system in the United States is struggling to meet
the needs of underprivileged youth, including those who are racially and culturally
diverse, those from a minority sexual orientation, those who do not have the
resources for consistent physical activity participation and youth with special needs.
The bulk of these issues mirror inequities in society and have had a trickle-down
effect that impact participation, agency, and ultimately mobility for a host of
underrepresented groups.

However, the rationale for a focus on social justice has been of great debate
among many in education since the 1970’s. Advocates for social justice cite the need
for social change in teaching, specifically to assist in creating environments that are
reflective of a focus on equity. Those who do not believe in a social justice approach
to teaching feel that it brings to the table unnecessary imposition of ideological
viewpoints, thought control, and in some cases (in regards to training teachers), is an
infringement on First Amendment rights (Villegas & Lucas, 2007). Further, critics
feel that assessment alone should be the main standard to measure improving
outcomes among groups.

Physical education was my first academic home and an area where I still
engage in scholarship. I can tell you from personal experience that assessment alone,
while necessary, was not the sole contributor to the success of our learners in
schools and in out-of-school time programs. The programs that have been the most
successful, have understood that knowledge of the community is imperative, along
with setting high expectations for learning, engaging multiple stakeholders, and
most importantly respecting students, their culture, and their environments. This is
at the foundation of programs that have been sustained over a long period of time.

Allow me to go a step further. As a professor who teaches measurement and

evaluation and observes future professionals in practica and student teaching, it is
my opinion that assessment hasn’t changed our standing in most schools and among
the public. Yes, there have been notable exceptions (i.e. Let’s Move). However,
whether it is Praxis, EdTPA, or other measures to certify teachers, no one
assessment can account for the demographic, societal, and cultural changes in our
schools that impact what is taught, who teaches it, and how learners consume and
apply it. This aforementioned reason is why I think a focus on social justice works
along with, increased dedicated time for physical activity and appropriate
assessment.

So the question bears asking: What is social justice? There are many
definitions and approaches to answering the question. I complied the following from
8
work that I have done over the years:

Social justice promotes equity in resources, rights, and treatment for groups of
people who have been marginalized because of immigration, race, ethnicity, age,
social class, physical ability, religion and sexual orientation. Instead of dealing with
each of these issues as individual entities, social justice education considers these
subjects and resultant issues as an interconnected group. In promoting social justice,
there is a focus on issues of identity and oppression, the nuances of racism, ethnicity,
privilege, and social systems, along with an appreciation of history and legislation.

Teaching for social justice is an orchestrated task. As a topic that is

uncomfortable and difficult to discuss for many, it requires an appreciation of the
past, an understanding of current events that affect teaching, and knowledge of
methods for connecting information when delivering content.

There is general agreement that inspiration for a social justice focus has
originated from the historical works of Marx, Kant, Weber, Foucault, Gramsci,
Dewey, Habarmas, Derrida, Freire, Vygotsky, Du Bois, Washington and current
perspectives of Giroux, McLaren, bell-hooks, Apple, Lather, Steinberg and Kincheloe.
A host of approaches have been deeply entrenched in the social justice tradition
including democratic education, critical pedagogy, multicultural education, and
culturally responsive education.

The establishment of social justice as moral, political, and social policy in the
U.S. and specifically to much of education is attributed to the late John Rawls (1921-
2002). In the seminal work A Theory of Justice (1971), Rawls framed the American
civil rights movement of the 1950’s and 60’s as a moral narrative that had
consequence. This narrative helped empower groups such as African Americans in
working towards equal representation in the United States. Additionally, this social
justice focus provided Native Americans, women, gays, and individuals with a
foundation to advocate for anti-discrimination legislation and other forms of civil
rights protections in public spaces and businesses.

In the United States, social justice in physical education has been surveyed in
legislation related to the inclusion of individuals with disabilities, as well as sport
equity in regards to gender, race and culture. When examining the standards of
SHAPE America, cognitive and affective outcomes exist which align themselves with
the aims of social justice. Standard four specifically outlines that a physically literate
individual "exhibits responsible personal and social behavior that respects self and
others in physical activity settings”.

Committing to social justice as part of our practices helps to ensure that

individuals regardless of ability, race, social class, religion, gender, or sexuality
have an equal opportunity to benefit. And yes, most who are afraid to infuse it into
their thought processes are apprehensive because of the reality of uncovering issues
Culturenmotion.com 9
that are unsightly. This however, is the progress that we need to become better so
we can combat inequity and health disparities that are rampant in our society. With
this framework articulated, we can move on to discuss the need for cultural
responsiveness.

10
2 What does it mean to be culturally responsive?

Ladson-Billings (2009) defines culturally responsive pedagogy as “a pedagogy

that empowers students intellectually, socially, emotionally, and politically (p. 17-
18)”. Pedagogy of this type builds upon students’ cultural and linguistic resources
through various methods such as high standards, restructured student-teacher
relationships, community involvement, culturally mediated instruction, culturally
congruent curriculum, and cultural sensitivity (Powell, 1997; Tatum, 2000).

The above definition gives us a great start, but a more comprehensive description
of this sort of pedagogy is given by Richards, Brown, and Forde (2007):

Culturally responsive pedagogy facilitates and supports the achievement of all

students. In a culturally responsive classroom, effective teaching and learning
occur in a culturally supported, learner-centered context, whereby the
strengths students bring to school are identified, nurtured, and utilized to
promote student achievement.

American education has historically been rooted in a standard set of operating

procedures which has defined teaching and learning as separate, absolute entities
where the teacher dictates a set of behaviors for the student to follow. Students
follow these directions because of norms (rules) which are in place which describe
appropriate action in the classroom. For instance, we have been conditioned to
communicate if we don’t know something in a classroom by raising our hands to ask
a question.

But let’s imagine that we were never taught that raising our hands in a
classroom was an appropriate method of communication to ask a question. Why
don’t we go a step further and imagine that we don’t know that raising our hands is
an appropriate method of communication, nor do we know how to verbally
correspond this message.

How do you think you would feel if you were stuck in a room where everyone else
knew that there was something going on, but you didn’t?

A Wake Up Call

I once knew a student teacher a few years ago who planned lessons full of the
most innovative and creative things you could imagine for a class of elementary
learners. Students were going to be at their spots on the whistle, categorized in

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groups in order to help maximize time on task and movement, before entering into a
wonderful main activity. On this particular day, the student teacher under the
guidance of the cooperating teacher at the school, started with his lesson plan, true
to what was diagramed a few nights earlier.

The student teacher began instruction…

The cooperating teacher stepped out for a moment…

Students in the class were asked to stand up and move to the center of the room, to
find personal space for the instant activity. However, there was a problem.

One student refused to move. All the other students were in their personal
space, yet this lone student continued to sit on the floor in front of the student
teacher.

This is not the actual student.

The student teacher, dumbfounded, didn’t know how to handle this situation, and
began to become embarrassed, particularly with the rest of the students in the class
now watching him. The student teacher was apprehensive because he thought this
issue would result in causing him a poor review by the cooperating teacher. Quick
action was needed.

Abruptly, the student teacher motioned to the student to “get up” with his
hands and upon seeing this method fail, decided to take the hand of the offending
student and shuffle him to a corner of the gymnasium. As the cooperating teacher
came back, she finished watching the lesson. After students left class for lunch, the
cooperating teacher and student teacher had a conversation in the office to discuss
the lesson previously taught. The situation with the offending student was brought
up. The cooperating teacher asked the student teacher why he chose to sit the
student out of activity.

The student teacher noted that in his opinion that the student was a
disciplinary problem. The cooperating teacher told him that wasn’t necessarily the
case. The student teacher asked why.

The cooperating teacher told him that the student had just moved to the
school a few weeks ago and that the boy’s English was virtually non-

12
 existent. In fact, this class was one of the first physical education classes
that this student took after arriving at the school.

As they talked, the student teacher realized that he was in error. He took it
especially hard and spent weeks with that incident in his head. That
person, who was me, began to examine why that one teaching episode, out
of so many that semester felt like a complete failure.

It would be an overstatement to say that experience was life-changing, but it

would be an understatement to say that it had no influence. In less than 30
minutes, I unknowingly marginalized a learner in my class, despite my best efforts
in planning and being creative. Plenty of blame could be passed around as well,
including the administration which allowed for students to be placed in classes
without proper acclimation and my cooperating teacher for failing to inform me that
I had a non-native speaking new person in our class.

That incident years ago was my wake up call, and the reason why I believe
cultural responsiveness should be a consideration for every practitioner teaching in
today’s classrooms. Cultural responsiveness is not going to change every problem
we face in education, but it does allow for a different means of reflection, critical
thinking and analysis which we often fail to consider. If you can imagine that this
happened to me as a student teacher a shade over a decade ago, think about the
countless other practicing teachers, instructors, lecturers, administrators who have
had incidents where a lack of knowledge about students’ culture factor into the
equation and have done nothing about it.

If that cooperating teacher had never told me about that learner, there is a
chance that the student could have been subjected to the following:

1. -Labeled as a “problem child”, harming his future interactions with

other teachers and peers
2. –Stripped of the confidence to speak or participate in class
because of the communication gap
3. –Diminished in terms of social mobility. The non-communication
or reluctance to communicate by the student could impact
interaction in other classes, or in social situations were
communication is directly appropriated to future mobility (i.e.
participating in team sports, job attainment)

The unique dimensions of culturally responsive pedagogy

Culturally responsive pedagogy involves three dimensions which aid in creating

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successful learning environments for diverse learners: (a) institutional, (b)
personal, and (c) instructional. The institutional dimension reflects the
administration and its policies and values. The personal dimension refers to the
cognitive and emotional processes teachers must engage in to become culturally
responsive. The instructional dimension includes materials, strategies, and
activities that form the basis of instruction. All three dimensions significantly
interact in the teaching and learning process and are critical to understanding the
effectiveness of culturally responsive pedagogy (Richards, Brown & Ford, 2007).

Typically, the problem that we face is one of misplaced priority. We think in

terms of what we want instead of what students need. Teachers spend an
enormous amount of time talking about their individual classes at the beginning of
the school year in terms of meeting objectives, but they don’t necessarily go out of
their way to make students feel as if they are valued participants in the process of
education. In truth, many of us haven’t been adequately trained to do so.
Traditional teacher training places education into neat and organized boxes, given
to us as ways that we can create a better classroom, but lack information on the
things that also create good environments for learning. These include empathy for
students, knowledge of students and their situations, and cultural competence.

Geneva Gay (2000) notes that while improving academic achievement and
developing of a sense of community, camaraderie, and shared responsibility is a
goal of cultural responsive pedagogy, education of this sort can be
multidimensional for teachers and learners:

Culturally responsive teaching requires tapping into a wide range of cultural

knowledge, experiences, contributions, and perspectives. Emotions, beliefs,
values, ethos, opinions, and feelings are scrutinized along with factual
information to make curriculum and instruction more reflective of and
responsive to ethnic diversity.

However, every conceivable aspect of an ethnic group’s culture is not

replicated in the classroom. Nor are the cultures included in the
curriculum used only with students from that ethnic group. Cultural
responsive pedagogy focuses on those elements of cultural socialization
that most directly affect learning (Gay, 2000, pp. 31-32).

Given the context of the aforementioned statement, culturally responsive

pedagogy can be considered transformative, in the sense that it recognizes the

14
existing strengths and accomplishments of students and then enhances them
further during instruction (Gay, 2000, p.33). Additionally, the process is one that is
emancipatory, in that it “releases the intellect of students of color from the
constraining manacles of mainstream canons of knowledge and ways of knowing”
(p.35). Also, a sense of community can be fostered among all involved in the
process, with students being expected to work together and be accountable for one
another’s success (p.36).

It is of note that contrary to what is often considered by those unacquainted

with culturally responsive instruction, the inclusion of the experiences of ethnic
minority groups is not done at the expense of deposing existing curricula
and lessons, but performed to enhance the overall teaching and learning
process. This is a very important point to understand. Culturally responsive
instruction adds value to our classes and our teaching.

When we look at some of the current trends in the United States, it is easy to
see why a culturally responsive approach has application for us as for us as
health and physical activity practitioners. Consider the following:

• By the year 2020, CLD (culturally and linguistically diverse) students will
comprise approximately half of the public school population in the U.S.

• That in California alone, there are 57 languages

spoken among school age children.

• It is estimated that over 1000 students from

foreign countries enter public schools for the
first time every day in the United States.

• Many educators at all levels have a lack of knowledge of the experiences,

needs and resources of CLD student populations, including the presence of
racism and social inequality.

• While urban and suburban areas were once considered two separate
entities, the sharp distinctions between them are becoming blurred
due to population increases. These “boombergs” (Halper, 2001) have
made issues once associated with a specific locality, issues for all of us.

This is of particular concern for us in our respective professions because generally

in a school, those who focus on health and physical activity are often perceived
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differently than the classroom teacher. Gymnasiums are often thought of as rooms
where students play or in extreme cases “holding tanks” for students between
classes, instead of places where students can learn from others and be empowered.
Health and physical activity are seen as novelties for students in schools who
marginalize physical education, no matter how great the teachers of these classes
are.

The lack of importance many schools place on health and physical activity be it
through planning or what is actually taught in the class, is a subliminal message
that tells students that they are not valued. When we consider that physical activity
and play have been noted by educators and psychologists as an important means by
which people can become socialized, the lack of attention to cultural details in the
places where physical activity takes place is disturbing.

Why we can’t just teach all students the same.

Many practitioners think that they will be effective with students regardless
of issues related to race, social, class and ethnicity.

Therefore, the aforementioned issues are not important unless people make
them issues. They as teachers are “colorblind” and when asked about teaching
students state “I teach see all my learners as the same”. The idea of a colorblind
approach to teaching, while great in theory, is flawed. A colorblind approach ignores
the history of discrimination and inequity in our society which has placed many
ethnic groups and diverse learners in disadvantaged situations.

Banks (2001) terms this need for “colorblindness” as assimilationist ideology--

dangerous because cultural groups with characteristics that cause their members to
function unsuccessfully in the common culture are seen as deficient, deprived, and
pathological, lacking the needed functional characteristics to be successful in society
(McWhorter, 2000).

Put another way, assimilationist ideology espouses that strategies of teaching

and learning which reflect the dominant culture and the culture of the nation are
the only ones that should be used universally. Emphasis on cultural and ethnic
differences in curriculum are seen a threat to this process. The focus of the school
under this philosophy then, should be on socializing youths to what is taught by the

16
dominant curriculum in place. This curriculum is often represented by one or two
dominant groups in society.

In theory, all of our learners should be taught the same, but a glance into
history tells us something remarkably different. In America we have discriminated
against African Americans, placed Japanese citizens in internment camps, banished
Native Americans to reservations, told persons of Irish ancestry that they do not
need to be hired, and have barred access to Ivy League institutions for those of
Jewish descent. This is not to mention discrimination perpetrated against women,
persons who speak a different language, practice another religion, have a disability,
or identify themselves as gay or lesbian.

Colorblind, assimilationist ideologies for many have a noble intent. The

problem is that these ideologies assume that humans function as computers that
can be rebooted at the flip of a switch and cleared of all of our biases which have
impacted our perceptions of people. Trying to place one blanket of instruction on an
increasingly diverse student base is like attempting to place a square peg into a
round hole.

Understanding ourselves as teachers and learners

First, it should be understood that what we believe is very much influenced by

the experiences which have shaped us from infancy to adulthood. Audio and visual
media such as television, radio and the internet define for so many people what is
accepted as truth. Established social constructs on behavior help to frame our values
and tell us what is right and wrong. In order for us to be culturally responsive
practitioners, we also need to recognize that culture encompasses a broad spectrum
by which students are affiliated with.

Culture is a part of ethnicity and race but also includes ways of life passed from
generation to generation demonstrated through art, beliefs, institutions, manners of
dress, languages, rituals, religions and in some cases laws. Understanding how
these impact us helps to destroy some of the major myths regarding culturally
responsive teaching noted by Irvine and Armento (2001):

• Culturally responsive pedagogy is a new and special type of pedagogy that is

relevant only to low income, urban students of color.

• Only teachers of color are able to demonstrate characteristics of culturally

responsive educators.

• Culturally responsive pedagogy is a “bag of tricks” that minimizes the

difficulty of teaching some students of color.

• Cultural responsiveness requires teachers to master the details of all of the

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 cultures of students represented in the classroom.

• Culturally responsive pedagogy reinforces stereotypes about children of color,

characterizing and labeling children based on race and ethnicity.

In order to effectively meet students’ needs, we need to first know who we are
and then examine our learners to determine who they are. Like us, our learners
cannot be defined by one characteristic which makes them unique. They are pieces
which must be looked at in sum to be fully appreciated. The Education Alliance at
Brown University (2008) informs us that there are some strategies that may help us
in this endeavor:

• Communicating High Expectations – Providing consistent messages,

from both the teacher and the whole school that students will succeed, based
upon genuine respect for students and belief in student capability.

• Using Active Teaching Methods − Instruction that is designed to promote

student engagement by requiring that students play an active role in crafting
curriculum and developing learning activities.

• The Teacher is a Facilitator − Within an active teaching environment, the

teacher's role is one of guide, mediator, and knowledgeable consultant, as
well as instructor.

• Utilizing Positive Perspectives on Parents and Families of Culturally

and Linguistically Diverse Students − There is an ongoing participation
in dialogue with students, parents, and community members on issues
important to them, along with the inclusion of these individuals and issues in
classroom curriculum and activities.

• Cultural Sensitivity − To maximize learning opportunities, teachers gain

knowledge of the cultures represented in their classrooms and translate this
knowledge into instructional practice.

• There is Willingness to Reshape the Curriculum − A reshaped

curriculum is culturally responsive to the background of students.

• Culturally Mediated Instruction is of Importance − Instruction is

characterized by the use of culturally mediated cognition, culturally
appropriate social situations for learning, and culturally valued

This is a lot to think about! So now that we have the rationale out in the open,
what could keep us from realizing our potential to be culturally responsive?

18
3 The Role of Bias in Influencing our Practices

Becoming a more culturally responsive practitioner means that we first must

recognize that we have an inherent set of biases which could influence the way we
impact learners. Bias is a term used to describe a tendency or preference towards
a particular perspective, ideology, or result. Often bias is most apparent when the
tendency demonstrated interferes with the ability to be impartial, unprejudiced, or
objective.

Bias for many of us could pertain to the choices that we would make if we
woke up one morning and were given absolute power to make any changes that we
could without repercussion. Bias reflects what we hold as important in our world
based on what we believe is acceptable. Biases in my opinion are difficult to
manage or change for the following reason:

People do not like to admit that they are wrong,

even if provided evidence to the contrary.

Bias is witnessed through many channels in our society. It can be:

Cultural- interpreting or judging actions based on one’s culture. For example,

some countries cite American tourists as being some of the worst travelers in
the world because we expect other countries to make unreasonable attempts to
cater to our needs in respect to signage, menus, and enmities placed in hotel
rooms. Often, we will make value judgments based on how they respond to
our demands.

Ethnic or racial- an example of this is nationalism. Nationalism refers to the

devotion to the interests or culture of one’s nation. International soccer
violence in the past few years has escalated due to the rise in nationalistic
thought equating superiority to winning. Since nations identify heavily with
their soccer teams, losing is seen as a cultural deficit. Recently, many
organizations like FIFA (International Federation of Association Football)
have taken steps to decrease racism in soccer.

19
 Geographic- one example of this can be seen in the way we perceive persons
living in different parts of the United States. The west coast is seen as a
region where people are more “laid back”, while the east coast is seen as
“fast paced”. Northerners are generally believed to be more educated than
Southerners.

Media- real or perceived bias of journalists and news producers in the mass
media in the selection of events reported and how they are covered. CNN for
example is seen by many as a “liberal” outlet for news, while Fox is seen by
others as a “conservative” outlet for news.

Gender- this relates to sexism. Historically women have been subjected to

an ideal which tells them that they need to stay at home, be docile and
follow the lead of men.

Personal- bias used which results in personal gain. Often, people hire based
on a perceived comfort level with an individual, even though they may not
know the person intimately. For instance, this type of bias could be seen by
hiring a person because they happen to have the same passion for golf that
you do.

Religious- this type of bias is for or against religion, faith or beliefs. One
example is not allowing for an alternative test date or assignment for a
student who is celebrating a religious holiday because of the teacher’s belief
that the student’s religion is flawed.

Bias also manifests itself in society through the use of slogans and sayings which
have become part of common vernacular:

Group affiliation: “Birds of a feather, flock together.” (in reference to people of

the same nature having the same characteristics).

Clothes and manner of dress: “The suit makes the man.” (in reference to this
being the only characteristic of importance in determining self- worth)

Gender: “Don’t wear white after Labor Day.” (in reference to women only as
a taboo)

20
 Bias is inherent in values that we assume people demonstrate. Group affiliation,
clothes, gender, race, status, participation in certain activities, and educational
status are some categories which we make unfounded assumptions. Here are a few:

• We consider athletes to be jocks and the most popular people in school.

• Not wearing a tie and jacket during a job interview is seen as a fashion faux
pas.

• Minority groups are often considered as naturally rhythmic.

• Those who attend Ivy League schools are automatically assumed to be

more competent that graduates from other institutions.

The foundations of bias and the types we need to avoid

Anthropologists speculate that bias was used as a

survival mechanism between early human groups. As people
began to grow in number, branching out into different
subsets and spreading across the globe, patterns of
communication and language which were similar at one
time, dissipated. Psychologists believe that the human mind
is configured to create categories by which we group people,
their actions and our responses to these actions and our
responses to these actions. These categories create a haven
for stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination.

Gibbs (1994) notes six types of bias which we need to avoid as practitioners.
They are linguistic, stereotyping, exclusion, unreality, selectivity, and isolation.
Here are the details of each:

Linguistic bias -refers to using any language that is dehumanizing or denies

the existence of a certain group. When we teach and fail to acknowledge the
contributions of others to what is being covered in our lesson and curriculum it is
considered demeaning. Often, members of different ethnic groups come into our
learning environments with names that we cannot pronounce or have trouble with.
When students laugh or deliberately mispronounce someone’s name from another
country or different cultural group, this is promoting bias. It is important to note
that some students from diverse backgrounds will not respond in class because
they are afraid to deal with ridicule because of their lack of mastery of the English
language. In a global society, this should not happen.

21
 Stereotyping- is an embellished belief, image, or distorted truth about a
person or group. Typically this generalization allows for little or no individual
differences or social variation. Stereotypes are based on images in mass media, or
ideas passed on by parents, peers, and other members of society. Stereotypes can
be positive or negative. A negative stereotype of Native Americans is that they live
on reservations, wear headwear and feathers and have a spiritual nature which
connects them exclusively with the earth. A positive stereotype of Asian Americans
is that they push their students to excel academically, but even this is a
problematic stereotype because it assumes that every Asian student does well in the
classroom, and they do not.

Exclusion- describes the lack of representation by a group, or a removal of a

group from the larger population. When we call on certain students for answers, or
only focus on our more coordinated students in our classes, we are practicing
exclusion. Students who have difficulty in class are often placed into other
environments too prematurely when what is needed is a bit of creativity in
instruction by the practitioner and encouragement.

Unreality- refers to the misinformation about a group, event, or contribution.

Typically this is witnessed through expectations we have of students before we
have the opportunity to teach. This is seen in regards to urban learners, who are
portrayed as minority, poor and unruly with a lack of structure and support at
home. Culturally and linguistically diverse learners are usually seen as Spanish-
speaking. Students with a physical disability are seen as having an affliction
which will keep them from performing in class.

Selectivity –describes the single interpretation of an issue, situation, or

conditions. In countering this bias, we need to work to help learners see issues
from more than one perspective. As teachers, we need to also work to be sure that
opinions given to us by our learners are listened to and taken under consideration.
The reasons why a Muslim child will not swim with girls may have nothing to do
with the fact that the student is afraid of water, but it may have something to do
with the fact that modesty in Islamic culture is regarded as a practice.

Isolation- is the final type of bias we should avoid as practitioners, involving

the separation of groups. Rapport is difficult to build in a classroom, but it must be
done so that students can have a better opportunity to know one another and work
together to improve learning. In a global society, isolation can be detrimental to an
individual, affecting their ability to communicate and function. As noted by
Johnson, Johnson and Holubec (1987) and Tatum (2002), students will never
interact together in the classroom, if they cannot interact in our classes.

Prejudice, discrimination and the reinforcement of bias

Bias, when left unchecked for the health and physical activity practitioner, can
lead to a litany of problems which undermine our instructional efforts and impact
our learners negatively. Prejudice refers to a prejudgment, opinion, or attitude
regarding a group or individual members and is accompanied by ignorance, fear or
hatred. Psychologists generally agree that the process began with attachment to a
close circle of acquaintances or an “in-group” such as family, which directs hatred
toward an “out-group”. Discrimination occurs when the “in-group” treats people
unequally because of their group affiliation. These can be witnessed in the form of
slights, the perpetuation of different regulations, or hate crimes.

Prejudice is a learned behavior. Allport (1958) noted in a series of studies

that by age three, children begin to learn that there is group identification among
family and thus imitate this affiliation. The child however, can also change over
time as a result of interaction with other groups consistently. Bergen (2001)
espoused that models which are considered authority have their most powerful
influence between the ages of 7 and 8.

Regardless of the age that prejudice takes root, one thing is certain- it does so
a young age and if not corrected has the potential to define a child’s view of the
world. Even when we teach students, we must be aware of this. If we imagine that
we are all empty glasses when we come into the world, subject to being filled with
experiences which determine the contents of our glasses, this metaphor has
relevance. In reflecting upon ourselves, we need to ask what were our glasses
filled with and what are we filling our students’ glasses with?

Bias is based on the thought that there are absolute truths which exist for
every situation, even when evidence fails to support these truths. When we make
statements such as “I don’t hate_____people. “Some of my best friends
are_____people”, it highlights the tendency to allow for exceptions to the rule
without changing our bias. The statement is like an apple which looks perfect on
the outside, but is rotting at its core interpretation on the inside.

23
 The perpetuation of bias is supported by conformity with in-group attitudes
and socialization by the culture at large. Examples of this are shown via mass media
services which take advantage of stereotypes in order to present a mood, feeling,
interpretation, or character. Media images are quick to develop and take advantage
of the “quick fix” nature of human beings in the 21st century. The details are often
missing or are non-existent, and many people are unequipped or too indifferent to
effectively “weed out” fact from fiction.

How bias impacts our learners

Systematically deciding to let our feelings impact the decisions we make about
students is problematic. We are the most influential persons in creating a climate
that fosters success for all of our learners. That being said, there are considerations
which we need to take into account which directly impact our learners: (a) the
physical environment, (b) curriculum and lesson planning, (c) teaching, and (d)
assessment.

A few years ago I was inspired by a host of theories in education to examine

how the physical environment impacts learners. This is not a totally new concept to
classroom educators, but the importance of this for culturally diverse learners in our
profession was almost a foreign concept. I have noticed in my travels and
observations of many schools that many health and physical activity programs are
inconsistent when it comes to presenting an environment for learning.

This “S” Effect (Culp, 2010), takes into account the sights, sounds, and
symbolism found in the gymnasium and similar instructional settings. It’s easy to
look at two hoops in a gym and a few nets and surmise that students can participate
in physical activity. What is harder to determine is to what extent students have
voice in physical activity programs. Some initial questions students ask of their
learning environments are (1) Can this place be mine or adjusted to me? (2) Can I
produce results here? and (3) Can I get along with and relate to others who are here?
To consider these questions as they relate to diverse learners, we need only to think
about places we have walked in and have felt uncomfortable.

Curriculum is the foundation for how lessons are produced and what is to be
presented in health and physical activity classes. The essential question which needs
to be asked is if the curriculum is representative of the ideas of the dominant group or
culture or is it representative of multiple perspectives. The danger is introducing
concepts solely that highlight diversity during pre-determined months (i.e. Black
History Month) or as a special activity (i.e. dance, eating food). In order to become
culturally responsive teachers, we need to actively monitor bias in our instruction.
This includes taking into account different learning strategies and the use of non-
verbal gestures. The simple statement of inquiry asks “Is what you’re saying equal to
what you are doing?”
 Scholars note that 60-90 percent of most communication is non-verbal. Let’s
ponder this. Students may well pay attention to what you do more than what you
tell them. When diverse learners are constantly surrounded by images which reflect
the dominant culture in terms of curriculum, practices, languages, routines, and
activities, the smallest of details which are familiar to these learners can assist in
promoting success for these students. These details could serve as a first step in
breaking barriers, relieving tensions, and addressing apprehensions.

Finally, assessment takes into account learning characteristics such as speech,

language, cognition and when students enter into school. If there is no assessment of
teaching, then how will we know if we are approving? Assessment can happen via
videotaping, recording, enlisting peer evaluation, or having students providing
feedback on what is presented in your classes.

As I alluded to earlier, assessment also involves being aware of personal

attitudes. Project Implicit (http://www.tolerance.org/Hidden-bias) has a dearth of
surveys and other tests that will give you a pretty good gauge on areas to improve
upon related to personal bias, attitudes towards diversity and how to better commit
to the change that is needed for equitable environments.

Legislation provides a precedent for cultural responsiveness

Saying that we are going to do the right thing is often not enough to guarantee a
commitment to the types of changes needed to assist our learners. Diverse learners
and groups are protected through various pieces of legislation and court cases, some of
which are listed and described below.

• Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits discrimination on the basis
of national origin (and other civil rights).

• Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 prohibits the exclusion, the
denial of benefits, and discrimination by reason of disability in programs or
activities receiving federal funds.

• The Individuals with Disabilities in Education Act (IDEA) requires

States and local education agencies to provide a free and appropriate public
education to children with disabilities.

• The Americans with Disabilities Act was enacted in 1990 to address

discrimination against persons with disabilities. Title II of the ADA provides
that no individual with a disability shall, by reason of such disability, be
25
 excluded from participation in or be denied the benefits of the services,
program, or activities of a public entity, or be subjected to discrimination by
any such entity.

• Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 prohibits discrimination on

the basis of gender by recipients of federal funds. Title IX has been applied to
ensure adequate participation opportunities for female students in athletics
and in cases of sexual harassment by school administrators, teachers and
students.

• W. Virginia Board of Education vs. Barnette (1943)

In this landmark case, the Court struck down a law requiring students to recite
the pledge of allegiance each morning. The Court ultimately ruled that
imposing a sworn belief on an individual violates their rights.

• Plyler vs. Doe (1981) ruled that all students in public schools must be
appropriately served, including any students who may not be documented as
legal immigrants.

We as educators must be willing to admit that bias exists and help students
question their values and beliefs that result from stereotypes used by peers and
found in media. Stereotypes are not always evident in today’s society, leading some
to argue that prejudice does not exist as it did years ago, but it does. Unconscious
prejudice results from inequities existing outside our scope of consciousness, thus
leading to denial. This is certain: prejudice will not go away by merely leaving it
alone. As long as there is bias, there will be some form of prejudice, whether implicit
or explicit.
4 Learning styles and applications

Tileston (2010) notes that society

identifies intelligence by looking at
those who can synthesize information
quickly, process it efficiently, and
retrieve it from long-term memory
when needed.

Those who take in information slowly but retrieve it quickly are often labeled as
overachievers.

Those who take in information quickly but retrieve it slowly are often labeled as
underachievers.

This has ramifications for the different students we work with because of learning
styles reflected in groups that have been observed, researched and measured.

Perhaps we need to consider how students learn

Sousa (1995) describes three modalities, or ways of learning that students may prefer
to learn: auditory, visual, and kinesthetic. Keep in mind, this is a preference. Research
has not uncovered anything definitive on this area, so your experience could vary.

Auditory learners, make up the smallest group of learners we encounter (roughly 20%
of students). These students remember information which is heard and like being lectured
in a traditional format. They “hear what you are talking about”. Auditory learners work
well when there is:

-Direct instruction
-Peer tutoring
-Activities which incorporate music
-Group discussions and brainstorming
-Specific oral directions
-Verbalizing while learning
-Cooperative learning (student interaction)

27
 Visual learners make up the largest group of learners in the classroom. These are
students who need to see information in order to understand how things work. They will
“believe it when they see it”. Teachers for these learners should use organizers which do
not demand a great deal of speech, such as concept maps.

Visual learners:

-Have difficulty understanding oral directions

-Experience difficulty remembering names
-Enjoy looking at books or drawing pictures
-Watch the teachers face
-Like to work puzzles
-Notice small details
-Like for the teacher to use visuals when teaching
-Like the use of concept maps, prediction trees, and mind maps

Kinesthetic learners are those who need movement and touching in order to become
engaged in learning. Typically, these are the students who are often-off task, talking to
peers, or attempting to manipulate equipment. Their slogan is “If you want me to do it,
then give it to me and let me work on it”. Thus, they learn by doing. Kinesthetic learners
also:

-Need to be mobile
-Want to experience through the five senses
-Usually have good motor skills and are athletic
-Like to take things apart to see how they work
-May appear immature for their age group
-May be hyperactive learners
-Need a hands-on approach to learning
-Like cooperative learning

Field independent vs. Field dependent

There has also been research done on students in respect to how information is
thought about and processed using a field independent (analytical) method or field
dependent (global) method. Witkin, Moore, Goodenough, and Cox (1977) classified the
attributes of these two different types of learners, describing them as the following:

Field-independent (analytical) learners tend to:

-be analytical, logical, and temporal

-prefer to gain individual recognition
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-be task-oriented with abstract, impersonal work
-divide the whole into subcategories based on differences
- be found in cultures in which place importance on personal autonomy and formal
organization in the family
- learn step by step
- prefer cumulative sequential patterns which build towards a concept
- prefer quiet, well lit, formal design
- have a strong need to complete the task they are working on
- respond well to words and numbers
- need visual re-enforcement
- give directions, fact sheets, underline important sections
- provide feedback on details in sequence

In contrast, field dependent (global) learners tend to:

-be unable to perceive elements of his or herself as separate from his or her
environment
-be global learners, establish meaning only in relation to the whole
-think in ways which are not linear or hierarchical
-listen to others before making quick decisions
-look to authority figures for guidance
- like to be introduced to information with humor and color
- work with distracters
- take frequent breaks
- work on several tasks simultaneously
- need lessons that are interesting to them
- discover through group learning (small group techniques)
- need written and tactual involvement
- respond well to pictures

Considerations for specific cultural groups

Previous research and observations of cultural groups in the latter half of 20th
century produced numerous studies noting interesting behavioral patterns related to
culturally diverse learners. However, understand that the following constructs should be
used to define general characteristics of learners that may be helpful in an educational
context. Students at all times should be treated as individuals. These descriptors serve as
a means of better understanding students in health and physical activity environments.

Banks (2002) and Irvine and York (1995) warn that there is a responsibility for
educators to take into account the complexity of learning styles that are found among
students to decrease the formation of new racial and ethnic stereotypes.
 On a personal note, I was first introduced to these concepts before becoming a full-
time teacher, gave them little attention, and subsequently a few years later found that
they had relevance for my instructional goals, teaching and research methodology. When I
present this information, it is typically met first with a great sense of skepticism before the
time is taken to deconstruct it. These strategies are not hard to execute, but are often not
thought about and failed to be applied consistently enough to make an impact.

Lists like these cannot be used to apply to every single diverse learner in our classes,
because there are differences found even in racial and ethnic groups. These lists can
however, be used to notice trends among certain groups of learners and thus plan for the
success of these students. Given that the majority of teachers are representative of a
middle- class Anglo background while student populations in public schools grow
increasingly multicultural, this information could significantly impact student outcomes
when traditional methods of delivering content have failed.

Hispanic (Latino) Learners

Hispanic/Latino learners currently constitute

the largest minority population in the United
States and are representative of Mexico,
Central and South America, and the
Caribbean. These learners are:

• Members of the largest minority population in the United States

• Less likely to have had early childhood education (pre-school, Head Start)
• More likely to be enrolled below their grade level
• More likely to drop out
• Committed to family (with an importance on loyalty, strong support systems)

Hispanic/Latino learners also:

• Identify with defined roles and procedures

• Have a respect for spirituality, and authority
• Are typically field dependent (more group oriented, less competitive)
• Are typically kinesthetic learners
• Make up the majority of our CLD (culturally and linguistically diverse learners

30
 in schools)
• Have been shown to prefer sound, cool temperatures, and formal learning designs in
classrooms/activity areas

Some additional considerations in respect to Hispanic/Latino learners are that:

• They are not a homogeneous group

• Peer helpers are useful (particularly if language difficulties are evident)
• Self-image issues are constant, because of “ideological clashes” between the
dominant culture and the student’s culture
• Different ways of teaching and instruction are helpful
• Students should be judged based on current situations, not past or present
occurrences
• Hispanic American highlights and culture should be introduced in classes
• Hands-on experiences should be provided
• Visual aids, demonstrations and precise oral communication are helpful
• Bilingual methods of learning as appropriate should be offered
• Hispanic/Latino immigrants who are from island countries may find indoor
activity difficult at first due to acculturation and adjustment to a new climate

Additionally:

• Be aware that although there are common characteristics in this population,

Hispanic Americans are a very diverse group and include distinct subcultures
that differ significantly as to custom, values, and educational orientation. It is
also important to recognize the limitations of research as the majority of studies
have focused on Mexican American learners.

• Demographic variables other than gender and ethnicity that impact on learning
style may not be isolated in studies. These variables include socioeconomic class,
geographical region, primary language, religion, family structure, and number of
generations in the U.S.

African American Learners

For years, African Americans were the largest

minority group and have been subjected to persistent
stereotypes in respect to learning and achievement.
Many negative attitudes have also focused on males
and discipline.
Considerations:

• Excessive communication in class may be the result of a need for students to

voice rebellion against irrelevant, racist, or simplistic instruction
• Many African American youth have been socialized to believe that they are
“biologically” and “culturally” destined to participate in sports
• African American learners are strongly influenced by their culture
• The worldview of African Americans is reflected in cautionary action
• African Americans are more affective, than psychomotor (people focused)
• They are typically field dependent
• Information is usually remembered in a social context
• African American learners use intuitive thinking
• Learners act via environmental cues
• They are typically expressive and creative in thinking

They are cognizant of nonverbal communication, movement and rhythm. Some

considerations for these learners include:

• Never lower expectations for students

• Valuing the importance of culture for students
• Having activities which are creative
• Recognizing efforts and accomplishments
• Challenging stereotypes related to African American culture as they arise
by students of all groups
• Encouraging cooperation
• Valuing the impact of life experience on students behaviors in class
• Presenting artifacts which resemble their culture
• Introducing behavior change strategies which are student centered, and focused on
individual responsibility and self- control
• That they are kinesthetic/tactile learners
• That subdued lighting should be provided as appropriate
• That music should be provided as appropriate
• Some believe that African American girls spend a great deal of time on their
hair. Therefore, hair image maintenance could be used as a barrier when girls
are asked to perform moderate to high-intensity aerobics or swimming
exercises.
• In African American culture, there is typically less pressure to be thin,
especially for women.

32
 Native American Learners

Like Hispanic/Latino learners, Native

American learners have a vast amount of
variety in their population. Challenges
perennially exist to make schools a
meaningful place of learning for these
students. Behavioral
expectations of Native American students by teachers who are not of the culture
can cause conflict because of beliefs regarding discipline. Native American
learners:

• Usually follow the cultural norm of respecting the teacher by listening,

not asking questions or responding.
• Are typically visual learners
• Tend to be reflective learners, who consider all sides
• Tend to wish to perform the activity correctly
• In most cases see time as a flexible entity
• Appreciate humor if used appropriately and gravitate toward teachers who have an
open teaching style

Some considerations for learners include:

• Understanding that learning is often different in the school and community

• Using personalized teaching strategies and styles
• Using oral and storytelling traditions
• Providing time for student practice
• Not consistently looking at students, nor have students look at you,
the teacher consistently
• Asking questions of learners which show concern
• Working to actively develop student self-concept, given the
representation of curriculum
• Being aware of proximity and nonverbal responses
• Using diverse peer tutoring, particularly with students who have had
difficulty with a task and gotten better
• Being careful when giving personal advice, typically privacy is highly
 valued in Native American culture
• Emphasizing learning as trial and error, not zero sum
Also understand that:

• Learning strategies are broad in respect to different cultures and norms

of each Native American nation.
• It is best to think in terms of general Native American strategies
and adjust accordingly.
• There is vast diversity within cultural groups exists depending on how
much each Native American group absorbs the “macroculture”.
• A vast percentage of diets are poor quality and in need of improvement.

Asian American Learners

Asian American learners have historically

been referred to as the “model minority” a
moniker which is rooted in stereotypes. Asian
Americans are also made up of a vast majority
of sub-populations and in the past two decades,
much literature has begun to be produced
which correctly describes the perspectives of
these learners. Asian American learners
typically have the following characteristics:

• They are family committed

• They and their families highly regard education and high expectations from teachers
• Current American educational structures may clash with students well-
being and self-confidence
• East and Southeast Asian cultures tend to be different in that respect
for elders, deferred gratification, and discipline are strong influences
• Students (children) tend to be more dependent, conforming, and willing
to place family over individual wishes
• Asian Americans could be confused by informality between teachers and
students at first, if they are not native to the U.S
• Typically students work well in a structured, quiet environment
• Typically are distressed when misbehavior is publicized

Some additional considerations include the following:

34
 • Understand that many Asian students have been socialized to listen
more than speak
• Teachers should base academic expectations on individual ability
rather than stereotypical beliefs on achievement
• Teachers should consider peer teaching
• Teachers should rely on the students’ family for support
• Educators should utilize language support for students

Arab American Learners

Arab American learners have been subjected to

a lack of information and realistic insight, as
well as a host of unfounded stereotypes such as
“anti- American, anti-Christian, cunning, and
war-like”.

Traditionally, Arab families sent their children to

private schools which understood the importance of their religious and cultural
beliefs. Over the past decade, this trend has decreased. Arab Americans in
public schools are represented in more than 20 countries in the Middle East and
North Africa, with the majority of students identifying themselves as Islamic.
Teachers of these learners should understand that:

• Manner of dress are important for these learners as well as religious holidays.
• Criticism should be shared in a way to minimize embarrassment for the
students (save face)
• Shows of affection in public are generally not the norm for students
• Arguments are usually avoided, friendships are held in high esteem
• Be aware that behaviors with the opposite sex could be seen as
immodest-don’t pressure participation in mixed-gender activities (i.e.
swimming)
• Family life and harmony are crucial elements

Other considerations for learners include:

• Muslim children are prohibited from uncovering their bodies and

participating in communal showers after sports. Have private showers
available
• Boys may cover their head with a kufki, girls with a hijab.
• Negative portrayals of Arab students should be handled ASAP
• School policies and practices largely determine how welcome Arab
American students feel, references should be included in curriculum to
counter stereotypes and misconceptions
• Arab Americans should not be made to feel that events in the Middle East
are under their control

36
5 Becoming more culturally responsive

With the aforementioned information regarding cultural responsiveness

presented, it is now time to shift our focus to what we can do in order to uphold
these practices in our teaching and learning environments. Practitioners go
through four initial phases that help establish how effective their efforts will
be. The COPE Inventory asks practitioners to Contemplate, Originate, Plan,
and Engage.

Contemplate
Plan

Originate Engage

Figure 1-The COPE Inventory (Culp, 2009)

Contemplate- a phase in which individuals first come to terms with

thoughts and attitudes which may determine their commitment to teaching
diverse learners. This phase is the most important because if practitioners are
not willing to ask and answer these questions, they will never be able to fully
immerse themselves in the next three phases. Some questions which need to be
answered are:

-What are my biases in respect to teaching?

-Who are the learners that I am likely to focus on and why?
-Who are the learners that I am likely to not focus on and why?
-Why do I think I need to be a more responsive teacher for all learners?
-How can a focus of this type be beneficial for my students?
37
 Originate is the next phase of the inventory which allows for people to
brainstorm ideas which can help meet the needs of their learners. Origination
should record observables- things which have been done in the past to help
learners, current happenings, and what could happen in the future. This phase
is typically takes the least amount of time. Here are some examples of
observables:

Past
• presented activities in a lesson
• provided music for students
• created a dance and physical activity series of lessons
• attended professional development on diversity and social justice

Current
• promotion of cultural games day
• involving students in the development of rules
• use of bilingual commands in the classroom
• involving parents in homework

Future
• developing an action plan for diverse learners
• introducing reflective wall pieces for the gym
• having a bulletin board or wall mural for the health classroom
• creating a highlight tape for the end of the year

After we contemplate and originate, it is time to plan. An individual

plan for a class should be based around a set of specific goals for learners
using ideas from the origination phase. Teacher should make plans for
their classes with administrators as a system of “checks and balances”.
Administrators who are involved with long term strategic planning for a
school, county, district or state should plan using a multiethnic team
made up of community stakeholders who represent the areas where
students are attending school. Here are some issues to think about when
planning:

• Utilizing the school calendar to highlight specific days or weeks of focus

• Getting teachers in individual schools involved as a cohesive unit
• Having specific goals for the week, month, and school year, which are
measureable
38
 • Trying initiatives at a few selected schools to gauge impact
• Making sure initiatives are developmentally appropriate for
elementary, middle and high school groups
• Looking at existing standards for health and physical
activity/education in regards to culturally responsive pedagogy
• Enlisting the help of donors and stakeholders to assist with meeting
initiatives
• Writing grants to help fund programs
• Developing initiatives and professional development opportunities
to help educate all persons in meeting the needs of diverse
learners

Engagement is the final phase of COPE. This involves following through

with the plan along with appropriate and ongoing assessment for
improvement. Some considerations include:

• Assessing in a consistent manner, which mirrors changes in school

population
• Evaluating health and physical educators on issues related to their
classes in respect to culturally responsive pedagogy
• Assessment using methods which are easy to analyze
• Creating simple tools which combine written and numerical
measures of data collection
• Assessing appropriately enough so that practitioners have time to make
changes
• Having determination of goals being met done by health and
physical activity professionals along with individuals who
understand the unique nature of these classes and culturally
responsive pedagogy
• Not making decisions on job performance solely on whether
practitioners meet goals related to culturally responsive
practice
• Assessment- taking into account availability of resources,
existing curriculum, school structure, school location,
demographics and school culture
• Making results available for individual practitioners, schools,
and districts to determine whether progress is being made
toward goals
• Understanding that culturally responsive practice is a dynamic
39
 and not a static entity meaning it always undergoing change

How are we to become culturally responsive educators in this generation?

As we know, teaching involves a lot of work and sacrifice, with the

rewards not often seen until well after students leave our classes. In this
generation of smart technology, increased accountability for assessment,
and funding concerns, it is very easy to ask why a focus on teaching to
the traits of diverse learners will make a difference. Society has made it
appear on the surface that issues related to race and culture do not exist
anymore, but a closer look at recent public schools statistics will reveal
evidence to the contrary:

• As of 2001, the school population of Hispanic Americans was

projected to increase by thirty percent, Asian and Pacific
Islanders by thirty-nine percent, African Americans by eight
percent, and Native Americans by six percent (Crandall et al.
2001).

• In many large public city school systems, seventy to eighty percent of

the students are either Latino or African American (Henry and
Kasindorf, 2001).

• Mexican American students, who represent ninety percent of all

Hispanic students, are increasing at a rate almost ten times greater
than the overall population (Scribner, 1999).

• Urban teachers report that over fifty percent of their students have
problems that the typical classroom teacher is unable to help them
with (Haberman, 1995).

• The high school dropout rate is close to twenty-two percent for Hispanic
Americans, and eleven percent for European Americans (National
Education Association, 2001).

• In 2004, a report by the Indicators of School Crime and Safety reported

that twelve percent of students reported that someone at school had
used hate-related words against them (i.e., derogatory words related to
race, religion, ethnicity, disability, gender, or sexual orientation). This
same report noted that thirty-six percent of students saw hate-related
graffiti at school.

40
 These issues don’t even scratch the surface of the types of situations that
we will have to focus on as health and physical activity professionals. Our
classes are in the middle of serious changes. How then can we help become
change agents? Let’s explore some strategies.

First, we as individuals need to become aware of our own cultural background

(see pg 33 in appendix). Ask yourself how your values, beliefs and customs
influence your attitudes and behaviors. Often, we see culture through one lens
much as if we were looking at a singular building in a skyline from close range.
The whole building can’t truly be appreciated in the skyline until we take a few
steps back to see how it fits.

Additionally, we need to understand that there are no right or wrong

cultural beliefs. Beliefs from different cultures, whether we agree with them
or not are merely different, and we have no right to impose our “truths” on
those beliefs. We can however, offer opinions to be discussed.

Another point of emphasis should be placed on making an effort on

knowing who are students and their families are and where our students
come from. This can be difficult given the size of many of our classes, but it is
not impossible. Our students should be known to us with names and not
numbers.

To that end, we should consider every action which is performed in our

learning environments as marketing. If we want to sell the idea of health,
physical activity, and an overall better quality of life to students, we need to
definitively know who are target audience is. We need to constantly ask
ourselves how we going to get our product out to the most number of people
possible. If people don’t know what we do, then we need to educate them
instead of letting them walk around in a daze of ignorance.

Culturally responsive practitioners are aware that they need to try to

accommodate the needs of learners in the best way possible, without taking

41
away from the goals of the class. These accommodations may mean that we
have to “go the hard way” with people, which is to say that we must be willing
to make that extra effort to make sure our environments are inclusive.
Considerations should be made as to how cultural events, religious needs, and
holidays can be instituted in our classes so that our lessons can be impactful.
Also, instances could exist where we need to enlist the help of those who are
bilingual if we are not proficient in the language of the learners entering our
classes.

Above all, we should strive to highlight the commonalities in our

differences and become more student-centered, instead of teacher-centered.
Effective instructional strategies for all learners include the following:

• Connecting student’s prior knowledge to new knowledge

• Setting high expectations
• Instituting a positive classroom climate (signage, rules, consequences)
• Finding the purpose of what is to be learned and explaining benefits
• Using interactive teaching strategies
• Grasping the “teachable moment”
• Allowing for students to participate in planning instruction, as appropriate
• Using culturally familiar speech and points of reference
• Empowering students to make change

A Final Note

Understand that you will not be able to meet the needs of all students
for each activity, every day. The key is in the effort. For some learners, the
attempt at trying to ensure a successful experience for them is appreciated.
Also, keep in mind that you, the practitioner, must demonstrate the will and
drive to put these considerations into action.

Regularly, many of us view differences in learning as problems inherent

in the students themselves, rather than a flaw within our pedagogy.
Unfortunately, other teachers ignore culture and its impact on learning both
in “content” and “style,” rather than devising methods and techniques through
which culturally diverse individuals can compete on the same footing (Nuby,
Ehle, & Thrower, 2001). When teachers fail to recognize cultural differences
among learning styles, students may react in negative ways to instruction
(Ladson-Billings, 2001).

42
 Lack of understanding is not always the fault of the teacher. Many of our
teacher education programs fail to provide the kind of experiences that allow
prospective teachers to develop the skills necessary to identify and address the
learning styles of diverse groups. Not surprisingly, this leaves many of us
uninformed about cross-cultural differences and how to employ culturally
responsive pedagogy.

Teachers are faced with limited information regarding diverse cultures and
linguistic patterns other than their own and know that this limitation negatively
affect their students’ ability to become successful learners (Montgomery, 2001).
In order for us as practitioners to be effective with diverse students, it is crucial
that that we recognize our own worldviews- in order to understand the
worldviews of our students (McAllister & Irvine, 2000).

43
 A PPENDIX
Reflective Questions
Cultural Background Pies
Basic Beliefs of Culturally Responsive Educators
Differentiating Instruction for Second Language
Learners
Nonverbal Considerations for Diverse Learners
Suggested Links and Literature

44
 Reflective questions for those working in physical
activity environments
(adapted from Davis, 2006)
Davis notes that another way of thinking of culture is by understanding that it is the total
of everything an individual learns by growing up in a particular context and results in a
set of expectations for appropriate behavior in seemingly similar contexts.

Acculturation is the process whereby the culture, values, and patterns of the majority
are adopted by a person or an ethnic, social, religious affiliation, language, or
national group.

I was born and acculturated into a nuclear two-parent family that was African
American, lower middle class, suburban, southern, Baptist, and conservative. These
parameters formed the young adult lens I used to view the world.

What was your young adult lens?

Describe your culture today. Which parts of your young adult lens still
describe you (several of mine have changed)?

For many people, discussing culture means focusing on racial or ethnic differences.
Ethnic culture according to Lindsey, et al. (2003), results from our ancestral heritage
and geography, common histories, and physical appearance. My ethnic culture is
African American. It is with great likelihood that you and I share an American
culture, but our lenses differ in how we view the world in this American culture. We
do however share an identical nationality if you were born here. Nationality refers to
our place of origin (Singleton, 2003). For many of us, our nationality is the United
States.
45
What is your ethnicity?

What is your nationality?

How does your culture, ethnicity, and nationality differ from your
students and colleagues?

Think about the way you view your world. What factors contribute to the
lens you wear as you view the world?

46
Cultural Factors
The following are several major factors that influence the way we see our world and
contribute to the many cultures we weave in and out of each day:

Family Language Income of Hobbies

family/social
Gender Friends Political views

Race Religion Ethnicity

Age School Views related

to health
Sexual orientation Geography Sport affiliation

When interacting with our students, we bring the baggage of our past experiences,
our prejudices, our preferences, as well as those of our families, and other factors
that influence the lens through which we view the world.

Examine the list above. Which one do you share with your students? For
example, you may have participated in soccer growing up, and the majority
of your class participates in soccer, therefore you share soccer
participation in common with your students.

In which ones do you differ from your students?

The more differences you find, the more bridges you may need to build to reach those
you instruct.

What have you learned as a result of defining your culture?

47
The Concept of Cultural Background Pies
(Adapted from Noel, 2000)
Reflect on who you are today. Why do you think certain people or things are
important? What made you believe the things that you believe? What is it about
your background that makes you who you are today?

Look at the pie below. Each part in this pie represents an important part of our
identity. For each of us some of these pieces of our background may be very
important to us. For others, these same pieces may not be anything that we have
even thought about as important.

Gender Family
Role

Location Religion

Ethnicity

As the examples in these next pies illustrate, two people who appear to be very
similar in their identities can in actuality be very different in terms of what they
feel is most important in their personalities. Will these two students have the
same views about the world? Will their beliefs about education be the same? Or
will their perspectives be different?

Asian Soccer
Soccer American Female

Female Canadian
Asian

Canadian American

Think about your own characteristics, and draw your own background pie to
illustrate what parts of your background have affected who you are today.
48
Basic Beliefs of Culturally Responsive Educators
(Irving and Armento, 2001)

• Hold high academic and personal expectations for each student.

• Provide for each student equitable access to the necessary

learning resources and sufficient opportunities to learn.

• Ensure that learning outcomes are meaningful, relevant,

useful, and important to each child.

• Nurture learning-support communities for each child (families,

peers, homework hotlines, community centers).

• Facilitate the maximum growth of each learner by making

informed academic adaptations that match and build upon the
learner’s prior knowledge, experience, skills, and beliefs.

• Build positive and supportive school and classroom learning

environments that are grounded in mutual and genuine
respect for cultural diversity.

• Promote classroom climates built on social justice,

democracy, and equity.

• Promote individual empowerment, self-efficacy, positive self-

regard, and a belief in societal reform.

• Value diversity as well as human commonalities.

• Believe that it is their role and responsibility to provide

effective and empowering instruction for each child.

49
 Differentiating Instruction for Second Language Learners

• Establish a relaxed learning environment that encourages students to take risks and
attempt to use both languages, and emphasize communication rather than language
form. For example, correct students indirectly by restating their incorrect comments in
correct form (if the student says “My ball down,” you say, “I understand, your ball is
near your feet.”)

• Begin new lessons with reviews of relevant previously learned concepts, and
show the relationships between previously learned concepts and new material.

• Relate material and examples to students’ experiences, use cultural referents, and use
real world language and meaningful, functional activities.

• Be consistent in your use of language, and use repetition to help students acquire the
rhythm, pitch, volume, and tone of their new language.

• Use gestures, facial expressions, voice changes, pantomimes, demonstrations,

rephrasing, visuals, props, manipulatives, and other cues to provide a context that
conveys the meaning of new terms and concepts.

• Introduce new material in context, discussing changes in the context while it is

occurring. Talk about what has occurred in contexts to reduce ambiguities.

• Develop students’ language competence by using modeling, questioning, art forms,

drama, simulations, role plays, storytelling, music, and games.

• Supplement oral instruction and descriptions with demonstrations; hands –on

activities; and visual materials such as charts, maps, graphs, pictures, graphic
organizers, and chalkboard writing.

• Make it easier for students to understand and respond by articulating clearly; pausing
often; limiting the use of idiomatic expressions, slang, and pronouns; highlighting key
words through increased volume and slight exaggeration; using rephrasing; simple
vocabulary; and shorter sentences; and giving students enough wait time.

• Allow students to express their knowledge, understanding, and intending meaning

nonverbally. For example, rather than asking a student to define a word or concept, ask
the student to draw a picture depicting it.

• Encourage and show students how to use bilingual dictionaries, pictionaries, and
glossaries and offer regular summaries of important content, and students’
understanding frequently.
(Adapted from Salend, 2005)
50
 Nonverbal Considerations for Diverse Learners

Lue (2001) categorized four means of nonverbal instruction which can aid
teachers in being more attune to these and other learners in educational
settings: (1) prosody- patterns of speech such as pitch, duration, loudness and
rhythm, (2) kinesics- visual signals sent by the body to the receiver, (3)
proxemics- the distance of interpersonal and social space and (4) paralanguage-
the production of sounds that are verbal, but nonverbal. Here are some
examples of use in physical education environments, with the understanding
that they can be adapted for use in classrooms.

Prosody- refers to the rhythmic pattern of speech such as pitch, duration, and
intonation. Prosodic features carry meaning and may serve to confirm or
contradict the spoken language. Problems in this area can include
inappropriate responses and use of variations in pitch, duration, loudness and
rhythm.

Scenario:
Placing emphasis on a certain word when giving feedback on appropriate
routines to students:

Correct:
Teacher: “Guys, I really think we can do better with putting up our equipment.
Remember to place the paddles, back in the bin, next to the closet.”

Misinterpretation
Teacher: “Guys, I really think we can do better with putting up our equipment.
Remember to place the PADDLES, back in the BIN, next to the CLOSET.”

The latter statement could be interpreted by students as demeaning, based

primarily on the method and emphasis on key words in the instructional
phrase.

Proxemics- represent measurable distances between people as they interact in

interpersonal and social space. These distances can be described as intimate,
personal, social, or public. Problems occur with inappropriate actions or
misinterpreted meanings.

Scenario:
Being aware of cultural considerations in teaching students:

51
 Mr. Reynolds has begun a golf lesson which focuses on putting. As he walks
around to assist students, he stops at Mai Sue, a Hmong student who is
having trouble keeping her head down on the ball during her follow-through.
He watches a few strokes and places his hand upon her head and encourages
her to keep her head down. After a few strokes with his hand on her head,
Mr. Reynolds steps away to watch her continue without his assistance, and is
puzzled when Mai Sue continues to look down at the ground without out any
movement.

Comment:
Unbeknownst to Mr. Reynolds, Mai Sue’s traditional Hmong culture
discourages individuals placing hands upon the head, as it is believed to be the
place that a person’s soul resides. In this and similar situations, it is best to
always ask permission, because interpersonal and social space is interpreted
differently among individuals and cultures.

Kinesics- describes the visual signals sent to the receiver (student) by the
body, utilizing any part of the body or the body as a whole. Kinesics assumes
that all movements of the body have meaning. Problems can occur if the visual
signals are misinterpreted by the student or if the message sent by the visual
signal fails to match the verbal message sent.

Scenario:
Reminding students about appropriate signals used to being a routine.

Correct:
Ms. Larkin speaks to her kindergarten class who is sitting in a circle in the
middle of the gym on the first day of class. She discusses the difference
between general space and self- space, demonstrating to students that the
signal for finding self-space in the gym is her stretching her arms out wide.
The students watch, stand up when prompted, and imitate her to demonstrate
their understanding of this concept.

Misinterpretation:
Brett, a new student in Ms. Larkin’s class who has arrived the second week of
school, gathers with the rest of his classmates in the middle of the circle in
the gym. Ms. Larkin upon seeing that they are attentive, smiles at her
students and stretches her arms out wide. The students get up and find their
own self-space. Brett however, walks up to Ms. Larkin and hugs her. His
classmates giggle.

Comment:

52
 Given that Brett is a new student in class and has no knowledge of the routines
in place. Ms. Larkin could have assessed (by asking for a demonstration)
whether students’ remembered how to find personal space.

Paralanguage-refers to the production of sounds which are vocal, but

nonverbal and can include sighs, muttering words, increased rate of speech,
crying and laughing. These sounds are not articulated into speech or words,
but can modify meaning and convey emotion such as anger, joy, sadness, fear
and anger. Problems again occur with misinterpreted meanings.

Scenario:
Speaking and instructing to benefit all learners:

Jennifer is a new student teacher instructing badminton to a small group in a gym.

One of the members of the group is Tim, who is hearing impaired and sits
clustered behind his classmates near an empty whiteboard. Jennifer glances at the
clock and hastily finishes pointing out the parts of a racket before asking students
to partner up and practice hitting shuttles to one another. Tim and Ben (who has
in one hand a racket and in the other several shuttles) walk up to Jennifer. Tim
holds out his racket with an inquisitive look on his face. Jennifer as she chews her
gum smiles and responds tersely, telling Tim that she “can’t be his partner,
because she has to teach”. Jennifer begins to walk away to the rest of the students,
motioning to Tim and Ben to hurry. The two students look at one another and
shake their heads as they follow the student teacher.

Comment:

Jennifer should be cognizant of arranging her group so that everyone is able to see
her instruction. She should utilize the whiteboard or captioned videos in order to
address new terminology or illustrate important parts of the racket. Her instruction
should be deliberate, clear, unhurried and unobstructed (i.e. gum), as this can be
difficult for students who lip-read to do so. Jennifer’s facial expressions could
convey mixed messages. Each students’ attention should be gained before giving
instruction and students should be asked clarification questions to assess learning.
Interpreters and peer helpers if deemed necessary can be used.

53
Selected Resources and Links
Culturenmotion - https://culturenmotion.com/

Teaching Tolerance- http://www.tolerance.org/

GLSEN- http://www.glsen.org/

Native Web- http://nativeweb.org/

PHYSEDagogy- https://physedagogy.com/

Multicultural Education Internet Resource Guide:

http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/%7Ejar/Multi.html

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Books Related to Diversity, Multiculturalism and Culture in
Physical Education/Activity

Sociocultural Issues in Physical Education: Case Studies for Teachers

by Sara Barnard Flory and Amy Tischler

Social Justice in Physical Education: Critical Reflections and Pedagogies for

Change
by Daniel B. Robinson and Lynn Randall

Urban Physical Education: Instructional Practices and Cultural Activities

by Rhonda Clements and Amy Meltzer-Rady

Critical Pedagogy, Physical Education and Urban Schooling (Counterpoints)

by Katie Fitzpatrick

Promoting Language Through Physical Education: Using Sign Language and

Spanish to Engage Everyone
by Luis Columna and Lauren Lieberman

Critical Postmodernism in Human Movement, Physical Education, and Sport:

Rethinking the Profession (Suny Series on Sport, Culture…
by Juan-Miguel Fernandez-Balboa

Case Studies in Adapted Physical Education: Empowering Critical Thinking

by Samuel R. Hodge and Nathan M. Murata

55
 Other Literature (Older)
Adams, M., Bell, L.A. & Griffin, P. (Eds.) (1997). Teaching for diversity and social justice: A sourcebook.
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Allport, G. (1958). The nature of prejudice. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.

Banks, J. A., Cookson, P., Gay, G., Hawley, W., Irvine, J.J., Nieto, S., Schofield, J. W., & Stephan,
W. G. (2000). Diversity within unity: Essential principles for teaching and learning in a
multicultural society. Seattle, WA: Center for Multicultural Education, College of Education,
University of Washington.

Banks, J. A., (2006). Cultural diversity and education: Foundations, curriculum, and
teaching. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Columna, L., & Lieberman L. (eds) (2011). Overcoming language barriers through physical
education: Using sign language and Spanish to engage everyone! Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Davis, B.M. (2006). How to teach students who don’t look like you: Culturally relevant teaching
strategies. Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press.

Davis, H. A. (2001) The quality and impact of relationships between elementary school students
and teachers. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 26(4), 431-53.

Darling-Hammond, L., French, J. & Garcia-Lopez (Eds.) (2002). Learning to teach for social justice. New
York: Teachers College Press.

Delpit, L (1995). Other people’s children. New York: New York Press.

Gay, G. (2000). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research and practice. New York: Teachers
College Press.

Gilliland, H. (1999). Teaching the Native American. Dublin, Ohio: Kendall Hunt.

Grant, C., (ed). (1995). Education for diversity: An anthology of multicultural voices. Needam
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Grant, C. A., & Gomez, M. L. (1996). Making Schooling Multicultural. Englewood

Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

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education (pp. 484-497). New York: Macmillan.

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Irvine, J. J. & Armento, B. J. (2001). Culturally responsive teaching: Lesson planning for
elementary and middle grades. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Holubec, E. J. (1987). Structuring cooperative learning:
Lesson plans for teachers. Edina, MN: Interaction Book Company.

Ladson-Billings, G. (2009). The dreamkeepers: successful teachers of African American children

(2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Lue, M. S. (2001). A survey of communication disorders for the classroom teacher. Boston,
MA: Allyn and Bacon.

National Education Association (2001, March 19). The bottom line. National Education
Association Today.

Noel, J. (2000). Developing multicultural educators. New York: Longman.

Ramsey, P. G. (2000) Teaching and Learning in a Diverse World. Teachers College Press

Richards, H., Brown, A., Forde, T. (2007). Addressing diversity in schools: Culturally
responsive pedagogy. Teaching Exceptional Children, 23 (3), 64-68.

Salend, S. (2005), Creating Inclusive Classrooms Effective and Reflective Practices for All Students.
Pearson/Merrill/Prentice Hall.

Scribner, A.P. (1999). High Performing Hispanic Schools: An Introduction. In P. Reyes,

J.D. Scribner & A.P. Scribner (Eds.), Lessons from High Performing Hispanic Schools (pp. 1-
18). New York: Teachers College Press.

Shade, B. J., Kelly, C., & Oberg, M. (1997). Creating culturally responsive classrooms.
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National Association of School Principals.

Tiedt, P.L. & Tiedt, I.M. (2002). Multicultural teaching: A handbook of activities,
information, and resources (6th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Tileston, D. W. (2010). What every teacher should know about diverse learners. Second
Edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Villegas, A.M., & Lucas, T. (2007). The Culturally Responsive Teacher. Educational
Leadership, 64 (6), 28-33.

Witkin, H. A., Moore, C. A., Goodenough, D. R., & Cox, P. W. (1977). Field-dependent and field-
independent cognitive styles and their educational implications. Reviews of Educational
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