CHAPTER 1

Chapter Outline
1.0 Verification of Ultimate Limit State of Buckling
1.1 Stability problems with or without bifurcation of
equilibrium

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 CHAPTER 1

1.0 Verification of Ultimate Limit State of Buckling

1.1 Stability problem with or w/o bifurcation of
equilibrium
o For an ideal column (simply supported) that fulfills
the conditions:
 The column is made of a linearly elastic material
that follows Hook’s law
 The column is perfectly straight
 The column is loaded by a vertical load P that is
applied through the centroid of the cross-section
and aligned with the longitudinal axis of the
column
 Deflections are small so that the approximate
formula for curvature can be used
→ The column remains straight and undergoes only
axial compression when the axial load P < Pcr. The
straight form of the equilibrium is stable, which
means that the column returns to the straight position
if it is disturbed.
→As the load is gradually increased, we reach a
condition of neutral equilibrium and the corresponding
value of the load is the critical load Pcr.
• The critical load can maintain the column in
static equilibrium either in the straight position
or in a slightly bent position (Existence of

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 CHAPTER 1

adjacent equilibrium). This equilibrium state

is called neutral state and the governing DE
(linearized) for the column in neutral
equilibrium is:
v’’ + k2v = 0 (v = the lateral deflection and k2 =
P/EI

v ''
(Non-linear theory→ (1 + v ) + k 2v = 0 ; where v
'2 3 / 2

= lateral deflection and k2 = P/EI). The linearized

theory is sufficient for all practical purposes as will
be described in the following sections. However,
member post-buckling behavior can not be
investigated with the linearized DE.)
→At higher values of the load, the column is unstable
and will collapse by bending. For the ideal case at
hand, the column is in equilibrium in the straight
position even when p > pcr. However, the
equilibrium is unstable, and the smallest imaginable
disturbance will cause the column to deflect sideways;
the deflections increase immediately and the column
will collapse
→The buckling of the ideal column is associated with
bifurcation of equilibrium at Pcr (Load path bifurcates
as shown in the load-deflection diagram). These kind

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 CHAPTER 1

of analysis constitute stability problem (analysis)

with bifurcation of equilibrium

P
unstable equilibrium

B
Neutral equilibrium

Pcr
stable equilibrium

v
o

Fig. Load-deflection diagram for an ideal column

Of course, actual columns do not behave in this

idealized manner because imperfections always
exist. Nevertheless it is instructive to study ideal
columns because they provide insight into the
behavior of real columns. (Also the buckling loads
are used to determine amplification factors, αcr etc.)
• For the simply supported ideal column, the general
solution of the DE is:
v = C1sin kx + C2cos kx
From the boundary conditions C2 = 0 (from v at x=0
is equal to 0) and (from v at x=L is equal to 0)→

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 CHAPTER 1

C1sin kL = 0 (a)
→ C1 = 0 or sin kL = 0
→ If C1 = 0, the deflection v is zero for all x and the
column is straight. In that case Eq. (a) is satisfied for
any value of the quantity kL. → The axial load P
may also have any value (with P ≥ Pcr or P < Pcr).
This solution of the DE (often called the trivial
solution) states that an axially loaded column does
not deflect laterally (remains straight) is represented
by the vertical axis of the load-deflection diagram
shown above. This solution corresponds to an ideal
column that is in equilibrium (either stable or
unstable) under the action of the compressive load
P.
The other possibility for satisfying Eq. (a) is to meet
the following condition:
sin kL = 0 → kL = nπ → P = (n2π2EI/L2) and the
smallest critical load for the column is obtained
when n = 1
→ Pcr = π2EI/L2.
The critical load for an ideal elastic column is also
known as the Euler load after the famous
mathematician Leonhard Euler (1707-1783).

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 CHAPTER 1

The corresponding buckled shape (sometimes called

a mode shape) is
v = C1 sin(πx/L) (half sin wave)
→ The constant C1 represents the deflection at
midpoint (sin(πx/L) at x=L/2 is equal to 1) of the
column and may be positive or negative. Therefore
the part of the load-deflection diagram
corresponding to Pcr is a horizontal straight line as
shown in the figure above. The deflection at this
load is undefined, although it must remain small for
our equations to be valid.
The bifurcation point B is at the critical load; above
point B the equilibrium is unstable, and below it
stable
• Describe analogy

o Effects of large deflections, imperfections, and

inelastic behavior

The equation for the critical load was derived for an

ideal column in which the deflections are small, the
construction is perfect, and the material follows
Hooke’s law.

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 CHAPTER 1

→ As a consequence, we found that the magnitudes

of the deflections at buckling were undefined (linear
eigenvalue problem). Thus at P = Pcr, the column may
have any small deflection, a condition represented by
the horizontal line A in the load-deflection diagram
shown below (shown only to the right).

A
B
Pcr
A C

O v

Fig. Load-deflection diagram for columns: Lines A, ideal

elastic column with small deflections; curve B, ideal elastic
column with large deflections; Curve C, elastic column with
imperfections; and curve D, inelastic column with
imperfections

→ The theory is limited to small deflections because

we used v” for the curvature. A more rigorous
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 CHAPTER 1

analysis based upon the exact expression for curvature

shows that there is no indefiniteness in the
magnitudes of the deflections at buckling. Instead, for
an ideal elastic column, the load-deflection diagram
goes upward in accord with curve B. Thus, after an
elastic column begins to buckle, a larger and larger
load is required to cause an increase in the deflections.
→ Now suppose the column is not constructed
perfectly; for instance, it could have an imperfection
in the form of a small initial curvature so that the
unloaded column is not perfectly straight. Such
imperfections produce deflections from the onset of
loading, as shown by curve C. For small deflections,
curve C approaches line A; as the deflections became
large, it approaches curve B. If the column is
constructed with great accuracy, curve C approaches
more closely the straight lines A (one vertical and one
horizontal). From line A, B, and C, we see that the
critical load represents the maximum load-
carrying capacity of an elastic column for practical
purposes, because large deflections usually are not
acceptable.
→ Finally, we consider what happens when the
stresses exceed the proportional limit and the
column material no longer follows Hooke’s law. Of
course, the load deflection diagram is unchanged up to
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 CHAPTER 1

the level of the load at which the proportional limit is

reached. Then the curve for inelastic behavior
(curve D) departs from the elastic curve, continues
upward, reaches a maximum, and turns
downward. Naturally, the detailed shapes of these
curves depend upon the material properties and
column dimensions, but the general nature of the
behavior is typified by the curves shown.

Only extremely slender columns remain elastic up to

the critical load Pcr. Stockier columns behave
inelastically and follow a curve such as D. It is
important to recognize that the maximum load P
that can be supported by an inelastic column may
be considerably less than the critical load Pcr.
Furthermore, the descending part of curve D
represents catastrophic collapse, because it takes
smaller and smaller loads to maintain larger and
larger deflections.

By contrast, the curves for elastic columns are quite

stable, because they continue upward as the
deflections increase; that is, it takes larger and larger
loads to cause an increase in deflection.

o Second order theory (Beam columns)

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 CHAPTER 1

In the preceding sections we analyzed ideal columns

for which the axial load acted at the centroid of the
cross section. In such cases the column remains
straight until the critical load is reached. Now we
will assume that the load is applied with a small
eccentricity e from the axis of the column (Fig.). As
a consequence of the eccentricity, the load P
produces bending of the column even when the load
is small. Therefore, the column deflects from the
onset of loading, and the deflection becomes
steadily larger as P increases. In this situation, the
allowable load for the column may be determined
by the magnitude of the deflection or the bending
stress, rather than by the critical load.

P x
e P e

v
L

P e y
e
P

Fig. Column with eccentric axial loads

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 CHAPTER 1

There is a basic difference in the formulation of the

conditions of equilibrium b/n the axially loaded
column and the eccentrically loaded column. In the
former, the column is assumed to have buckled and
the equilibrium equation is written on a FBD of the
buckled column. Therefore, the solution of the DE
yielded the critical load and the buckling shape. In
the latter on the other hand, the analysis is the usual
(conventional) type with the aim to determine the
load-deflection relationship. The only difference is
that the equations of equilibrium are formulated on
the deflected shape (→ 2nd order analysis. Recall
that usual deflection calculations are performed
using 1st order analysis). The behavior of the column
under axial load approaching the buckling load Pcr
can also be investigated because of the 2nd order
formulation.
The bending moment in the column at a distance x
from the lower end is
M = P(e + v) where v is the deflection measured
from the axis of the column. The DE of the
deflection curve is
EIv’’ = -M = -P(e +v)
Or v’’ + k2v = -k2e
where k2 = P/EI as before
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 CHAPTER 1

The general solution is

V = C1sinkx + C2coskx – e
BC : → C2 = e; C1 = e(1 – cos kL)/sin kL = e
tan(kL/2)
Therefore, the equation of the deflection curve is
v = e(tan(kL/2)sin kx + cos kx – 1)
Now for a column with a known load P and known
eccentricity e, we can use this equation to calculate
the deflection at any point. Thus, the condition of
the column is quite different from what we
encountered when discussing critical loads; in
those cases, the magnitude of the deflection either
is zero or is undefined, because at the critical
load the column is in neutral equilibrium. Now,
however, each value of the load P produces a
definite value of the deflection. Of course, our
results are still limited to small deflections.
The maximum deflection δ occurs at the midpoint of
the column and is obtained by setting x equal to L/2
in above eqn.
δ = vmax = v(L/2) = e(sec(kL/2) – 1)
As special cases, note that we get δ = 0 if e = 0 or if
P = 0.

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 CHAPTER 1

A load-deflection diagram for the column can be

plotted for selected values of e1, e2, etc., from the
eqn for vmax as shown below

Pcr e=0
e = e1
e = e2

v
o

Fig. Load-deflection curve for a column with

eccentric axial loads
We note that the deflection δ increases as P
increases, but the relationship is nonlinear. Hence
we cannot use the principle of superposition for
calculating deflections due to more than one load.
As the load P approaches the critical load (Pcr =
π2EI/L2), the deflection δ increases w/o limit. In the
limit, as e becomes smaller and approaches zero, the
curve on the diagram approaches two straight lines,
one vertical and one horizontal. The curves are
mathematically correct, but again we must recall
that the DE is valid only for small deflections. For
large values of δ, the curves must be modified to
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 CHAPTER 1

take into account either the presence of large

deflections or inelastic bending effects.

o Elastic and inelastic column behavior

In the preceding sections we discussed the behavior
of the columns when the material follows Hooke’s
law. We began by considering an ideal column
subjected to a centrically applied load, and we
arrived at the concept of a critical load, Pcr. The
behavior of an ideal column is represented by
Euler’s curve on a diagram of average compressive
stress P/A versus slenderness ratio L/r (see figure).
This curve is valid only in the region CD below the
proportional limit σpl of the material.
The value of slenderness ratio above which the
Euler curve applies is obtained by setting σcr equal
to σpl in the equation:
σcr = Pcr/A = π2EI/(AL2) = π2E/(L/r)2 and solving
for L/r; thus, letting (L/r)c represent the critical
value of slenderness ratio, we get
(L/r)c = π2E/σpl

As an example, consider steel grade Fe 360 with fy

= 235 N/mm2 and E = 200 GPa → (L/r)c = 91.6

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 CHAPTER 1

Strength limit (squash load/stress)

A B
σu
Inelastic stability
limit
σpl C
Elastic stability
limit
Secant formula D
for σmax = σpl

Short columns
Intermediate
(L/r)c L/r
Long columns
columns

From Euler’s curve, we see that columns with

large slenderness ratios buckle at low values of
the average compressive stress P/A. This
condition cannot be improved by using a higher-
strength material, because collapse is by
instability of the column as a whole and not by
failure of the material itself. The critical stress
can be raised by reducing L/r or by using a
material with higher modulus of elasticity E.
When the column is very short, it fails by
yielding or crushing of the material; hence there
are no stability considerations. In such a case the
failure stress for the material, σu, is defined
which establishes the strength limit for the
column (horizontal line AB).

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 CHAPTER 1

Between the regions of short and long columns,

there is a range of intermediate slenderness ratios
too small for elastic stability to govern and too
large for strength considerations alone to govern.
Such an intermediate-length column fails by
inelastic buckling. Instability of the column
occurs, but the maximum stresses exceed the
proportional limit. The slope of the stress-strain
diminishes after the proportional limit is passed;
hence the critical load for inelastic buckling is
less than the Euler load. The curve ABCD
represents the maximum load-carrying capacity
(axial) of a typical column.
Tests of columns show reasonably good
agreement with curve ABCD. When the test
results are plotted on the diagram, they generally
form a band that lies just below curve ABCD.

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 CHAPTER 1

Frame example of stability analysis with or

w/o bifurcation of equilibrium

F H f
H b
c IR

ls B
IS

a HAHa
lR Ma lR+f
A

Step 1: Equations of equilibrium of the whole

system is formulated on deformed frame
ΣH = 0 → Ha- H = 0
ΣV = 0 → A+B-F = 0
ΣM = 0 → Ma+Ff-B(lR+f)+H lS=0 (observe 2nd
order moments)
Step 2: the frame is divided into members with
constant EI and constant N. A coordinate system
is assigned to each member.

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 CHAPTER 1

F Mc
Mc xR
H Lc
Lc
Tc Tc wR

xs B

ws
Ha
Ma
A

Step 3: Equations of equilibrium are formulated

for each member (on deformed member).
Beam: Lc=0; Tc=-B; Mc=B lR

Column: Mc=Ma+Af+HalS = Ma+(F-B)f+HalS =

BlR

Step 4: For each member the BM, M(x) is

determined at x based on equilibrium equations
formulated on the deformed members. These are
used to determine the expression for the
deformation of each member using the linearized
governing DE for beam elements:
Column: Ms = Ma+Aws+Haxs=B(lR+f)-Ff-
HlS+(F-B)ws+Hxs

= (F-B)ws+Hxs-{(F-B)f+HlS- BlR}

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 CHAPTER 1

= Dws+Hxs-{Df+HlS- BlR}; D=A=(F-B)

is the compression force in column
DE: ws’’= -Ms/EIs (this is the same governing DE
for beams we dealt with in previous sections, i.e.
v’’ + k2v = 0. There Ms was just P*v). Therefore
the formulation for buckling analysis and analysis
using 2nd order theory is one and the same. It is
the only the cause of the deflection that is
different)
→ ws’’+εs2(ws/ lS2) = -(H/EIs)xs+(1/EIs)(Df+HlS-
BlR)

Where εs= lS(D/EIs)1/2 (similar to k times L

(Stabkennzahl))
Solution of DE:
ws = c1sinεs(xs/lS)+c2cosεs(xs/lS)+f+(H/D)( lS-xs)-
(B/D)lR
Beam: MR = BxR
wR’’ = -MR/EIR = -(B/EIR)xR
Solution of DE:
wR’ = -(B/EIR)xR2/2+c3
wR = -(B/EIR)xR3/6+c3x+c4

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 CHAPTER 1

Step 5: Boundary conditions. There are 6

unknowns, i.e. c1 to c4, B, and f
Column: xs= 0→ws=0 → c2 = -(f+(H/D) lS-(B/D)
lR)

xs= 0→w’s=0 → c1 = (H/D)(lS/εs)

xs=lS→ws=f→c2=-
(H/D)(lS/εs)(sinεs/cosεs)+(B/D)( lR/cosεs)
Now upon substitution of c2 in
c2 = -(f+(H/D) lS-(B/D) lR) and simplification

f = (H/D) lS{(sinεs- εs cosεs)/(εs cosεs)}-(B/D)

lR(1- cosεs)/cosεs
Observe that f is second order deflection and is
among others, a function of the sin and cosine of
the compressive force in the column (effect of 2nd
order, i.e. effect of axial compression on lateral
stiffness of structure)
Beam: xR=0 → wR=0 → c4 = 0
xR= lR→wR=0→0=-(B/EIR)( lR3/6)+c3 lR

→c3=B lR2/6EIR

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 CHAPTER 1

5 boundary conditions formulated; B is not yet

determined
Step 6: Compatibility: beam column joint is
rigid

ϕcb xR

wR
xs
ϕca

ws

ϕca = +w’S(lS) ; ϕ cb = -w’R(lR) (rotation of column

end and beam end rotations are equal)
Substitution and simplification yields:
w’S(lS)=c1(εs/lS)cosεs-c2(εs/lS) sinεs-H/D

=(H/D) (1- cosεs)/cosεs-(B/D)( lR/ lS)(εs

sinεs)/cosεs and
-w’R(lR)=B lR2/(3EIR)

Step 7: Special case H=0 (Buckling/ stability

pm with bifurcation of equilibrium)
The compatibility condition becomes:

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 CHAPTER 1

-(B/D)( lR/ lS)(εs sinεs)/cosεs= B lR2/(3EIR)

Note that D is the compressive force in the
column and in the present situation the buckling
load, because the frame is also in equilibrium in
the slightly deflected position under the influence
of the axial force only (more than one
equilibrium position at Pcr. → bifurcation of
equilibrium. existence of adjacent
equilibrium)(sides way buckling)
Substituting D=εs2 EIS/ lS2 and rearranging

B(tan εs+(εs/3)(EIS/EIR)( lR/lS)=0

Step 8: Buckling condition is solved

graphically
B=0 is the trivial solution→no rotation at joint c
(as a result no lateral displacement at c)→valid
for all values of the axial load including those
above Pcr
Define a parameter χ = (EIS/EIR)( lR/lS) (ratio of
column to beam stiffness)
The buckling condition will then be:
tan εs= -(χ/3) εs (transcendental equation with the
unknown εs)

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 CHAPTER 1

set y = tan ε s (tangent function)

y = -(χ/3) εs (straight lines through the origin)

π/2 π 3π/2
2.45
εs
χ=1
χ=2
χ=3
χ=4

Note: for different column to beam stiffness ratio,

χ, we get different buckling load. The smaller the
value of χ, i.e., the stiffer the beam (bigger
restraint), the higher the buckling force. For
example, for χ = 1.0 → εki = 2.45
→εki2 = 2.452= lS2(Dki/EIS) → Dki=2.452(EIS/lS2)

Determine the effective buckling length le = β lS,

i.e., determine the length of a pined end column
with the same stiffness and same buckling load:

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 CHAPTER 1

→π2EIS/(β2 lS2) = 2.452(EIS/lS2) → β=π/2.45 = 1.28

Step 9: (optional) limiting cases:

If beam stiffness is ∞:
EIR = ∞: χ=0 → εs=π → β=1
lS
If beam stiffness is 0:
EIR = 0: χ=∞ → εs=π/2 → β=2

lS
EC2:2002 about ideal buckling load:
Also EC:2005 requires determination of elastic
buckling loads for ideal columns and frames
Step 10: Global analysis (stress analysis)
according to 2nd order theory (includes stability
analysis w/o bifurcation of equilibrium):
H≠0
The compatibility condition becomes:
(H/D)((1-cosεs)/ cosεs) -(B/D)( lR/ lS)(εs
sinεs)/cosεs= B lR2/(3EIR)
From which B can be determined and with it Mc:
BII = H( lS/ lR)((3(1- cosεs)/( εs(χ εs cosεs + 3 sinεs))
McII = BII lR (II represents 2nd order)
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 CHAPTER 1

Substitution of BII in the expression for f II; and BII

and f II in the equilibrium equation for Ma, yields
after simplification, the 2nd order moment at the
base: →
f II = (H lS3/EIS)(( χεs(sinεs-εs cosεs)+3(2(1- cosεs)-
εs sinεs))/( εs3 (χεs cosεs+3 sinεs))

MaII = -H lS(1+( χεs(sinεs-εs cosεs)+3(1- cosεs)-εs

sinεs)/( εs(χεs cosεs+3 sinεs))
For comparison the action effects according to the
1st order theory are:
BI = H (lS/ lR)(3/(6+2χ)) ; MIc = BI lR ; f I = (H
lS3/EIS)(1/6) ((3+4χ)/(6+2χ)) ; MIa = -H lS
((3+2χ)/(6+2χ))
Determine the magnification for the case of equal
beam to column stiffness, i.e. χ = 1 → εs,ki =
2.45565
εs/εs,ki αf αB αMa αMc α
0.1 1.0100 1.0102 1.0081 1.0100 1.0101
… … … … … …
0.5 1.3301 1.3355 1.2666 1.3301 1.3333
… … … … … …
0.95 10.1590 10.3600 8.2843 10.1569 10.2560
… … … … … …
1.0 ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞

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 CHAPTER 1

Increase of action effects w/o limit in the last row

for P = Pcr is a sign of member instability →
stability problem w/o bifurcation of equilibrium
(for linearly elastic materials).
The last column is the magnification factor
according to the simplified formula:
α = 1/(1-D/Dki) = 1/(1-(εs/εs,ki)2)
It gives practically the same result for f, B, and Mc;
and lies on the safe side for Ma.
Conclusions:
(1) Elastic bulking analysis for determining the
buckling load and the effective buckling length
is tedious → Use alignment chart. Check
current example with the chart as exercise.
(2) Rigorous (closed form) global 2nd order
analysis is also complicated even for the simple
propped frame. So what do we do in practice?
• We know that practical columns are
imperfect. Therefore elastic buckling
analysis is not applicable for such
columns and the only way to check for
the stability of frames is by carrying out
rigorous global 2nd order analysis. Such
analysis is also referred to in the

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 CHAPTER 1

literature as analysis to check the lateral

stability of structures.
• Note that the axial load-deflection
diagram looks like the one for pined
end column with end eccentricity

Pcr H=0
H≠0

• The only assumption that is taken away

from the list for an ideal column is the
presence of the horizontal force (column
subjected to bending moment). The
material is still linearly elastic over the
entire range of loading
• If this assumption is given up (i.e.
material non-linearity is included) we will
have a neutral equilibrium for frames with
sufficiently slender columns and the load
deflection diagram takes the form shown
below. The load Pu at the peak of the load

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 CHAPTER 1

deflection diagram is a critical load

causing instability in actual non-linear
structures as much as Pcr in a linearly
elastic frame. This is called stability
problem w/o bifurcation of equilibrium

Pcr
Pu Hooke’s Law
applies
indefinitely

Material Non-
linearity considered

• As we have seen in the example,

indications for instability of structures
made of elastic materials are excessive
lateral deflection, etc. But the rigorous
solution for the 2nd order deflection, f II, is
complicated. → Resort to simplified
approximate methods
• Is the use of the approximate
magnification factor simple? Yes and no.
Yes if we have the buckling load (with

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 CHAPTER 1

bifurcation of equilibrium from tables and

charts, publications). No if we have to
determine the buckling load of the ideal
column or frame, because that itself is
complicated.
• Approximate P-∆ analysis; yes (Iterative
P-∆ analysis, direct P-∆ analysis, etc.
Refer Macgregor (RC)
• 2nd order analysis (Estimation of buckling
load) using software,
• Read and exercise global 2nd order and
elastic buckling analysis for sway and
non-sway frames in Chapter 8

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