Potential

• Line Integrals
– Force -> Work
– Electric Field -> Potential
– Conservative Loops
• Adding Potentials
– Single charge
– Multiple charges
– Continuum
– Examples (ring, sheet, line)
• Gradient
– Potential - > Electric Field
– Examples (ring, sheet, point)
– Example – Electric Dipole
• Stored Energy
– Stored in Charge
– Stored in Field
 Topographical Analogy
• Topographical Analogy
– Elevation -> Potential
– Slope -> Electric Field

• Observations
– Slope (E) is 3-D gradient of
elevation (V) or contour lines
– Change in Elevation (VA-VB) is
independent of path 𝑬 ∙ 𝑑𝑳 to
get there
Topographical Analogy
(little more complicated)

Taos, NM
 Work moving charge in electric field
• Field points to right
• Positive charge feels force to right
𝐹𝐸 = 𝑄𝐸

• Applied force must be to left to move in

opposite direction
𝐹𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙 = −𝑄𝐸

• Work of applied force to move to left

(opposite direction) over path
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙

𝑊𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙 = −𝑄 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝐿
𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡

• Positive work to move “up” the field to left

• Increase in Potential Energy
Work moving Charge over Arbitrary Path

The integral expression for work is completely general: Any shape path may be
taken, with the component of force evaluated on each differential path segment.

Reverse initial and final

points to go “up” the field
TO LEFT
(sign of Eˑ dL)

The integral expression involving the scalar product of the field with a
differential path vector is called a line integral or a contour integral.
 Line Integral in Rectangular Coordinates

We wish to find:

where

and

using these:
 Work moving charge along Circular Path

An electric field is given as:

We wish to find the work done in moving a point charge of magnitude Q = 2 over the shorter arc of the circle given by

The initial point is B(1, 0, 1) and the final point is A(0.8, 0.6 ,1): in z= 1 plane

This is the basic setup, in which the path has not yet been specified.
 Work moving charge along Circular Path (cont)

We now have W

and we need to include the y dependence on x in the first integral, and the x dependence on y in the second integral:
Note that the third integral vanishes because there is no motion along the z direction.

Using the given equation for the circular path, , we rewrite the integrals:
 Work moving charge along Straight-Line Path

• Moving between same endpoints

B(1, 0, 1) and A(0.8, 0.6 ,1) along straight line path:
𝑦 = −3 𝑥 − 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 = 1

• So the integration becomes

• So the line integral is the same, independent of path taken!

Differential Path Lengths in 3
Coordinate Systems
 Work moving charge near Line of Charge
Moving Q in radial direction in cylindrical coordinates
• Work to move from b to a
𝑎
𝜌𝐿 𝒂𝝆
𝑊 = −𝑄 ∙ 𝑑𝜌 𝒂𝝆
2𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝜌
𝑏

• Simplifies to:
𝑄𝜌𝐿 𝑎 𝑄𝜌𝐿 𝑏
𝑊=− 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛
2𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑏 2𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑎

• Which is positive for b>a

• Note path length is directed outward, integration supplies (-) sign

𝒅𝑳 = 𝑑ρ 𝒂𝝆 + 𝜌𝑑𝜑 𝒂𝝋 + 𝑑𝑧 𝒂𝒛
Work moving charge near Line of Charge
Moving Q in azimuthal direction in cylindrical coordinates

where

as expected!
 Definition of Potential Difference
Just lose the “Q”

We now have the work done in moving charge Q

from initial to final positions. This is the potential
energy gained by the charge as a result of this
position change.

The potential difference is defined as the work done (or potential energy gained) per unit charge.
We express this quantity in units of Joules/Coulomb, or volts:

Finally:
 Potential Difference of Point Charge Field

In this exercise, we evaluate the work done in

moving a unit positive charge from point B to
point A, within the field associated with point charge Q

where

.A .B and where in general:

rB
r
A

+
Q

The path used in getting to point A from

point B is immaterial, since only changes
in radius affect the result. Path independence
would also qualify this field as conservative, but
we need to show this.
Potential Difference of Point Charge Field (cont)

To complete the problem:

we use

.A .B along with:
rB
r
A

+
Q

to obtain:

For rb > ra VAB is positive

 Absolute Potential for Point Charge Field
• The difference in potential between rb and ra is
𝑄 1 1
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = −
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟𝐴 𝑟𝐵

• The difference relative to infinity (rb = ∞) is

𝑄 1
𝑉𝐴𝐵 =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟𝐴

• So absolute potential can be defined as

𝑄 1 𝑄 1
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = + 𝐶1
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟

• Where C1 is arbitrary additive constant (doesn’t change gradient!)

Absolute Potential For Two or More Point Charges
Electric potential from point charge

𝑄
𝑉=
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 − 𝑟′

Introduce a second point charge, and the two scalar potentials simply add:

For n charges, the process continues:

Absolute Potential for Continuous Charge Distributions

As we allow the number of elements to become infinite, we obtain the integral expression:

1. No sin or cos terms - just scalars!

2. Approaches zero at infinity
 Potential Functions Associated with Line, Surface, and
Volume Charge Distributions

charge-density/length * length
Line Charge:

charge-density/area * area
Surface Charge:

charge-density/volume * volume
Volume Charge:

Compare to our earlier expression

for electric field --- generally a more
difficult integral to evaluate:
 Example - Potential for ring of charge
The problem is to find the potential anywhere on the
z axis arising from a circular ring of charge in the x-y
plane, centered at the origin.

We use:

with
Potential for ring of charge (continued)

charge-density/length * length
So now

becomes:

1. No sin or cos terms - just scalars!

2. Approaches zero at infinity
 Potential for ring of charge

No sin or cos terms,

Just scalars!
(compare with previous)

𝑘𝜎2𝜋 𝑅 𝑑𝑅
𝑑𝑉 =
𝑟

2𝜋 𝑅 𝜎 𝑑𝑅
=
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟

𝑎𝜌𝐿
=
2𝜀𝑜 𝑎2 + 𝑧 2

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/potlin.html#c1
 Potential for disk of charge

No sin or cos terms,

Just scalars!

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/potlin.html#c1
 Potential for line of charge

No sin or cos terms,

Just scalars!

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/potlin.html#c1
 Electric Field as Potential Gradient
• Potential as line integral of field

• Differential form
∆𝑉 ≈ −𝐸 ∙ ∆𝐿 = −𝐸 ∆𝐿 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
∆𝑉
= −𝐸 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
∆𝐿

• If ΔL in direction of E
– 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 1
∆𝑉
– = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
∆𝐿

• Electric field as gradient of Potential

𝑑𝑉
𝐸=−
𝑑𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥
 Relation Between Electric Field and Potential
The maximum rate of increase in potential should occur in a direction exactly opposite the electric field:
unit vector normal to an equipotential
surface and in the direction of increasing
potential

Equipotential surfaces

E points in the direction

of maximum rate of decrease
aN in potential -- in the direction
of the negative gradient of V.
E

Skier’s analogy
• Fall Line points opposite direction from maximum elevation increase
• Constant elevation contour perpendicular to fall line.
Skier’s Analogy – Slope

http://www.skitaos.org/ Taos, NM
Skier’s Analogy – Elevation Lines

http://topomaps.usgs.gov Taos, NM
 Electric Field from Potential (wire loop)
• If Potential is:
𝑉=
𝜌𝐿 𝑎 Now get Electric
2𝜀𝑜 𝑎2 + 𝑧 2 Field from Potential!
(Slide 21)
• Then Electric Field is
−1
𝜕𝑉 𝜌𝐿 𝑎 2𝑧 𝜌𝐿 𝑎 𝑧
𝐸 = −𝛻𝑉 = − 𝒂𝒛 = − 2 𝒂 = 𝒂𝒛
3 𝒛 3
𝜕𝑧 2𝜀𝑜 𝑎2 + 𝑧 2 2 2𝜀𝑜 𝑎2 + 𝑧 2 2

• Comparing E with problem 2.24 (ρ = a, using only az term)

 Electric Field from V in Rectangular Coordinates

The differential voltage change can be written as the sum of changes of V in the three coordinate directions:

We also know that:

So that:

We therefore identify:
 Electric Field as Negative Gradient of Potential

We now have the relation between E and V

This is obtained by using the del operator, on V

A more compact relation therefore emerges, which is applicable to static electric fields:

E is equal to the negative gradient of V

The direction of the gradient is that of the maximum rate of increase in the scalar field, or normal
to all equipotential surfaces.
Gradient of V in Three Coordinate Systems
 Electric Field from Potential (charge disk)

• If Potential is:
Now get Electric
Field from Potential!
𝑉 = 𝑘𝜎2𝜋 𝑧 2 + 𝑅2 − 𝑧 (Slide 23)

• Then Electric Field is

1
𝜕𝑉 2𝑧 𝜎 𝑧
𝐸 = −𝛻𝑉 = − 𝒂 = −𝑘𝜎2𝜋 2 − 𝟏 𝒂𝒛 = − − 𝟏 𝒂𝒛
𝜕𝑧 𝒛 𝑧 2 + 𝑅2 2𝜀𝑜 𝑧 2 + 𝑅2

• As 𝑅 → ∞
𝜎
𝐸= 𝒂
2𝜀𝑜 𝒛
 Electric Field from Potential (point charge)

• If Potential is:
Now get Electric
Field from Potential!
𝑄 1 (Slide 16)
𝑉𝐴𝐵 =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟

• Then Electric Field is

𝜕𝑉 𝑄 −1 𝑄
𝐸 = −𝛻𝑉 = − 𝒂𝒓 = − 𝒂 𝒓 = 𝒂
𝜕𝑟 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2 𝒓
 Other examples

• Example 4.4
• D4.8
• D4.7
 Example D4.8
• B) Electric Field at (3, 60°,2)

𝜕 100 1 𝜕 100 𝜕 100

𝑬 = −𝛻𝑉 = − 𝜌 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 𝒂 𝝆 + 𝜌 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 𝒂 𝝋 + 𝜌 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 𝒂𝒛
𝜕𝜌 1 + 𝑧2 𝜌 𝜕𝜑 1 + 𝑧2 𝜕𝑧 1 + 𝑧2

100 100 100

𝑬=− 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 𝒂𝝆 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 𝒂𝝋 + 2𝑧 𝜌 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 𝒂𝒛
1 + 𝑧2 1 + 𝑧2 1 + 𝑧2 2

𝑬 = −10 𝒂𝝆 + 17.3𝒂𝝋 + 24 𝒂𝒛

• C) Magnitude of E at (3, 60°,2) 𝐸 = 𝑬 = 31.24 𝑉/𝑚

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉
• D) dV/dN at (3, 60°,2) 𝑬 = − 𝑑𝑁 𝒂𝒏 = 31.24 𝑉/𝑚
𝑑𝑁

• E) Normal to equipotential surface an at (3, 60°,2)

𝛻𝑉
𝒂𝒏 = = −10 𝒂𝝆 + 17.3𝒂𝝋 + 24 𝒂𝒛
𝛻𝑉

= 0.32 𝒂𝝆 − 0.55 𝒂𝝋 − 0.77 𝒂𝒛

 Example D4.8 (continued)
• F) Charge density at (3, 60°,2)

1 𝜕 −100 1 𝜕 100 𝜕 100

𝜌𝑣 = 𝜀𝑜 𝛻 ∙ 𝐸 = 𝜀𝑜 𝜌 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 + 𝜀𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 + 𝜀𝑜 2𝑧 𝜌 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
𝜌 𝜕𝜌 1 + 𝑧2 𝜌 𝜕𝜑 1 + 𝑧2 𝜕𝑧 1 + 𝑧2 2

1 −100 1 100 −200 100

= 𝜀𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 + 𝜀𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 + 𝜀𝑜 4𝑧 2 𝜌 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 + 𝜀𝑜 2𝜌 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
𝜌 1 + 𝑧2 𝜌 1 + 𝑧2 1+𝑧 2 3 1 + 𝑧2 2

= 𝜀𝑜 −3.33 + 3.33 − 38.4 + 12 = −26.4 𝜀𝑜 = −234 𝑝𝐶/𝑚3

Example
 Electric Dipole
• Dipole
– Positive and negative charge separated by d.
– Used in describing atoms and molecules.
– Spherically symmetric at great distances.
– Azimuthally symmetric everywhere.
– Put +Q at +d/2, -Q at –d/2
 Electric Dipole Approach

• 2 approaches
1. Find electric field, use line integral for
potential
• Involves adding vectors – yech!
• Line integration

2. Find potential, use gradient for

electric field
• Involves adding scalars – much simpler!
• Simple 3-D differentiation
 Electric Dipole Potential
• Put +Q at + d/2 (R1) , -Q at – d/2 (R2)
𝑄 1 1 𝑄 𝑅2 − 𝑅1
𝑉= − =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅1 𝑅2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅1 𝑅2

• Make approximations

𝑅1 𝑅2 ≈ 𝑟 2

𝑅2 −𝑅1 ≈ 𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

• Get Dipole Potential

𝑄 𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑉=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
 Electric Dipole Field (from Gradient)

Having found the potential:

Electric field is found by taking the negative gradient:

or..

from which finally:

Much easier doing potential first!

 Dipole Equipotential lines
• Equipotential lines obtained
by plotting r vs. θ
– fixed V’s
𝑄𝑑
– fixed dipole strength ~1
4𝜋𝜀𝑜

• Equipotential equations
cos(𝜃)
– 𝑟=
𝑉

– Estimate r as function of θ
(from vertical)
 Dipole field lines
• Electric field lines obtained by finding
streamlines

• Taking differentials in r and θ direction

𝐸𝑟 𝑑𝑟 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
= =
𝐸𝜃 𝑟𝑑𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝑑𝑟
= 2 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑟

ln 𝑟 = 2 𝑙𝑛 sin(𝜃) + 𝐶1

𝑟 = 𝐶1 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃

– Estimate r as function of θ
(from vertical)
 Dipole Moment
• Define dipole moment
𝒑 = 𝑄𝒅
• Then

• Becomes

– V max top and bottom (red)

– V min bisector (red)
– E always perpendicular (black)
 Potential Energy of Two Point Charges

Q1 Q2
+ R2,1 +
Charge Q2 is brought into
Q1 has zero energy if isolated position from infinity.

The work done in bringing Q2 into position is:

This is the stored energy in the “system”, consisting of the two assembled charges.
 Potential Energy of Three Point Charges

Q1 Q2
+ R2,1 +

R3,1 R3,2 Charge Q3 is brought into

position from infinity, with
Q1 and Q2 already situated.
+
Q3
The system energy is now the previous 2-charge energy plus the work done in bringing Q3 into position:

where and
 Three Point Charges in Reverse Order
• Start 1, then 2, then 3
𝑊𝐸 = 𝑄2 𝑉2,1 + 𝑄3 𝑉3,1 + 𝑄3 𝑉3,2
• Start 3, then 2, then 1
𝑊𝐸 = 𝑄2 𝑉2,3 + 𝑄1 𝑉1,3 + 𝑄1 𝑉1,2
• Adding
2 𝑊𝐸 = 𝑄2 𝑉2,1 + 𝑄3 𝑉3,1 + 𝑄3 𝑉3,2 + 𝑄2 𝑉2,3 + 𝑄1 𝑉1,3 + 𝑄1 𝑉1,2

2 𝑊𝐸 = 𝑄1 𝑉1,2 + 𝑄1 𝑉1,3 + 𝑄2 𝑉2,1 + 𝑄2 𝑉2,3 + 𝑄3 𝑉3,1 + 𝑄3 𝑉3,2

2 𝑊𝐸 = 𝑄1 𝑉1 + 𝑄2 𝑉2 + 𝑄3 𝑉3

𝑚=𝑁
1
𝑊𝐸 = 𝑄𝑚 𝑉𝑚
2
𝑚=1
 Potential Energy for n Point Charges
Extending the previous result, we can write the energy expression for n charges:

where the local potential

(at the position of charge m) is:

Note that this is the potential due to all charges except charge m, evaluated at the location
of charge m.
 Potential Energy for Continuous Charge
Distribution
If we have a continuous charge, characterized by a charge density function, we use implicitly the expression

but the charge Q is replaced by the quantity dq = v dv, and the summation becomes an integral over the
charge volume:

where V is the position-dependent potential function within the charge volume.

 Energy stored in Electric Field
Use Gauss’s Law to express charge density as divergence of D:

Use vector identity

Use divergence theorem on first term, replacing volume integral by surface integral surrounding
the volume:

Where V and D go to zero a large distances on the volume’s surface

Energy Stored in Electric Field (continued)
We throw away first term

since integration now includes all space, wherever the field and potential exist.
We are no longer constrained to the volume taken up by the charge. This means that the surface of
integration in general lies at infinity, or at an infinite radius from the otherwise compact charge.

At the infinite distance, the potential and D fields begin to resemble those of a point charge:

and therefore:

This means that the surface integral will vanish, because the inverse cube dependence in the integrand
falls off at a more rapid rate with r than the surface area increases (surface area increases only as the
square of the radius).
Energy Stored in Field and Energy Density

The field energy expression now reads:

but we know that:

which leads us to the final result:

where the energy density in the

electric field is defined as:
 Example - Energy stored in
Coaxial Cable Field
• Energy stored in field

• Integration for coaxial geometry

 Example - Energy stored in
Coaxial Cable Charge
• Potential of inner conductor relative to outer conductor

• Integration of inner conductor potential with charge density

𝐿 2𝜋 𝑎+𝑡/2
1 1 𝜌𝑠 𝑎𝜌𝑠 𝑏
𝑊𝐸 = 𝜌𝑣 𝑉𝑑𝑉 = 𝑙𝑛 𝜌 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝜑 𝑑𝑧
2 2 𝑡 𝜀𝑜 𝑎
𝑣𝑜𝑙 0 0 𝑎−𝑡/2

• Where volume charge ρv is surface charge divided by small

thickness 𝜌𝑣 𝑡

𝑎2 𝜌𝑠 2 ln(𝑏 𝑎)
𝑊𝐸 = 𝜋𝐿
𝜀𝑜

• Which is same on previous page