Monitoring the Moisture Content in Wood

using RFID Technology

Author

Engr. Muhammad Usman Mazher

14P-UET/MS-TE-25

Supervisor

Engr.Humayun Shahid
Assistant Professor

DEPARTMENT OF TELECOMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF TELECOMMUNICATION AND INFORMATION
ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
TAXILA

January 2019
 Monitoring the Moisture Content in Wood using RFID
Technology

Author

Engr. Muhammad Usman Mazher

14P-UET/MS-TE-25

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

M.Sc. Telecommunication Engineering

Thesis Supervisor:

Engr.Humayun Shahid
Assistant Professor
Telecommunication Engineering Department

External Examiner Signature:____________________________________________

Thesis Supervisor Signature:_____________________________________________

DEPARTMENT OF TELECOMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF TELECOMMUNICATION AND INFORMATION
ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
TAXILA
January 2019

i
 Abstract

Monitoring the Moisture Content in Wood using RFID Technology

Muhammad Usman Mazher

14P-UET/MS-TE-25

Thesis Supervisor: Engr.Humayun Shahid

Assistant Professor TED

With the passage of time, RFID based technology is becoming more demanding in

timber’s industry to monitor the wooden logs. This research work proposed a passive

chipless RFID-based sensor which is compact in size and has a unique design for an

efficient way of monitoring the MC in wood by analyzing the electromagnetic properties

of pine wood using the tag RCS response that is being placed on wooden block. The

structure of tags contain rectangular open and closed loops resonators embedded with two

different substrates that includes RO4350 and FR-4. In this work, dielectric parameters

are considered for pine wood to sense the variations in moisture conditions starting from

oven-dry to 22 percent. The RCS response shows variations in RCS and resonant

frequencies that are being attained by applying changes in the values of dielectric

constant and loss factor at different moisture conditions of pine wood. These attained

results show the significant suitability of the proposed solution to monitor the variations

in MC in pine wood due to the environmental changes.

Keywords: Electromagnetic properties, Passive RFID sensor, Moisture Content, Radar

Cross Section.

ii
 UNDERTAKING

I certify that research work titled “Monitoring the Moisture Content in Wood using RFID

Technology” is my own work. The work has not been presented elsewhere for

assessment. Where material has been used from other sources it has been properly

acknowledged / referred.

Signature of Student

Muhammad Usman Mazher

14P-UET/MS-TE-25

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

All glory goes to Allah Almighty who led me to this extent. May all glory, honor

and Adoration be unto thy Name…..Amen.

I wish to express my special thanks and appreciation to my supervisor Humayun

Shahid who provided me complete guidance, professional advice and acknowledged me

with new dimensions of carrying out research.

I wish to thank my lovely parents who prayed for me and served as a constant

source of support, love, inspiration, and encouragement. Last but not the least, I would

like to thank my friends and all the people who supported me in any way.

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Sample is given below:

Abstract ............................................................................................………...ii

Undertaking.....................................................................................................iii

Acknowledgement...........................................................................................iv

List of Tables..................................................................................................vii

Abbreviations................................................................................................viii

Chapter I: Introduction.....................................................................................1

1.1 Statement of the Problem......................................................................1

1.2 Objectives.............................................................................................3

1.3 Organization of the Thesis....................................................................3

1.1 Technological overview of RFID

1.2 RFID Tag:

1.2.1 Active RFID Tags

1.2.2 Passive RFID Tags

1.2.3 Chip based RFID Tags

1.2.4 Chipless based RFID Tags

1.4 RFID Reader

1.4.1. Digital Section of RFID Reader

1.4.2. RF Section of RFID Reader

1.5 Problem Statement

1.6 Objectives

1.7 Thesis Outline

v
Chapter II: Overview of xyz scheme…………………………………….........4

vi
 LIST OF FIGURES

Sample is given below:

Number Page

Fig 2.1Block diagram of xyz block..................................................................8

Fig 2.2 Basis Functions Diagram.....................................................................9

Fig 2.3 Block Diagram of Codec...................................................................10

Fig 3.1Encoder...............................................................................................13

Fig 3.2 Decoder..............................................................................................14

vii
 LIST OF TABLES

Similar to the list of figures.

viii
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction
With the passage of time, Radio frequency identification (RFID) technology is becoming

more and more demanding and has its utilization in many real world applications. There

are many different techniques and ranges of radio frequencies are being used in RFID

based systems. Normally RFID system contains inexpensive and simple tags that are

being attached to the specified objects for managing and automatic operating purpose.

While on the other end there would be complex devices referred as reader or interrogator

which is being in linked with controlling computer. The range of usable radio frequencies

start from 100 kHz to 10 GHz [1]. The technology base on Radio Frequency

Identification (RFID) has rapid growth rate in the market and also gained well

recognition and reputation in emerging technologies that have the capability to raise

maximum industrial economic progress. This technology is replacing the barcode

technology with a very fast pace due to its flexible operational capabilities, greater data

carrying capacity and adaptability in many applications [2].

1.3 Technological overview of RFID

A typical system based on RFID consists of mainly three components: first is a reader or

may be specified as integrator, which uses the specified signals to be sent to RFID based

tag, which needs to get investigated or being identified; a RFID tag that has the

identification code; and a middleware software, that manages the interface and the

software protocol for encoding and decoding of the identified data from the reader

towards PC or mainframe.

1
 Figure 1.1: Block diagram of a typical RFID system [3, Fig 1]

After acknowledging the inadequacy of barcode and other means of identifications with

the passage of time, RFID based technology became more and more demanding covering

many applications areas [3]. In general, most of the RFID based systems are being

developed with an antenna, a reader, cabling, and RFID tag along with other in linked

accessories that are needed for activating or deactivating the processing of the system.

The integration of RFID based systems may be done along with various internal

systems. There are hundreds of RFID tags that can be read by the readers within

seconds [4].

1.4 RFID Tag:

RFID tags are mainly composed of microprocessor chip containing memory and

transceiver antenna used for receiving and transmitting the signals. There are many

different types are also available in the market that may be categorized on the bases of

following three components [5]:

a) Power source

2
b) Operational Frequency and

c) Electronic chip

Figure 1.2: RFID Tags classification [5, Fig 2.16]

1.2.1 Active RFID Tags

For an active RFID Tag, there is built-in availability of energy resource and radio that is

being attached for communication purpose to get interacted with a reader. There is

bidirectional communication occurred in these tags and they use the attached source of

power to transfer the specified information. Normally the installed power sources are

deployed on circuit board to provide the energy to the linked circuit and radio. There is

special mechanism to reserve the energy. The energy is saved because of keeping active

tags in sleeping mode state and the mode state is changed when the interrogator/reader is

being introduced within the specified range [4]. As the interrogator/reader gets activated

when the tag move in the selective range, it retrieves the information gathered from the

tag and thus the tag will be remained in an active mode until the communication based

3
signals are being sent and processed. Active RFID sensors have few advantages and

disadvantages as well. Main advantages of using these sensors are their higher range

reading capabilities and their way of identify the data signal in a better way. On the other

hand, the disadvantages include the bigger size and the life of operation is short. Also

these tags carry high cost and are applicable to be used for high valued items [6].

Figure 1.3: Example of Passive RFID Tag [6, Fig 2]

1.2.2 Passive RFID Tags

Passive RFID tags are more preferable and have more utilization in different applications.

These tags do not need any energy source to be kept in energized state for the radio and

ICs as compared to that of active tags. Since no transmitter is installed, therefore, there is

small amount of energy is being required [5]. In comparison to active tags, passive RFID

tags are very cost effective and inexpensive. Also with the emergence of new

technologies, these passive tags are getting more and more economical to get integrated

with common materials and useable products. Due to having cheap cost of passive tags,

these will most likely be utilized for growth in implementing the RFID technology in

many different applications. That is the reason many researchers are working on passive

4
sensors for enhancement in this cost effective technology. Passive tags are not only cost

effective, but also small and compact in size. Recent antenna technology made the

smallest utilizable passive tag that is limited to size of a quarter. As the tags gets bigger,

it would gain more range of effectiveness [4]. There is backscattering mechanism is used

by these tags to transfer their information in backscattered signal that is being embedded

with and to attain the communication with a reader. This made passive RFID tags

cheaper but as there is no power source in built into it, tag needs to be placed or kept

nearer to the antenna of a reader for attaining required power for transmitting the signal.

Commonly known advantages of passive RFID tags are as follows:

 Less in cost because of not having the power source built into it.

 These tags are expanding in terms of their utilization for many applications like

tracking objects, industrial automation etc.

 Because of independency of tags operability upon the power source, these have greater

operational life.

 These tags may also be used to monitor the moisture content or humidity due to having

environmental robustness.

RFID tags have some disadvantages as well that may include:

 Effective operate able range is low

 Ability to identification is less

 Efficiency based performance is low [6]

5
 Figure 1.5: Example of Passive RFID Tag [6, Fig 1]

Table 1.1: Comparison between Active vs Passive RFID Tags

Tag Type Power Source Operation based Cost Size Range for
Life Transmission
Active Own the built- Energized shortly High Greater Long
RFID Tag in power based and dependent on (Greater than
battery battery 3m)
Passive Own no built-in Longer as compared Low Smaller Short
RFID Tag power and is to that of active tags (Less than 3m)
being energized due to utilization of
from EM signal energy is done only
when it is in active
mode

1.2.3 Chip based RFID Tags

By considering the RFID tags that come under chip based category are being made with

the silicon Integrated Circuits (ICs) and antenna in linked together to be utilized

to store the information and IDs based extraction to be carried out on the query sent by

the reader. In comparison to chipless based RFID Tags that might get into energized state

by utilizing an electromagnetic signal attained from the reader, chip based RFID Tags has

their own power source to get into energized state that is why these are being referred to

6
as active tags. Although these active tags are more common as compared to passive ones

but their cost is 10 to 15 cent higher than chipless tags [7], [8].

Figure 1.6: Conventional chip based RFID tag system [8, Fig 1(b)]

1.2.4 Chipless based RFID Tags

Chipless based RFID tags have absence of silicon integrated circuit (IC) chips for

purpose of storing the information. These tags are very economical and cheap because

they do not require any microchip or built-in power source. To store and manipulate the

information, chipless RFID tags utilize various designs of conductors or materials

containing antennas connected with lumped circuits of inductors and capacitors to get

desired electromagnetic properties and patterns. In the absence of microchip, it’s a big

challenge to encode the data in chipless RFID tags. When reader transmit signal to

chipless tag, it responds by sending the information using the phenomenon named as

backscattering and reader retrieves that backscattered signal to manipulate the required

information [7], [8].

7
 Figure 1.6: Chipless RFID system with a reader and chipless tag [8, Fig 1(a)]

1.4 RFID Reader

RFID reader is an integral part of whole RFID based system that behaves as an

interrogator. As passive chipless tags do not contain any attached source of battery so

reader will behave an energizing source to activate those passive tags. The range of

electromagnetic field is being capitalized by the reader antenna’s size and the power.

Depending upon the utilizability and specific application, various RFID tags contain

many different compact sizes. Figure 1.7 illustrates RFID reader’s architecture consisting

of three main parts including an antenna, Digital/Control portion and a portion based on

radio frequency [9].

Figure 1.7: Working overview of RFID reader [9, Fig 3]

8
Normally RFID reader is divided into two main categories as follows:

 The Digital Section

 The RF section.

1.4.1. Digital Section of RFID Reader

Digital-to-analog (DAC) converter is used for transferring of data from the central

processing unit (CPU) to the RF portion of Reader. Voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO)

generates the radio frequency signal to interrogate the chipless tag. Now the received

signal is amplified taken from the tag. Then filtering is done and it is being delivered to

the digital section after being converted to the analogue value of DC. Here analog-to-

digital converter (ADC) is used to convert the signal from analogue value to digital form

and forwarded to the processing unit for tag ID decoding. For display, 7 segment LED

display may be used and for processing the data signal, Atmel AT89C52 microcontroller

may be utilized [9].

Figure 1.8: Digital portion of of RFID Reader [9, Fig 5]

9
1.4.2. RF Section of RFID Reader

This section contain two different paths including which one is referred as transmitter and

the other referred as receiver. In the transmitting circuit, there is VCO which used to

interrogate the RF signal. It is also considered as a reference signal as well. Then this

retrieved signal is amplified and a directive reader antenna is used to transmit it. The

attained signal by the receiver based antenna is being processed to be forwarded to the

RTB circuit. The yielded DC values are used further by multiplexing and then delivered

to the digital section where the attained values are being digitized and decoded [9].

Figure 1.9: RF Section of of RFID Reader [9, Fig 6]

1.5 Problem Statement

The aim of this research-oriented project is based on the designing, performance and

development of an optimized RFID-based tag/sensor for an efficient way of monitoring

the moisture content in wood to assure the selective or reserved wood quality.

10
1.6 Objectives

The aims and objectives of this proposed research are to fulfill the following tasks:

1. Design and develop chipless RFID based tag/sensor that does not need any silicon

chip and can be fabricated in printing technology, which resulting in its low cost.

2. Parametric optimization of the initial design.

3. Simulated performance evaluation of the RFID-based tag to detect and monitor

the moisture content in wood.

4. Realization of optimized tag/sensor.

1.7 Thesis Outline

In Chapter 1, brief overview of RFID based system is discussed. It also describes RFID

tags, their usages and types, RFID reader and its subdivided sections, problem statement

and aims/objectives of this research work. In Chapter 2, literature based review of RFID

sensor tags, structural health monitoring and

concrete health inspection/monitoring

literature of some commonly used RFID sensor tags, structural health monitoring and

concrete health inspection/monitoring. Chapter 3 describes the design and material of

proposed chipless RFID tag and electromagnetic properties of concrete which are being

evaluated in this research work. Chapter 4 describes the results of designed tag on the

basis of electromagnetic properties of concrete material.

1.1 Technological overview of RFID

1.4 RFID Reader

1.4.1. Digital Section of RFID Reader

1.4.2. RF Section of RFID Reader

11
1.5 Problem Statement

1.6 Objectives

1.7 Thesis Outline

12
 CHAPTER 2

REFERENCES
[1] Jeremy Landt, “The History of RFID,” IEEE Potentials, 2005.

[2] P. Pons, H. Aubert, P. Menini, and M. Tentzeris, “Electromagnetic transduction for

wireless passive sensors,” Proc. Eng., vol. 47, pp. 1474–1483, Nov. 2012.

[3] S. Preradovic and N. C. Karmakar, “Modern RFID readers,” IEEE Microwave J.,
2007.
[4] Ron Weinstein, “R. RFID: a technical overview and its application to the enterprise,”

IEEE IT Professional, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 27–33, 2005.

[5] D. Dobkin, The RF in RFID: Passive UHF RFID in Practice: Newnes, 2007, P.34.
[6] Atlas RFID Solutions. (2015, July 7). Active vs. Passive RFID. [Online]. Available:
http://atlasrfid.com/jovix-education/auto-id-basics/activerfid-vs-passive-rfid/
[7] S. Preradovic and N. C. Karmakar, “Chipless RFID: Bar code of the future,” IEEE
Microwave Mag., vol. 11, no. 7, pp. 87–97, 2010.
[8] S. Tedjini, N. Karmakar, E. Perret, A. Vena, R. Koswatta, & R. E-Azim, “Hold the

Chips: Chipless Technology, an Alternative Technique for RFID” IEEE Microwave

Mag, vol. 14, no. 5, 56–65, 2013.

[9] S. Preradovic and N. C. Karmakar, “Design of Short Range Chipless RFID Reader

Prototype” in IEEE ISSNIP, Melbourne, Australia, 2009.

13
14
 CHAPTER 2

Literature Review
Radio-frequency identification is based on automatic identification of data

capturing technique along with the retrieval of data using devices. RFID basically relies

on radio frequency waves to attain the transmitted data between RFID tag and the

interrogator [1].

The information-carrying device in the RFID system is the transponder, while the data

extracting/collecting device is the RFID reader. The RFID reader can only read

transponders within the reader interrogation zone. In a chipless RFID system the RFID

reader detects the tag by using signal processing demodulation techniques to extract

data from the transponder’s signal. A chipless tag cannot generate a signal without the

reader sending an interrogation signal to the transponder. Therefore, the reader and

transponders are in a master-slave relationship where the reader acts as a master and the

transponders as slaves. An RFID reader consists three main parts shown in Fig. 3.

These main three components are:

o Digital/Control section;

o RF section; and

o Antenna.

At the user end, the reader is connected to the host application such as enterprise

software. In order to minimize cost, tags are made fully printable and chipless. We have

15
reported a novel multiresonator-based chipless RFID system [5]. The basic operational

principle of

the chipless RFID system is illustrated in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. Block diagram of the chipless RFID system operating principle.

The RFID reader operates between 1.9 and 2.5 GHz and can successfully detect a

transponder at close range. The tag design can be transferred easily to plastic and paper,

making it suitable for mass deployment for low cost items in trillions. The RFID reader is

suitable for mounting over conveyor belt systems. [2b].

Passive systems do require energy to the receiver to detect the information since these

types of matching required no power or battery source. By considering the passive

16
chipped RFID sensors, the IC attains the power via electromagnetic energy from the

specific reader. However, due to having the IC in circuit leads to higher cost of sensor as

compared to that of chipless RFID sensors [3].

In general, passive RFID system contains three main parts that include

an RFID reader also known as interrogator, an RFID based antenna and RFID based

tags. In comparison to active RFID tags, passive RFID tags contain mainly two

components that include the tag’s antenna and the microchip which may also be

named as integrated circuit (IC) [4]. Since there is no use of embedded chip or battery

in chipless RFID sensors, so they absorb no power. Theses sensors are being considered

as highly suitable for harsh environments and also provide much greater reading distance

(i.e.; more than 10m) as compared to that of other available passive sensors [5]. On

examining the far-field passive systems based on RFID, EM waves that are being trapped

by the tag based dipole antenna, transmitted by reading antenna that might further be

rectified by the utilization of capacitor and diode which would lead to an outcome

received in the form of desired potential for the electronic part. The frequencies larger

than 100 MHz are feasible with far-field concept [6]. By considering the harsh

environment areas, there seems difficulty to create robust connection between an antenna

and IC. To counter such issues, chipless technique has been successfully imposed during

present years. The working of without chip transponder is based on similar concept as

that of Radar, where encoded info is utilized in the EM response of the sensor/tag passive

physical structure [7].

As the dependency of a chipless sensor lied with the backscattering of the signal

which is transmitted by the specific tag, the assessment of tag efficiency might be done

17
by the Radar Cross Section (RCS) of the structure. Therefore, an optimization of antenna

RCS and tag properties based on scattering might actually be the left challenge while

designing the tag [8, 9]. There is more effectiveness and suitability of electro-magmatic

(EM) chip-less RFID structures for detecting energy. In chip-less RFID the physical

layout matters a lot as there would be change occurred in the factors of EM that includes

Q factor, resonance frequency, impedance and RCS corresponding to any change being

caused in its physical structure [10]. The procedure based on radar interrogation may be

utilized for different sensing perseverance. The interrogation skill increases the

interrogation remoteness of chip-less RFIDs [11], [12]. There are certain chip-less RFIDs

sensors that are completely printed on a specific substrate using conductive inks [13],

these types of sensors can have enormous prospective in retail and logistics as well as for

consumer goods [14]. Chipless wireless sensing originated through variating the

electromagnetic response of the chipless sensor by introducing the change in the

conductivity and permittivity of an ID-tag having sensitive material. Such introduced

change might be responsible for creating variation in the level changes of amplitude of

transponder and phase shifting [15].

On classifying wireless passive sensors, there are two main categories that include

active sensors and passive sensors. Wireless Passive sensors are also categorized as chip-

based sensor and chip-less based sensor. The modulation scheme used in a chip-based

RFID passive sensor is based on backscattered RCS by changing the impedance to

observe any change being made in a physical phenomenon. Chip-based RFID sensors

contain very high percentage of accuracy, but these sensors show greater incompatibility

with harsh environments [5]. Chipless sensor consists of SAW-based sensors and EM

18
transduction-based chipless RFID sensors. Now by considering the recent RFID based

advancements, six commonly known sensors come under the category of EM

transduction-based chipless RFID sensors that include temperature, crack, gas detection,

and pressure and humidity sensors [16].

By carrying out the comparison with other industries, forestry lags behind in

implementing the RFID based technologies in real life scenario. However with the

passage of time, the deployment and usability of RFID, especially in the industry based

on timber is progressing including tracking of wood products and shipment of timber,

log-traceability [17]. The moisture content of logs of wood show the alteration

corresponding to change in weather and environmental conditions. By keeping the fresh

wood under observation for transponder design, the greater challenge would be dealing

with the electromagnetic properties of that fresh wood since there would be high loss and

the permittivity variation of wet wood with wood’s moisture content. The electrical

properties of wood changes rapidly by the impact of the moisture content present within

different logs. That’s the reason; antenna of the transponder needs to be perseverant with

the alteration of surrounding complex permittivity [18].

Due to variation in moisture content, changes would be observed in wood’s

dielectric constant. Now as an antenna of the RFID tag located in the closer area of the

wood, the variations occurred in dielectric constant would affect the characteristics of

antenna [19]. In case of wooden logs, the RFID tag is allocated to the front or back sides

of wood logs that are to be loaded on a truck for monitoring purposes in logistics, in

which the most essential parameters include the size of tag and form factor [20]. The

observed changes in wood moisture content can also cause variations in all physical and

19
mechanical related properties i.e. the properties related to the strength and stiffness of

wood. Due to the presence of wood moisture content, the contraction or expansion of

material may also be occurred. As a result decay process may be initiated. Therefore, it is

necessary to carry out the correct approximation of moisture content of timber while

doing planning, implementation and maintenance of wood buildings or the products made

of wood [21].

Table 01: Dielectric Constant (ε′), Loss Factor (ε′′), Loss Tangent (tanδ) and
Thermal Conductivity (k) of Pine Wood [Pinus sylvestris (L.)] at Different Moisture
Contents & Structural Directions; T=tangential, R=radial, ⊥=transverse directions [22].

20
 Based on common guidelines or recommendations, the acceptable moisture level for
wood objects used indoors is generally 6% to 8% for wood flooring, 6% to 9%furniture, and 9%
to 14% for construction.

CHAPTER 3

Proposed RFID Tag Design and used Material

In this chapter, the proposed design of chipless RFID tag for monitoring the
moisture content in wood is discussed in detail along with the material used in it. One of
the tag design has rectangular C-shape with single resonator while the other tag design
has looped rectangular shape with two resonators. These resonators are used here to attain
or gather the information related to the moisture content of wood and send that
information to the interrogator which is collected as in RCS response. The dielectric
related properties of wood material are responsible for variations in resonance that
determine the changes in the moisture content of wood.

The materials used for substrates and tags in this proposed chipless RFID tags and
the related electromagnetic properties of wood material is presented in detail. The
materials including substrates and resonators may easily be found in the market. This
research is being carried out to attain a productive, cheap and compact design as a result
to be utilized practically at a larger scale.

3.1 Tag Elements and Material

Due to having the property greater thermal and electrical conductivity, copper as a
selected conductive material used for both square C-shaped resonator and closed looped

21
rectangular shaped resonators. Apart from having this characteristic, copper is also
cheaper as compared to that of other conductors. Both the designs have mainly three
elements:

 Substrate

 Resonators

 Wooden Block

Copper made square C-shape resonator is patched on Rogers RO4350 material

which is being chosen as substrate then placing this on
selected wooden block. Thickness used here for copper is 0.035mm. In this case the
chosen dimensions for Rogers RO4350 acting as substrate of 15x15x1.524mm as shown
in the following figure;

Figure 3.1: Proposed design of square C-shaped resonator Tag

Table 3.1: Dimensional values defined for proposed Tag

Defined Parameters Value (mm)
R1 14
R2 9.0
W1 5.0
G1 1.5

22
 Table 3.1: Dimensional values defined for proposed Tag
Defined Parameters Value (mm)
Ra1 14
Ra2 9.0
Rb1 6.0
Rb2 5.0
G2 3.0
W1 5.0
W2 1.0

In this section the properties of wood are described, focusing on the dielectric

properties that influence an electromagnetic field. To model the interaction between

a material and the electromagnetic field, knowledge of the material and its properties

is needed. Wood is composed of different types of cellulose fibres building the tree,

23
[17]. This gives a tree its directions, longitudinal to the growth direction of the tree,

coinciding with the grain direction, radial from the centre of the stem and outwards,

and tangential orthogonal to the other two directions, see Figure 3.

The influence of the electric field on wood is strong, while the influence of the

magnetic field can be ignored, [23]; furthermore, the electric and magnetic fields are

not coupled. The dielectric properties of wood can be described with the relative

dielectric constant sr and the dielectric loss factor srr and the combined complex

dielectric constant s = sr + isrr includes also conduc- tion effects in contrast to (2.5).

The complex dielectric constant depends on several parameters: tree species, wood

density, water content, temperature, frequency, and the field’s orientation with

respect to the grain and is based on mean values of about 1cm3, [23]. Norway

spruce, with average density 450kg/m3 is the tree species under consideration. The

water content is mea- sured as the moisture content on dry basis MC in percent. For

oven dry wood MC is 0%, while for a living tree it can reach 250 %. Temperature

and frequency are external properties also influencing the dielectric properties. In

the present study mainly frequencies in the microwave region, about 0.3-20 GHz are

considered. Data for the complex dielectric constant are taken from [23].

The complex dielectric constant differs for three different directions, lon-

gitudinal, radial and tangential. However, the constants in the radial and tangential

directions do not differ much so they can be considered as equal. Hence, the notation

s" parallel and s⊥ perpendicular to the grain can be introduced. In terms of

electromagnetic theory this means that wood is an anisotropic material with

24
direction, caused by the microscopic structure. This anisotropy results in the fact that

an electric field is affected differently depending on its direction and polarization, to

the grain.

With these assumptions on wood, the constitutive relations for the electro-

25
 CHAPTER 4

Results and Discussion

In this chapter, the designs of two chipless RFID sensors are being evaluated in terms of

their performance and their effectiveness to monitor the moisture content of pine wood.

The simulations of both the tags are being carried out using CST Microwave Studio [34].

The results based on carrying out simulations are produced by applying different values

of dielectric constant and loss factor on considered wooden block at different percentage

values of moisture content. The attained results are being examined in detail.

4.1 Frequency Response of tag with Rogers RO4350 on wooden Block

Wood contains unique and different dielectric properties than that of other materials.

Wood material undergoes the effect of electromagnetic waves if we electromagnetic field

is produced. In this scenario, the most effective parameters are dielectric constant and

loss factor that are being considered to analyze the variations produced in RCS response

with the change of moisture content of wood.

Here a wooden block is being kept under consideration containing the dimensions

100x100x19 mm to monitor the effect of moisture content along with the environmental

changes on it. As specifically pine wood is being kept under consideration in this

research, so the density used for selected wooden block is 510 kg/m3.

26
 Figure 4.1: Proposed Tag with Rogers RO4350 placed on wooden Block

The Proposed copper made square C-shape resonator is patched on substrate Rogers

RO4350 material which is being chosen as substrate then placing this on the surface of

selected wooden block. which will be used to sense the changes taken place due to

variations in the moisture content. It will also do the task of sending the sensed response

to the interrogator in backscattered signal in accordance with the change occurred in the

considered wooden block. This tag delivers the information related to the quality of

wooden block effected by the changes in the percentages of moisture content shown in

frequency resonance dips which will variate along with the changes in electromagnetic

parameters including dielectric constant and loss factor.

27
4.1.1 RCS response at Oven Dry State of pine wood (0% MC)

Simulations are carried out to get Radar Cross Section (RCS) response of under

considered block of wood which can be viewed graphically. In literature [22], the values

of dielectric constant and loss factor are being extracted to examine the RCS response at

oven dry state of pine wood. It can clearly be observed from the figure that resonating tag

is creating a resonance dip at 6.2 GHz having RCS value of -39dBsm. This graphical

result is attained by carrying out the simulation of chipless RFID tag which is being kept

on the surface of wooden block containing the values of dielectric constant as 1.60 and

Loss factor as 0.042.

Figure 4.2: RCS response of proposed tag at 0% MC on wooden Block

4.1.2 RCS response at 8% Moisture Content

In literature [22], the values of dielectric constant and loss factor are being extracted to

examine the RCS response at oven dry state of pine wood. It can clearly be observed

from the figure that resonating tag is creating a resonance dip at 5.75 GHz having RCS

value of -37.5dBsm. This graphical result is attained by carrying out the simulation of

28
chipless RFID tag which is being kept on the surface of wooden block containing the

values of dielectric constant as 1.82 and Loss factor as 0.144.

Figure 4.3: RCS response of proposed tag at 8% MC on wooden Block

4.1.3 RCS response at 12% Moisture Content

In literature [22], the values of dielectric constant and loss factor are being extracted to

examine the RCS response at oven dry state of pine wood. It can clearly be observed

from the figure that resonating tag is creating a resonance dip at 5.65 GHz having RCS

value of -35dBsm. This graphical result is attained by carrying out the simulation of

chipless RFID tag which is being kept on the surface of wooden block containing the

values of dielectric constant as 2.01 and Loss factor as 0.274.

29
 Figure 4.4: RCS response of proposed tag at 12% MC on wooden Block

4.1.4 RCS response at 22% Moisture Content

In literature [22], the values of dielectric constant and loss factor are being extracted to

examine the RCS response at oven dry state of pine wood. It can clearly be observed

from the figure that resonating tag is creating a resonance dip at 4.95 GHz having RCS

value of -30.5dBsm. This graphical result is attained by carrying out the simulation of

chipless RFID tag which is being kept on the surface of wooden block containing the

values of dielectric constant as 2.79 and Loss factor as 0.539.

30
 Figure 4.5: RCS response of proposed tag at 22% MC on wooden Block

4.1.5 Overall variations in RCS response at different percentages of MC

Figure 4.12 represents the overall variations occurred in the dielectric properties of wood

with change of percentages of moisture content of wood logs. It can clearly be observed

that the wooden block in oven dry state (0% MC) has RCS value of -39 dBsm with

resonance dip appeared at frequency 6.2 GHz while when moisture content percentage

rises to 8%, wooden block has RCS value of -37.5dBsm with resonance dip appeared at

frequency 5.75 GHz. With further increase in percentage of moisture content to 12%, the

considered wooden block has RCS value of -35dBsm with resonance dip appeared at

frequency 5.65 GHz. Similarly, when the percentage of moisture content reaches to 22%,

wooden block has RCS value of -30.5dBsm with resonance dip appeared at frequency

4.95 GHz. This considerable frequency shift and variations in RCS values may be

utilized for monitoring the moisture content of pine wood using chipless RFID tag.

31
 Figure 4.6: Overview of tag’s RCS response at different percentage values of MC

4.2 Frequency Response of tag with FR-4 on wooden Block

The considered dimensions of wooden block is 100x100x19 mm which is being used to

monitor the effect of moisture content along with the environmental changes on it. As

specifically pine wood is being kept under consideration in this research, so the density

used for selected wooden block is 510 kg/m3.

32
 Figure 4.7: Proposed Tag with FR-4 placed on wooden Block

In this proposed design two copper made square loop shaped resonators are being used to

be patched on substrate FR-4 material which is being chosen as substrate then placing

this on the surface of selected wooden block which will be used to sense the changes

taken place due to variations in the moisture content. It will also do the task of sending

the sensed response to the interrogator in backscattered signal in accordance with the

change occurred in the considered wooden block. This tag delivers the information

related to the quality of wooden block effected by the changes in the percentages of

moisture content shown in frequency resonance dips which will variate along with the

changes in electromagnetic parameters including dielectric constant and loss factor.

4.2.1 RCS response at Oven Dry State of pine wood (0% MC)

Simulations are carried out to get Radar Cross Section (RCS) response of under

considered block of wood which can be viewed graphically. In literature [22], the values

of dielectric constant and loss factor are being extracted to examine the RCS response at

33
oven dry state of pine wood. It can clearly be observed from the figure that resonating tag

is creating different resonance dips at frequencies 6.5 and 12.45 GHz having RCS values

of -36.5 and -43.5 dBsm respectively. This graphical result is attained by carrying out the

simulation of chipless RFID tag which is being kept on the surface of wooden block

containing the values of dielectric constant as 1.60 and Loss factor as 0.042.

Figure 4.8: RCS response of proposed tag at 0% MC on wooden Block

4.2.2 RCS response at 8% Moisture Content

In literature [22], the values of dielectric constant and loss factor are being extracted to

examine the RCS response at oven dry state of pine wood. It can clearly be observed

from the figure that resonating tag is creating a resonance dips at frequencies 6.15 and

11.9 GHz having RCS values of -32 and -25 dBsm respectively. This graphical result is

attained by carrying out the simulation of chipless RFID tag which is being kept on the

surface of wooden block containing the values of dielectric constant as 1.82 and Loss

factor as 0.144.

34
 Figure 4.9: RCS response of proposed tag at 8% MC on wooden Block

4.2.3 RCS response at 12% Moisture Content

In literature [22], the values of dielectric constant and loss factor are being extracted to

examine the RCS response at oven dry state of pine wood. It can clearly be observed

from the figure that resonating tag is creating a resonance dips at frequencies 5.8 and 11

GHz having RCS values of -29.5 and -19.5 dBsm respectively. This graphical result is

attained by carrying out the simulation of chipless RFID tag which is being kept on the

surface of wooden block containing the values of dielectric constant as 2.01 and Loss

factor as 0.274.

35
 Figure 4.10: RCS response of proposed tag at 12% MC on wooden Block

4.2.4 RCS response at 22% Moisture Content

In literature [22], the values of dielectric constant and loss factor are being extracted to

examine the RCS response at oven dry state of pine wood. It can clearly be observed

from the figure that resonating tag is creating a resonance dips at frequencies 5.05 and

9.45 GHz having RCS values of -27.2 and -23.5 dBsm respectively. This graphical result

is attained by carrying out the simulation of chipless RFID tag which is being kept on the

surface of wooden block containing the values of dielectric constant as 2.79 and Loss

factor as 0.539.

Figure 4.11: RCS response of proposed tag at 22% MC on wooden Block

4.2.5 Overall variations in RCS response at different percentages of MC

Figure 4.12 represents the overall variations occurred in the dielectric properties of wood

with change of percentages of moisture content of wood logs. It can clearly be observed

that the wooden block in oven dry state (0% MC) has RCS values of -36.5 and -43.5

dBsm with resonance dips appeared at frequencies 6.5 and 12.45 GHz while when

moisture content percentage rises to 8%, wooden block has RCS values of -32 and -25

36
dBsm with resonance dips appeared at frequencies 6.15 and 11.9 GHz respectively. With

further increase in percentage of moisture content to 12%, the considered wooden block

has RCS values of -29.5 and -19.5 dBsm with resonance dips appeared at frequencies 5.8

and 11 GHz respectively. Similarly, when the percentage of moisture content reaches to

22%, wooden block has RCS values of -27.2 and -23.5 dBsm with resonance dips

appeared at frequencies 5.05 and 9.45 GHz respectively. This considerable frequency

shift and variations in RCS values may be utilized for monitoring the moisture content of

pine wood using chipless RFID tag.

Figure 4.12: Overview of tag’s RCS response at different percentage values of MC

37
38
39
40
41
 CONCLUSION

Write conclusion of your thesis here. Maximum of 1 page.

42
 REFERENCES

Use following style format for references.

Example Journal Paper:

[1] Didier Le Gall, “MPEG: A video compression standard for multimedia applications,”

Communications ACM, vol. 34, no. 4, pp. 46–58, April 1991.

Example Conference Paper:

[2] Gulistan Raja and M. J. Mirza, “Performance comparison of advanced video coding

H.264 standard with baseline H.263 and H.263+ standards,” in Proc. 4th IEEE

International Symposium on Communications & Information Technologies, ISCIT 04,

Sapporo, Japan, 2004, pp. 743–746.

Example Book:

[3] Iain E.G. Richardson, Video Codec Design, Great Britain, John Wiley & Sons, 2003,

ISBN: xx-yyyy-zzzz.

Example Web Link:

[4] MPEG Software Simulation Group, “The MSSG homepage”, available on-line at

http://www.mpeg.org/MPEG/ MSSG, 2004.

Example Standard:

[5] ITU-T “Video Coding for low bit rate communication,” ITU-T Recommendation

H.263; version 1, Nov 1995; version 2, Jan. 1998; version 3, Nov. 2000.

43
 ABBREVIATIONS

Abbreviations should be placed at the end. Sample is given below:

MTTP: M Sc Thesis Topic Proposal

BoPGS: Board of Postgraduate Studies

EED: Electrical Engineering Department

44
 ANNEXURE

Annexure (if any) should be placed at the end of thesis report.

Hard Copy Information:

Page Size: Letter (8.5” x 11”)

Page Margins: Top & Bottom = 1” and Left & Right = 1.25”

Page orientation: Portrait

Line Spacing: Double

Page Numbering: Bottom Center

Printing: One Side

Note about Binding:

Nine hard bound copies of the thesis are to be submitted for final thesis examination.

Hard bound means permanently stitched and bound in BLACK COVER with the title of

the dissertation and your name clearly inscribed on the cover as per format given at the

first page of template in GOLDEN color. The SPINE of thesis should have Author’s

Name (all capital letters), MSc. Engg. and Year of Passing ONLY. The Author’s

name should be in vertical orientation while MSc. Engg. and year of passing. should be in

horizontal orientation on hard bound copy of thesis.

45