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Review of Related Literature

2.2 Animal behavior in zoo

2.2.1 Introduction

Animals in captivity have common stereotypic behavior such as repetitive, invariant behavior pattern
with no purpose or function. They are forced to live in unnatural habitat and small environment that
does not meet their needs. This causes a huge effect on their physical and mental health which then
produces stress and abnormal behavior that is never seen in the wild. This behavior is named
“zoochosis or psychosis”. Examples of this are repetitive swaying, bar-biting, head-bobbing,
excessive licking, over grooming, vomiting and eating the vomit, apathy and rocking. (Smith 2014)

Zoo animals are exposed to large number of visitors. The life of animals in zoo experiencing
overcrowding, social disruption, extreme temperatures, uncaring handlers, unfamiliar sounds, and
injections may lead to stress affecting their behavior. Human - animal interaction can have a
profound impact on the many facets of an animal’s physiology and behavior. The negative
interaction of human to animals like shouting, hitting, teasing and other acts, may lead to stress and
anxiety to animals that affects their productivity and affect their health. Hence, positive human
interaction is very powerful it reduces the stress and fears of animals. (Zulkifli 2013)

2.2.2 Findings:

To fight zoochosis according to Braitman, keepers may give animals some puzzles and toys to play
with, food that takes longer to eat, or more complex additions to their enclosures this serves as a
“band aid” that has been found to reduce stereotypic behavior 53% of the time. (smith 2014)

Stereotypical behavior can be reduced or eliminated by “environmental enrichment” improving

animal welfare, and more stimulating enclosures, training, and introductions of stimuli (visual,
auditory and touching objects) to the animal’s environment and improvement of their housing
environment may be effective for any length of time. (Hewson 2006)

2.2.3 Conclusion:

The study highlights the opportunity to improve the quality living of animals in a zoo environment.
Some of the behaviors of animals could be cute from human perspective while they don’t realize it is
but an abnormal behavior which cannot be seen in the wild. Therefore, animals from the wilds being
kept in captivity should aim to reduce the zoochosis behavior.

2.2.4 References:

 c.j. Hewson (Environmental Enrichment for captive animals 2006).

 L.Smith(Zoos drives animal crazy 2014).
 Zulkifli (review of animal-human relationship and their impact on productivity and welfare
2013).
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Review of related literature

2.3Trends in zoo design

2.3.1 Introduction

Zoo design started from small cages and was only use for entertainment and for science sake. Later
they made zoos as art exhibits. Nature became less important and is less focused on natural habitat
of animals. During the time of modernism “form follows function” the design was meant to be
concrete everywhere that it will look like sculpture rather than natural.

In the mid-20th century, the society developed a sense of environmental awareness about animals’
rights. Hediger wrote “wild animals in captivity” to give people ideas and start the study of husbandry
practices and exhibits design based on animals’ natural history. The two designer’s Jones and Jones
architects decided to improve the Hagenbeck’s ideas by instead of creating live painting, they put
visitors into habitat to immerse them. Many designs ideas continue to develop to improve the
captivity of animals in the wild. (Ludluma 2008)
2.3.2 Findings:

Carl Hagenbeck, the first ever to have applied the theory of “bar less” to zoo design by replacing
bars and applying moats. His goal is to create a living romantic landscape such as in paintings than
to create moral sensitivities.

In 1970s Jones and Jones architects make an improvement of Hagenbeck’s design by putting
visitors into a habitat that they themselves recreate. These are habitat in which animals exhibits their
natural behavior in the wild. Since then, landscape immersion was born and grows by applying more
improvements to the environments of zoo.

The legendary zoo designer Jon Coe invented a 360 concept on Philadelphia zoo where animals are
given more opportunities for long-distance travel. This gives more environmental variety that
increases their ability to determine their own experience which helps reduce stereotypical behavior
of animals.

Philadelphia Zoo zoo36o design

2.3.3 Conclusion:

In meeting the high standard of zoo design, animal welfare must be studied first, animal natural
history and animals in captivity to understand the impact of putting wild animals in zoo. From Jon
Coe, designing zoos must not create exhibits, rather create animal paths. This improves animals’
physiology and mental health while enhancing the visitors experience through a more dynamic
engagement.

2.3.4 References:

 j. Worland (the future zoos: challenges force zoos to change in big ways 2017)
 J. Coe Design Pty Ltd 2014
 S. Ludluma Quick Lesson in Zoo Design History 2008.
 Zoolexorganization: trends in zoo design 2008.
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Review of related literature

2.4 Aviary cage design
2.4.1 Introduction
An Aviary is a large enclosure for confining birds. In the Early modern and late 1600s, they
display exotic birds and animals as their power, status and wealth. They place their birds on
ornamented average size cages. Later then in the mid-20 th century to the modern day they
create big birdcages from a large mesh or net enclosure where birds can fly relatively free.
Yet, still some cages of birds are small that does not fulfill the freedom needed by birds.
They merely serve as a display which shortens the life of birds.(edited but include citation)

In designing a habitat for birds, different requirements on each kinds of species are
considered. (edited but include citation.)
Birds in zoos are commonly classified as waterfowls (ducks, geese, swans, mallard and
etc.), large wading birds (cranes, flamingos, storks) and large ratites (emus, rheas and
ostrich) and other flightless birds should kept in large enclosure which are open but, for
flight-capable birds are enclosed by nets. And more on dry lands. (removed the highlighted
portion here, this should be included in the animal behavior part)
2.4.2 Findings:
Cage enclosures only are not enough for birds it should allow birds to carry out as many as
possible of their natural behaviors such as, ground cover for hiding, water for diving, large
open areas for flying. Those birds that are sensitive to stress due to overcrowding and fear of
humans should be provided a place that is barred from public access.
For birds to live naturally inside the cage, the design must include opportunities to achieve
goals, such as finding hidden foods, ability to make choices, opportunities both for work and
play, and the ability able to make their own nest. The stability, security and appropriate
complexity such as branch perching, appropriate substrate for digging and burrowing, water
for bathing or swimming depends on the types of species.

Waterfowl birds are more associated with water and are gregarious outside breeding
season, but some birds become territorial while breeding. While crane birds (long legged,
long necked, long billed birds of grasslands and wetlands, must have spectacular dancing
displays and loud calls are kept in spacious enclosures. (removed this and include this in
animal behavior)
2.4.3 Conclusion:
Enclosure design must consider the natural behavior of birds and their need for movement
such as, flying, and swimming. This helps in increasing the life of birds. Designing of bird
enclosures are not only placing them in cages but also increasing their years of existence.
Also, this helps them breed more specially birds deemed as endangered.
2.4.4 References:
 B. Callahan history of birdwatching 2014
 D. Bourne accommodation design for birds 2015
 D. Bourne meeting bird Behavioral requirement
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Review related of Literature

2.5 Naturalistic and Immersion Exhibit design theory

2.5.1Introduction

Since the age of enlightenment in European history, animals are being studied for scientific reasons.
The research about behavior and anatomy of animals had led to improvements in exhibit designs.
Naturalistic and immersion exhibits show the context of natural engagement of animals and visitors
in the same habitat where visitors and animals are separated by hidden barriers. The design
purpose is to let urban populations educate and increase their knowledge about wild animals in their
re-created naturalistic theme of habitat. (Jones, et al 1976)
Exhibits must inform visitors about animals’ right not being displayed like an object similar to a
museum. The message of cage exhibits cannot develop a sense of love and respect for animals,
instead they feel sad towards the animals and possibly become abusive on animals. (edited and
include citation)
Some exhibit is designed unappealing while the buildings in which animals are kept are well
designed these types of exhibits usually denote human power over nature. (fisher 1967).
In the scientific study the design enables the researcher to identify physiological and cognitive
mechanism that stimulate natural behavior. This provide the scientist with opportunities to study
animal behavior which they cannot do in the in the wild. (Hediger 1969).
2.5.2 Findings:
The naturalistic exhibit design can be applied to zoos that imitate the natural habitat of wild animals
through artificial methods so it would not be different when they transfer wild animals to zoo.
Combining the naturalistic design to the concept of immersive exhibit design where the visitors
experience to walk along with rugged pathways with over hanging tree and wild landscape would let
visitors engage in a simulation of the animals’ natural environment. This design gives the visitors
excitement and adventure with fear and feeling of unsafe that makes their visit memorable.
2.5.3 Conclusion:
The situation of zoos in cage can have a different respond from viewers. They can feel sad towards
them or let them think that they can collect animals and put them into cages. Therefore, using the
new design benefits both visitors and animals giving opportunities to visitors to bond with animals
while having a positive respond from visitors helps the conservation of animals and their habitats.
2.5.4 Reference:
-(A.Slatch Landscape immersion- understanding zoo designs
2015).https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325022095_Landscape_Immersion_-
_UNDERSTANDING_ZOO_DESIGNS
-(j.coe trends in exhibit design 2014).
http://www.joncoedesign.com/trends/exhibit_trends.htm
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Review of related literature

2.6 Design and Perception: making the zoo experience real

2.6.1 Introduction

Visitors often spends a short time viewing exhibits and move on to the next display similar to a
museum which results to loss of interest because of the design of the animal’s enclosure. Some
dangerous animals are exciting to see but the enclosure of the design makes them uninteresting
making them look as tamed pets. (citation)

Making the zoo experience memorable combine the elements of (a) anticipation- knowing the large
animals could possibly be nearby, (b) lack of distraction- surroundings are quiet, (c) novelty- hiking in
the woods or biking, (d) fulfilled expectation- you did see what animal you expect, (e) emotional
involvement- surprise, (f) fear and unsafe leaving a vivid multi-sensory impression and (g)
reinforcement- you relived the experience for family and schoolmates. (citation)

Anthropomorphism as an educational tool by dominance and subordinate learning; In our dominate

mode we act leading, teaching, directing and controlling surroundings while in subordinate mode we
feel less power we show obeying, learning and accepting surroundings. Making animals dominant
enable the visitor to learn because they feel subordinate. Dominant individuals stand in elevated
position. If we put animals in a superior location, visitors will feel subordinate. That may predispose
them to learn about animal surroundings.

Making the message clear; zoo often put animals in bars which lead to visitors feeling pity on them.
“if zoo visitors see nothing more than animals in ugly conditions, engaging in aberrant behavior, they
are likely to feel nothing than revulsion and its counterpoint pity”. (Hutchins et al 1984. Pg.26).

Making the zoo experience enjoyable and real; behavioral activities in addition to care giving and
aesthetic appreciation include discoveries and communications. To make it more effective, animals
should be presented with mystery and drama that result to viewers invests longer in time viewing
and observing. (Brennan 1977). With the addition of drama, mystery and sequentially staged
personal experience combine with beautiful views, and active animals creates memorable visit. (Coe
1980 pg.2)

To make the experience real the whole perceptual contexts of landscape should be imitated by the
natural habitat of animals. Bruner (1957, pg.127) asserted “that under any conditions of perception,
what is achieved by the perceiver is the categorization of an object or sensory event in terms of
more or less reliable clues.” The visitors must feel the zoo like they are in the wild for instance, tall
grasses, seed heads waving in the breeze. The setting looks, smell, and feels should speak as it
was in the wild.

2.6.2 Findings:

Applying different mysteries and dramas in zoo are effective in education.Exhibit purpose is to show
the public that animals should be respected and appreciated rather than to be feared and
persecuted (Coe 1985). Most people love thrills. Applying mild-fear mysteries in zoo can get great
attention from the public. Further, (Taylor 1955) suggest that anxiety improves experiential
(nonverbal) learning.

Applying anthropomorphism as an education tool by making the visitors feel subordinate increases
learning. This let visitors appreciate and respect the animals while observing them. The animal
enclosure design will dictate how the visitors will appreciate and respect the animals. (citation)
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2.6.3Conclusion:

Understanding the perception of the viewers in our present zoos can make improvements to future
zoo designs. Studying both animal and human behavior from the concepts of the subordination and
dominance role affects the mood of visitors to animals. Designer must analyze the activity patterns
of animals that will get the attention of the viewers. (Coe,1985) As a designer working at a general
intuitive level, the author welcomes scientific input into the design and systematic analysis of
completed zoo exhibits.

2.6.4 References:

 Coe, J.S., (1985) Design and Perception: Making the Zoo experience and real.
 Bruner J.S., (1957) on perceptual readiness, psychological review.
 Coe, J. C.,(1980) Pittsburgh zoo development Plan, Jones & Jones for the City of Pittsburgh,
Pittsburgh Department of Parks and Recreation.
 Hutchins, M.; Hancocks, D.; Crockett, C., (1984) Natural Solutions to the Behavioral
Problems of Captive Animals, Der Zoologische Garten, No. 54.
 SlatchA., (2015) Landscape immersion- understanding zoo designs.
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Review related of Literature

2.7 The Unzoo Alternative theory

Zoo collects animals and displays in cages and large enclosures for people to come and see. Also,
this is a great opportunity for scientists to observe and study how they multiply. The “Unzoo” is a
recreated natural habitat where public learns about wild animals and ecosystems through interaction
with and immersion in its natural setting. Integrating new advances in technology, zoo design and
management are evolving toward the unzoo standard. Immersion design theory solved the pitied
animals behind the bars into cageless design where barriers are hidden in a recreated natural
habitat. (citation)

Immersion design theory contends learning by emotional responses such as awe, love, fear,
excitement, surprise and delight. Emotion has a substantial influence on the cognitive processes of
humans including attention, learning and memory. Every time ones attention is caught this will lead
to learning and later will become a memory. (Tyng, Amin, and Malik 2017). Furthermore, Immersion
design’s objective is to demonstrate landscape as an appropriate habitat and ecosystem, and to
immerse visitors in a stimulated natural landscape. These are the following designs suggested to
make the zoo into unzoo:

a. Walk through exhibit should have large enclosure for the movement of the species with
enough resources, smaller species, and creatures from outside the facility may be
encouraged to establish home ranges within the perimeter.
b. Zookeepers usually trained animals using the method of “clicker training” revolutionizing
animals zoo with more active display and safer. Seems both caregiver and animals clearly
enjoy the training period and find them enriching.
c. Animal close encounter with rotation exhibit design allows animals to time-share each other’s
space gaining exercise and stimulation in the process and allows habitat areas to recover
from heavy use.
d. Shows and habitat theater (Ray Mendez 1989) suggests that look the landscape as a stage
and the animals and staffs as an actor. Shows can be formatted to inform us about animals
of many types with emphasis on ecology and behavior rather than clever presenters (coe
2008).
e. Expand senses used by a lot of scientist zooming a close-up while feeding species using
remote camera and other technologies that would able to help study animals and for control
their move patterns.
f. Extended day program by night events seeing night active animals and awaken by the sound
of nature can form great experience that will make long-term memories.

2.7.1 Findings:

Making zoo to “unzoo” motivates people to learn is make them response with mild fear, excitement
and surprises but that will only depend on the designs we apply. Showing a great design on animal’s
habitat educates people to love their nature as well as their habitat. By applying immersion design
theory, young people help to connect with nature by teaching and letting them experience being in
an artificial wild.

2.7.2 Conclusion:

In designing zoo, we must think animals as our client studying their activity patterns and making
them comfortable. The situation of zoo today was animals are forced to live in small environment
and is stuck in one place and is exposed every day to hundreds of visitors. Home is the most
 Chapter II

comfortable place we could go in the same way as animals does. They feel when they are home
therefore, the alternative design theory, replicating their natural habitat helps animals to be in their
natural behavior while expert educators connect them to the natural world of wild animals.

2.7.3 Reference:

 Tyng, C. M., Amin, H. U., Saad, M., & Malik, A. S. (2017). The Influences of Emotion on
Learning and Memory. Frontiers in psychology, 8, 1454.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01454.
 Coe,J(2008).TheunzooAlternative.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263470731_The_Unzoo_Alternative
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Review of Related Literature

2.8 Wildlife education

2.8.1 Introduction

The forest covers 31 percent of earth’s land surface and with majority of plants and animals found in
earth. Human behavior is the cause of deteriorating environment and deforestations that results to
climate change and species extinction and biodiversity. The more people cut down trees from the
forest the greater the possibility that the people will not survive this planet because trees and forest
are considered to be the lungs of earth. (citation)

Wildlife education enhances people’s understanding of wildlife and importance of conserving

animal’s natural habitat and ecological diversities. With the help of skilled educators and interpreters
using variety of methods to connect the visitors to the natural world, the public would understand the
natural behavior of the animals and would result to saving thousands of endangered species and
lessen deforestation. (citation)

2.8.2 Findings

Wildlife education is mostly in zoos, botanical gardens and parks. Using mass media and community
resources can promote conservation. Media can be a powerful ally in efforts to change behavior, for
example, conservation programs and rescuing of wild animals have successfully used community
based social-marketing strategies to change behavior (McKenzie-Mohr et al 2012).

Education center with close contact with animals has a greater effect on learning. Immersion
experience with wild animals gives a great understanding with emotions of love that motivates
people to raise awareness to the dying nature such as land and sea. One of the effective teaching
methods to visitors is to provide quality interpretation; this refers to the information’s that is being
presented about animal and ecosystem (Llewelyn 2018).

2.8.3 Conclusion

Motivation is a great tool for educating the public; it makes them care for species and their
environment. People mostly spend their free time using social media especially young people.
Therefore, Social media can help by awaking people about the extinction of many species caused by
wildfires and deforestations. To educate, people needs to focus their attention and love to the natural
world. To connect them with nature the designer must understand the natural habitat of animals
instead of designing beautiful cages.

2.8.4 References:

H. J., Falk 2014. Evidence for the educational value of zoos and aquariums.

P. W., Schultz 2011 Conservation means Behavior

T. Llewellyn 2018 A wild education: zoos as teachers of science.

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Review of Related Literature

2.9 Urban forestry

2.9.1 Introduction

Urban island heat effect increase temperature in highly urbanized areas, causing negative health
effects. According to Nievares weather specialist at the PAGASA, Metro Manila increase 1-2-degree
Celsius cause by rapid development of urban. Temperatures in highly urbanized area can get as
much as 10 degrees Fahrenheit higher compared to rural area. (citation)

The materials we use to construct in buildings and shape of its structure affect the distribution of
heat. “Most materials absorb and store a lot of energy and converted into sensible heat flux
contributes to increase of temperature over urbanizes area” (Nievares 2012).Effects of Urban heat
island increased energy consumption, air pollution, danger to human health, impacts on weather and
climate changes and local wind pattern and impacts on animals. (citation)

Urban forestry and trees provide fresh air and benefits a good quality of life. This is a great benefit
for the society, mostly on low income citizens. Such positive benefits are improvement of health,
environmental education, aesthetics and enhancement of landscape. Urban forestry can provide
food, fuel, fodder and other basic human needs. (citation)

Trees shade can reduce the average air temperature in buildings by as much as 5 degree Celsius
(Akbari et al 1992). When people are under trees the air temperature could be 4 degree Celsius
lower than exposed areas (Yap, 1999). While air pollution is toxic to our body, planting vegetation to
reduce air pollution is increasingly utilized as an effective approach (IDB 1997). Shapes and
arrangement of buildings blocks the wind flow, allowing air pollution to build up. (citation)

2.9.2 Findings

The helpful contribution to mitigate urban heat island effect is installing green roofs and vegetation
cover. It helps in lessening the impact of heat and cools the surrounding environment. Planting
plants and trees absorbs carbon dioxide and produces fresh air. Using light colored concrete and
white roofs is effective in reflecting 50 % more light and helps lessen ambient temperature. Green
parking lots lessen the impact of heat on pavements that can help prevent thermal pollution.

Indoor plants improve air quality and absorb indoor contaminants. According to Dr. Wolverton
research plant filtered rooms have 50 to 60 percent less airborne microbes, like mold spores and
bacteria (One nature 2020).

Scientists from Beijing calculated that with every 10% increase of green space the temperature
decreases by 1 degree Celsius (Profous NN). Conserving mature leafy trees produces more oxygen
than young trees and can cover 10 people inhales in a year (nurse living 2016).

2.9.3 Conclusion

Urban forestry is the lungs of the city; it improves the air quality and climate of the habitats. Urban
heat island effect can be solved from planting more trees. Urban forestry has a big impact to this
everyday problem of increasing high temperatures by conserving old trees that covers 10 persons of
inhales per year and placing more trees to have more cooling effects and improve air quality of
environment.
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2.9.4 References:

L. K., Alave 2012 Metro Manila now an “urban heat island”.

Conserve energy future 2020

Roles and importance of urban trees and forest.

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Review of related Literature

2.10 Animal taxonomy, behavior and activity patterns.

Introduction

Animal behavior and activity pattern is necessary to be understood by the designer in order to
provide the most effective enclosure and zoo habitat that doesn’t alienate them to their usual
environment and is very similar to their natural habitat. This avoids animals’ abnormal behavior on
artificial enclosures. The zoo environment tends to create a feeling of wildlife and is beneficial for the
education and the enjoyment of the visitors.

2.10.1 Class Mammalia – Order Carnivora

Carnivora is an order of flesh-eating mammals. These animals have powerful jaws with sharp teeth.
All are adapted for chasing or pouncing upon their victims (New Standard Encyclopedia 2000).
Carnivores live in every type of terrestrial lands: forests, deserts, mountains, grasslands, scrublands,
tundra and aquatic and semi-aquatic species live in freshwater rivers, lakes, and marshes, marine
coastal areas and in open ocean and ice (Stains, 1984; Vaughan, et al 2000).

Few terrestrial carnivores are excellent runners able to run in long distance. But they commonly use
stealth to approach their prey, and overcome it with a short, violent rush. But some carnivore’s
animals are slow or clumsy but with remarkable burst of speed. (Stains,1984; Sandell 1989).

Carnivorous mammals are territorials defended by the residents against other animals of their own
kind. Territories sometimes are marked by secretions produced by anal or other scent glands and by
deposition of feces in prominent locations (Stains and Lariviere, 2017).

Carnivores’ social pattern ranges from degree of solitary to colonial. Solitary are those that spend a
majority without others of their species. Colonial is a group of animals in one species that live and
interact closely with each other (Britannica encyclopedia, 2016)

Order: Carnivora

Families

Mephitidae Vivveridae felidae Mustelidae Ursidae Herpestidae

Canidae Procyonidae
Hyaenidae

Reference:(Lariviere and stains 2017 Carnivora Encyclopedia Britannica)

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Mephitidae behavior and activity pattern

The family of Mephitidae is known for antipredator behavior where they perform to reduce or rid
themselves of the risk of being prey. All Mephitids projecting sticky, foul-smelling secretion from their
anal scent glands in order to deter a potential threat.

Mephitis are active at night. They spend their daytime in burrows or hollow logs and during evenings
they search for their food fruits, insects, vegetation, and worms by their own. During winter they stay
in their dens they do subsist mainly on fat reserves. (kruska, 1900; Nowak, 1991)

Mephitis are less territorial typically their home ranges typically overlap, and only during mating
season the male defend the females. Skunks may den with group and with other species. But male
adult skunk den by themselves or only with females. (Kruska, 1990; Nowak, 1991)

Viverridae behavior and activity pattern

Viverridae family are shy and tend to be solitary or live in pairs or small groups and are primarily
nocturnal. They are excellent predators and mostly use their sense of sight and hearing to find prey.
(animal life encyclopedia 2020). They are good climbers and spend their most of their lives in trees,
such as the masked palm civet (Paradoxurus zymogenesis). Many are good swimmers, and two
species, the aquatic genet (Osbornitics picivora) and otter civet, are semi-aquatic. (Lariviere 2020)

Viverrids are territorial and they mark their territory by scent their perineal glands produce a
secretion that stored in their pouch (Lariviere 2020). Scent marks allow assessment of social status,
individual recognition, kin recognition, and sexual receptiveness. (Animal life encyclopedia 2020)

Felidae behavior and activity pattern

Felidae are solitary animals that only come together to mate. They are nocturnal they hunt at night,
although most primarily nocturnal, activity levels peak during dusk and dawn. Most cats are excellent
runners and climbers and some of the species such as jaguars and tigers are skilled swimmers. In
making territory boundaries they use scent marking, rubbing, and scratching trees and use to
communicate dominance and fertility. (Boorer, 1970; Kelsey-wood, 1989; Turner,1997)

Most leopards use tree to rest hunt and conserve food and tigers hunt alone, actively searching for
prey rather than waiting for ambush. (Encyclopedia of mammals 1984) but felids stalk, crouch, wait
and pounce while waiting prey. They avoid long chases typical of canids and considered ambush
predators. Most of the small cats feed by crouching over their prey without using their paws,
whereas large cats eat while lying down. Felids are instinctive hunters and they will kill more prey
than they can eat. (Boorer, 1970; Feldhamer, et al., 1999; Grzimek, 2003; Leyhausen, 1979)

Mustelidae behavior and activity pattern

Family of Mustelidae are either diurnal or nocturnal. Most of the species spend their time searching
food in crevices, burrows, or under cover. Their shelter is in burrows or hollow logs. (Nowak, 1991;
Vaughan, et al., 2000)

Social behavior varies both within and among species and may vary in relation to local
environmental such as food availability. Some species can live in solitary or in pairs and many
species are territorial for at least part of the year, with individuals competing over hunting areas or
access to mates. (Johnson et al, 2000)
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Ursidae behavior and activity pattern

Ursidae family maintain solitary lifestyle, living alone, except mating and rearing their young. They
share their excess food with personal space. Bears are crepuscular where they are active at dawn
and dusk. They are quick tree climbers and fast runners, reaching speeds of up to 30 miles per hour.
(Grzimek’s 2020). But bear tend to move relatively slow, with a shuffling, plantigrade gait, but quick
to move when necessary. (Demaster and Stirling, 1981).

Their shelters are caves, hollow logs, and cavities in tree roots as dens. (Fitzgeral and Krausman,
2002).

Herpestidae Behavior and activity pattern

Herpestidae family most live in colonies contain 20 to 50 individuals but some species are solitary.
They spend some of their time looking all around them for danger. If they spot a potential threat, they
will let all their group know about it and retreat for safety (Lauren 2020).

Herpestidae are energetic, aggressive, and playful. They may hunt and forage alone or in group.
Some of the species are nocturnal and diurnal (Grzimek’s 2020). They are fierce predators hunting
venomous snakes, as they are quick and agile in hunting. Diurnal species start their day by sunning,
outstretched on rocks or the ground near their shelter, and exercising to limber themselves up for a
day of foraging. (Grzimek’s 2020)

Canidae behavior and activity Pattern

Canids are flesh eaters, they are adapted more for endurance than for speed, and they catch their
prey over by long distance open terrain until their prey tires (Fahey, and Myers 2000). Canids are
social animals and live together in groups. Male and female foxes work in pair to hunt to raise their
young. Packs are what they call in large groups that reached up to 90 individuals. They form packs
or live in small family depending on their circumstances, or availability in food. (New world
Encyclopedia 2020) Hunting in packs allows canids to capture species larger than themselves
(Fahey and Myers 2000).

Canids communicate with others by scent signals, visual clues, and gestures, and by vocalizations
such as growls, barks, and howls. Their territory is marked by leaving urine scent marks, which warn
trespassing individuals. There system in pack the strongest will lead the group. In most cases
dominant male and female are the only pack members to breed. (New world Encyclopedia 2020)
Procyonidae behavior and activity pattern

Procyonids are nocturnal only coatis are diurnal. May procyonids are solitary animals such as
ringtails and cacomistles (Russel 1984). However, coatis (Nausa) are highly gregarious and
Procyon(raccoons) have various degrees of sociality (Lariviere).

Procyonids is capable in climbing trees. They climb trees when they are attacked by predators (New
world Encyclopedia). In general, procyonids are omnivorous and known by its adaptability and
problem-solving abilities. (Duczynski 2018)

Hyaenidae behavior and activity pattern

Hyaenidae are rank highly intelligent animals. They move their kills close to each other to protect
them from scavengers, they have excellent in strategies in hunting methods. (Lind 1977)
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Hyaenidae are nocturnal and they live in socially monogamous pairs and show great variability in
social organization, varying from the highly social, clan living. However, Aardwolves are also the
least gregarious of the living hyena (Holekamp and watts 2007, New World Encyclopedia)

Hyaenidae excrete oily, yellow substance from their glands to mark their territories. It is done by
scraping the ground with the paws, which deposits scent from glands (New World Encyclopedia).

2.10.1.1 Findings:

All carnivorous live in every type of terrestrial lands, however they set their own territories by scent
marking using secretions from their glands, every families have degrees of socialites ranges from
solitary to colonial. Families of Viverridae, Felidae, Ursidae is the most numerous solitary species
and families of Mustelidae, Herpestidae, Procyonidae, Canidae, Mephitidae and Hyaenidae are less
territorials but some of them are solitary.

Every species has their own methods of hunting for food. Families of Mephitidae, Viverridae,
Felidae, Ursidae and Hyaenidae are nocturnal they are hunting and active at night.

2.10.2 Class Mammalia - Order Primates

Primate occupy a wide range of habitats and show a wide diversity of adaptations to their contrasting
environments (Encyclopedia of mammals). They are mostly found in tropical and sub-tropical
regions and they live in a diverse number of forested habitats, including rainforests, mangrove
forests and mountain forests. Primates occupy two major vegetational zones: tropical forest and
woodland- grasslands vegetational complexes). Within the forest animal can live on floor and in the
canopy, Those who lives in canopies has three ways of moving: leaping, arm swinging, and
quadrupedalism (using four limbs). (New world encyclopedia)

Primates live in social group. Their bond often expresses by grooming in which one individual pick
the fur of another, it serves an important function for most primates in addition to its hygienic function
(Heinz and Barrett 1999). Primates live in group to decrease one’s risk of falling victim to predation
(Van Schaik 1983).

Primates has hierarchies of position from dominance to subordinate, the dominant will have priority
access to limited resources, aggressive competition over food and mates (Mason and Mendoza
993). The higher rank displaces subordinates’ individuals from resources (mate, space, and foods).

Reference:
 Chapter II

Social relationship is important for primate behavior, within the primate groups the males and
females are usually ordered in dominance hierarchy (Encyclopedia of mammals). Both sexes for
mating is important.

Primates live in group for feeding in groups, inevitably increases competition for food items. Primates
who live in group usually live in ground which they can detect predators easily. (Encyclopedia of
mammals)

There are nocturnal primates that are solitary including night monkeys, tarsiers, aye aye, dwarf and
mouse lemurs, bush babies and galagos. They are nocturnal because they are hiding and escaping
from predators and an individual can hide more effectively than in group. (Encyclopedia of
mammals)

The following animals are those that will be placed in the proposed zoo:

Crabb-eating macaques

Live in groups. Their dominance of hierarchy is mostly females. Their ranks remain throughout the
female’s lifetime and can be pass through matrilines.(Noordwijk, Schaik 1999)

Old-world monkey

Females stays with their mother for lifetime because their social group is matrilineal troop. But when
male reach adolescence they will find new troop to join. (Brandon, Douglas and Rowell, Thelma
1984)

Mandrill

Mandrill lives in huge groups that they call “hordes”. Females establish the group of family and male
live a solitary lifestyle and only enter to hordes if he will have a sexual relationship with female
mandrill. (Abernethy, White, and Wickings 2002)

Muellers Gibbon

They live in monogamous pair, they are territorial they defend their territory against intruders.
(Bruening, Shefferly and Parr 2013)

Orangutan

Orangutan live a solitary lifestyle but social with their relatives. Orangutans live in trees build nest for
both day and night use. (Teboekhorst, Schurmann,Sugardijito 1999)

Chimpanzee

Chimpanzees live in communities that consist of 20 to 150 members, females and males sometime
travel together and separately. They group themselves from male and female, the male will be for
hunting and defend the group and female will be for nursery group for the young.( Pepper, Mitani,
Watts 1999).

Capuchin Monkey

Capuchin monkey live in large groups. Their hierarchies are based from their age and sex. The
dominate male will only have to choose whom he will mate with. This animals are territorial marking
their territory by urinating their areas and defend to intruders ( Belle, Sarie; Estrada, Alejandro;
Garber, Paul A. 2012).
 Chapter II

Common squirrel monkey

Squirrel monkeys are polygamous with multiple male and female in group (Mitchell 1984). They are
less territorials, groups tend to avoid one another. Sometimes they are together but will not stay lone
(Wildlife Learning center)

Hamadryas Baboon

Hamdryas Baboon society has strict Patriarchal. The male limits the movements of the females by
grabbing them or biting that result to fights (Swedell 2000). Their group organization called harem
that consist of one male and 10 females. Where males leads the group and defend the group.
(krumer 1968)

2.10.2.1 Findings:

Primates mating usually ordered from dominance hierarchy, even the selection of mates are decided
by zookeepers which are not the natural behavior of primates. Even what animals eat are
determined by zookeepers. The design of the primate enclosure must be given opportunity to find
their own food similar to their natural behavior in the wild.

2.10.3 Conclusion

In designing animals’ habitat in zoo there is a need to study their behavior, social relationships, and
activities. In this way the designer will avoid designs of enclosures and artificial habitats that has
negative impact on animals’ mental health which results to abnormal animal behavior.

2.11.4. References:

(PAKIAYOS YUNG REFERENCES NG SAME FORMAT, YUNG REFERENCE NG CARNIVORES

DINAGDAG KO SA ILALIM NITO, I ARRANGE MO SILA ALPHABETICALLY)

New World encyclopedia 2000

Henzi, S. P. & Barrett, L. The value of grooming to female primates. Primates 40, 47-59 (1999)

van Schaik, C. P. Why are diurnal primates living in groups? Behaviour 87, 120-144 (1983).

Mason, W. A. & Mendoza, S. P. eds. Primate Social Conflict. Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1993.

Swedell, L. (2012) Primate Sociality and Social Systems. Nature Education Knowledge

Encyclopedia of mammals

Bruening, S. Shefferly, N.; Parr, C. S. 2013 "Hylobates muelleri: Information". Animal Diversity Web.
Retrieved

Teboekhorst, I; Schürmann, C; Sugardjito, J (1990). "Residential status and seasonal movements of

wild orang-utans in the Gunung Leuser Reserve (Sumatera, Indonesia)". Animal Behaviour.

Pepper, J. W.; Mitani, J. C.; Watts, D. P. (1999). "General gregariousness and specific social
preferences among wild chimpanzees". International Journal of Primatology

Van Belle, Sarie; Estrada, Alejandro; Garber, Paul A. (2012). "Collective group movement and
leadership in wild black howler monkeys (Alouatta pigra)". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 
 Chapter II

Mitchell C.L. (1994). "Migration alliances and coalitions among adult male South American squirrel
monkeys (Saimiri sciureus)". Behaviour.

Kummer, 1968

Swedell 2006

2.10.4 References:

 Wund, M. 20015 “ Mephitidae skunks and stink badgers”, Animal Diversity Web
 Kruska, D. 1990. Mustelidae. Pp. 388-449 in B Grzimek, ed. Grzimek's Encyclopedia of
Mammals, Vol. 3, 1 Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill.
 Nowak, R. 1991. Carnivora: family Mustelidae. Pp. 1104-1143 in Walker's Mammals of the
World, Vol. 2, 5th Edition. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
 Wozencraft, W.C. (1984) the encyclopedia of Mammals
 Lariviere S 2020 “ Vivverid” Encyclopedia Brittanica
 Boorer, M. 1970. Wild Cats. New York: Grosset & Dunlap
 Grzimek, B. 2003. Cats (Felidae). Pp. 369-392 in H Michael, K Devra, G Valerius, M Melissa,
eds. Family: Felidae, Vol. 14, 2 Edition. Farmington Hills, Michigan: The Gale Group
 Vaughan, T., J. Ryan, N. Czaplewski. 2000. Mammalogy. Fourth Edition. Philadelphia, PA:
Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning
 Etnyre E., Lande J., Mckenna A. 2011 “Felidae” Animal diversity Web
 Johnson, D., D. MacDonald, A. Dickman. 2000. An analysis and review of models of the
sociobiology of the Mustelidae. Mammal Review, 30: 171-196.
 Nowak, R. 1991. Carnivora: family Mustelidae. Pp. 1104-1105 in Walker's Mammals of the
World, Vol. 2, 5th Edition. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press
 Vaughan, T., J. Ryan, N. Czaplewski. 2000. Mammalogy, 4th Edition. Toronto: Brooks Cole
 Wund M. 2005 “Mustilidae” Animal Diversity Web.
 Fitzgerald, C., P. Krausman. 2002. Helarctos malayanus. Mammalian Species, 696: 1-5.
 DeMaster, D., I. Stirling. 1981. Ursus maritimus. Mammalian Species, 145: 1-7
 Dewey, T and Myer, P. 2005 “Ursidae” Animal Diversity Web.
 Grzimek's Student Animal Life Resource 2020 encyclopedia
 Fahey, B. and P. Myers 2000. "Canidae"
 Nowak, R. M., and J. L. Paradiso. 1983. Walker's Mammals of the World. Baltimore,
Maryland: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
 New world encyclopedia 2000