OR-OSHA TECHNICAL MANUAL

Section III

SAFETY HAZARDS

CHAPTER 1: OILWELL DERRICK

STABILITY: GUYWIRE
ANCHOR SYSTEMS
OR-OSHA TECHNICAL MANUAL

CHAPTER 2: PETROLEUM REFINING

PROCESSES

CHAPTER 3: PRESSURE VESSEL

GUIDELINES

CHAPTER 4: INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS AND

ROBOT SYSTEM SAFETY
OR-OSHA TECHNICAL MANUAL

III
III
 SECTION III: CHAPTER 1

OIL WELL DERRICK STABILITY: GUYWIRE

ANCHOR SYSTEMS
A. INTRODUCTION

Work-over Rigs are mast type devices that vary significantly
from crane or other boom (mast) type equipment. Work-over
Rigs experience constant and varying dynamic loading
conditions. They are subjected to various compression
forces, along with jarring and wind loading. Other forces
induced by pipe, tubing, etc. being stacked in the derrick and
workers aloft on the derrick platform, as well as an
ever-changing number of lateral and vertical forces are also
present. Because of a work-over rig's dynamic environment,
the health and safety of the operation is dependent upon the
stability of the rig and its guy anchor system.
according to the type of soil and its holding capacity, methods
of installing guywire anchors, integrity of the system, and
acceptable parameters in lieu of actual pull testing should be
established.
Investigation into each fatal incident has determined that the
cause of the upset was component failure rather than total
system failure. This clearly illustrates the fact that the
integrity of the system is no sounder than its weakest
component.

CAUSAL FACTORS
There is no specific OSHA standard that addresses the
stability of derricks in the oilwell drilling and servicing
industry, see Figure III:1-1. But because of the fatality record
there is a need for a guideline detailing the type of temporary
stability systems

A. Introduction.......................................III:1-1

B. Types of Guywire Anchors...............III:1-2

C. Stability Considerations...................III:1-3

D. Observations, directions, and

Conclusions................................III:1-5

E. Bibliography.......................................III:1-6

Fi
gure III:1-1. Oilwell Servicing Derrick

III:1-1
INDUSTRY RECOMMENDATIONS
The American Petroleum Institute (API) in its Specification
4E "Specification for Drilling and Well Servicing Structures"
sets forth a "Recommended Guying Pattern General
Conditions."
The Association of Oilwell Servicing Contractors. (AOSC) in
its publication "Recommended Safe Procedures and
Guidelines for Oil and Gas Well Servicing" recommends the
same guying patterns as are set forth in API Specification 4E.
Though not present in the AOSC publication the API
Specification 4E provides a Recommended Guyline Anchor
Spacing and Load Chart. This is discussed in detail in the
Guidelines on the Stability of Well Servicing Derricks.
B. TYPES OF GUYWIRE ANCHORS
MANUFACTURED ANCHORS
There are four basic types of manufactured anchors. The
screw or helix anchor, expanding plate anchor, flat plate
anchor, and the pivoting anchor. Holding capacity of these
anchors varies; detailed information on holding capacity,
comparison charts with illustrations, and characteristics
specific to each design may be found in Section 2 of the
support manual.
When installed in conformance with manufacturer
specifications and evidence thereof is provided, this would
satisfy the requirement for individual pull testing.
CAUTION: It should continually be emphasized that the
anchor is only one component of the Rig Stability
System(RSS)
Screw- (helix-) type anchors have a direct correlation between
anchor capacity and the torque required to install the anchor.
Following the manufacturer's specific recommendations as to
torquing, with proof thereof, is a valid method of determining
anchor holding capacity. Torquing according to
manufacturer's
III:1-2
There has been considerable progress within the industry to
design procedures to assure the integrity of the stability
system without the necessity of conducting individual pull
tests on each of the anchors.
APPLICATION
This chapter is intended to form the basis of a minimum
safety guideline, for the use of Temporary Guywire Anchor
Systems on derricks, in the oil well drilling and servicing
industry.
Recommended procedures, practices, equipment, and
requirements have been developed based on availability,
capability, adaptability, dependability, and reliability of the
various types of systems.
specifications is an acceptable nonpull-test method of
determining anchor capacity.
SHOP-MADE (IN-HOUSE FABRICATED)
ANCHORS
These anchors should be designed by a registered engineer
and conform to accepted engineering practices. Written
procedures shall be established for installation.
These manufactured anchors should be proof tested for
structural integrity and holding capacity. Records shall be
maintained of test protocols and holding capacity based on
soil type.
Individual pull testing will not be required if anchors are
installed in accordance with written procedures. Proof thereof
will be required of installation protocols and proof-tested
holding capacities.
C. STABILITY CONSIDERATIONS

FOUNDATION GUYWIRES
The area should be graded, leveled and maintained so that oil, All guywires, as indicated by the manufacturer's diagram,
water, drilling fluid, and other fluids will drain away from the should be in position and properly tensioned prior to
working area. commencing any work.

Safe Bearing Capacity shall be determined from the use of an
appropriate table, soil core test, penetrometer test, flat-plate
test, or other suitable soil test. When surface conditions are
used to determine bearing capacity, care must be exercised to
insure that the soil is homogeneous to a depth of at least twice
the width of supplemental footing used to support the
concentrated load.
Supplemental footing shall be provided to distribute the
concentrated loads from the mast and rig support points. The
manufacturer's load distribution diagram will indicate these
locations. In the absence of a manufacturer's diagram, the
supplemental footing shall be designed to carry the maximum
anticipated hook load, the gross weight of the mast, the mast
mount, the traveling equipment, and the vertical component
of guywire tension under operational loading conditions.
These footings must also support the mast and mast weight
during mast erection.
In the absence of manufacturer recommendations, or where
mast manufacturer's recommendations cannot be
implemented, the diagram in Figure III:1-2 may be used.
Other guying patterns may be used; however, they must be
based on sound engineering principles as determined by a
qualified person. These recommendations should be posted
on the mast in a weatherproof container and should state the
loading conditions for which they were prepared. Guywires
should be 6x19 or 6x37 class, regular lay, made of improved
plow steel (IPS) or better with independent wire-rope core
(IWRC) and not previously used for any other application.
Double saddle clips should be used, and wire rope should be
installed in accordance with the manufacturer's

Wellhead cellars present special foundation considerations.

In addition to the obvious of collecting water and fluids that
can seep into the ground, cellars also require unique mast
support considerations. These should be analyzed by a
qualified person to insure that an adequate mast foundation is
provided.

Small settlements (soil subsidence) at the beginning of rig-up

is considered normal. External guywires should never be
used for plumbing the mast. Rig foundations, guywire
anchors and guywire tension should be checked at each tower
(shift) change.

Figure III:1-2. Anchor Location Diagram

III:1-3
recommendations. In the absence of manufacturer
recommendations, API RP 9B shall be followed.

GUYWIRE ANCHORS
The mast manufacturer's recommendations shall be followed.
In the absence of manufacturer recommenda-tions the
location diagram, Figure III:1-3, may be used.

Each zone requires an anchor of different holding capacity.

If anchors are located in more than one zone, then all anchors
should be of the capacity required for the greater capacity
zone. For example, if one anchor is located in "ZONE C" and
the remaining anchors are located in "ZONE D," all anchors
shall meet the holding capacity specified in the chart for
"ZONE C." See Figure III:1-4.

Figure III:1-3. Reccommended Anchor Locations

Figure III:1-4. Anchor Capacity Requirements for Each Zone

III:1-4
D. OBSERVATIONS, DIRECTIONS, AND
CONCLUSIONS
VISUAL OBSERVATIONS
There are characteristic visual observations that can serve as
indicators of rig stability. They include, but are not limited
to, the following:
@ The foundation supports the rig, substructure, and all
applied loads while in an operational mode, without
excessive movement. Basically in a level and plumb
configuration.
@ No large movement is observable between the mast
support structure and the rotary/setback support
structure when the slips are set and the load is
removed from the mast, or vice versa.
@ The empty travel block hangs plumb with the
centerline of the wellbore and the mast support
structure remains level.
@ The mast support structure and/or substructure does
not lean to one side more than the other when the
load is applied. The guywire on one side becomes
noticeably taut while the guywire on the opposite
side becomes slack.
@ The guywire anchor(s) show(s) no visible signs of
movement during the loading and unloading of the
system while in operational mode.
The chart presented in Figure III:1-5 may be used as a guide
to the pretensioning of guywires. This method is commonly
referred to as the Catenary Method (guywire sag method).
SUPPORT MANUAL
The support manual, entitled Guideline on the Stability of
Well Servicing Derricks, is divided into work sections and
intended
III:1-5
to supplement this chapter. It provides a detailed analysis of
existing guides and standards along with state-of-the-art
developments.
Section 3 provides the direction and guidance necessary to
evaluate and select the proper system to assure rig stability.
Section 4 discusses the installation of guywire anchor
systems. It is extremely important to point out that stability
is dependent on the entire system, and not on a single
component.
In the absence of support documentation or manufacturer
specifications, Section 6 sets forth the criteria for performing
effective pull testing. It further identifies what would be
acceptable in lieu of actual pull testing.
CONCLUSION
No set of observations or recommendations should be so
restrictive or subjective as to preclude the use of innovative
approaches to derrick stability systems. Properly designed
substructures and base beams have been used effectively and
safely as anchorages for guywires.
Engineering calculations based on sound engineering
principals may also be used as evidence of an acceptable
alternative to pull testing. Dead weight of equipment,
fabricated components (i.e., padeyes) and other
appurtenances are all considerations in determining rig
stability.
The derrick manufacturer's specifications and
recom-mendations should be the preferred and primary means
of determining derrick stability.
Guywire anchors, newly installed according to the
manufacturer's specifications, may be used without the
 Figure III:1-5. Catenary Method
requirement for actual pull testing (This would qualify as
meeting the criteria as an acceptable alternative to pull
testing). If, however, there is a change in conditions, e.g.,
frozen ground
E. BIBLIOGRAPHY
American Petroleum Institute (API). 1988. Specification 4E:
Specification for Drilling and Well Servicing Structures.
API: Washington, D.C.
Association of Oilwell Servicing Contractors (AOSC). 1988.
Recommended Safe Procedures and Guidelines for Oil
and Gas Well Servicing. AOSC: Dallas.
III:1-6
to thawed ground, or if use of the anchor has been
interrupted, the anchor shall be pull tested, with
documentation thereof, prior to being placed back in service.
International Association of Drilling Contractors (IADC).
1990. Accident Prevention Manual. IADC: Houston.
International Association of Drilling Contractors. 1979.
Drilling Manual. IADC: Houston.
Scardino, A. J. 1990. Guidelines on the Stability of Well
Servicing Derricks. Sigma Associates Ltd.: Pass
Christian, MS
 SECTION III: CHAPTER 2
PETROLEUM REFINING PROCESSES
A. INTRODUCTION
The petroleum industry began with the successful drilling of
the first commercial oil well in 1859, and the opening of the
first refinery two years later to process the crude into
kerosene. The evolution of petroleum refining from simple
distillation to today's sophisticated processes has created a
need for health and safety management procedures and safe
work practices. To those unfamiliar with the industry,
petroleum refineries may appear to be complex and confusing
places. Refining is the processing of one complex mixture of
hydrocarbons into a number of other complex mixtures of
hydrocarbons. The safe and orderly processing of crude oil
into flammable gases and liquids at high temperatures and
pressures using vessels, equipment, and piping subjected to
stress and corrosion requires considerable knowledge,
control, and expertise.
Safety and health professionals, working with process,
chemical, instrumentation, and metallurgical engineers, assure
that potential physical, mechanical, chemical, and health
hazards are recognized and provisions are made for safe
operating practices and appropriate protective measures.
These
A. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III:2-1
B. Overview of the Petroleum Industry. . . . . III:2-2
C. Petroleum Refining Operations . . . . . . . III:2-11
D. Description of Petroleum Refining
Processes and Related Health and
Safety Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . III:2-15
E. Other Refinery Operations. . . . . . . . . . . III:2-49
F. Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III:2-58
Appendix III:2-1. Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . .III:2-59
III:2-1
measures may include hard hats, safety glasses and goggles,
safety shoes, hearing protection, respiratory protection, and
protective clothing such as fire resistant clothing where
required. In addition, procedures should be established to
assure compliance with applicable regulations and standards
such as hazard communications, confined space entry, and
process safety management.
This chapter of the technical manual covers the history of
refinery processing, characteristics of crude oil, hydrocarbon
types and chemistry, and major refinery products and
by-products. It presents information on technology as
normally practiced in present operations. It describes the
more common refinery processes and includes relevant safety
and health information. Additional information covers
refinery utilities and miscellaneous supporting activities
related to hydrocarbon processing. Field personnel will learn
what to expect in various facilities regarding typical materials
and process methods, equipment, potential hazards, and
exposures.
The information presented refers to fire prevention, industrial
hygiene, and safe work practices, and is not intended to
provide comprehensive guidelines for protective measures
and/or compliance with regulatory requirements. As some of
the terminology is industry-specific, a glossary is provided as
an appendix. This chapter does not cover petrochemical
processing.
B. OVERVIEW OF THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
BASIC REFINERY PROCESS --
DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY
Petroleum refining has evolved continuously in response to
changing consumer demand for better and different products.
The original requirement was to produce kerosene as a
cheaper and better source of light than whale oil. The
development of the internal combustion engine led to the
production of gasoline and diesel fuels. The evolution of the
airplane created a need first for high-octane aviation gasoline
and then for jet fuel, a sophisticated form of the original
product, kerosene. Present-day refineries produce a variety of
products including many required as feedstocks for the
petrochemical industry.
DISTILLATION PROCESSES
The first refinery, opened in 1861, produced kerosene by
simple atmospheric distillation. Its by-products included tar
and naphtha. It was soon discovered that high- quality
lubricating oils could be produced by distilling petroleum
under vacuum. However, for the next 30 years kerosene was
the product consumers wanted. Two significant events
changed this situation: (1) invention of the electric light
decreased the demand for kerosene, and (2) invention of the
internal combustion engine created a demand for diesel fuel
and gasoline (naphtha).
THERMAL CRACKING PROCESSES
With the advent of mass production and World War I, the
number of gasoline-powered vehicles increased dramatically
and the demand for gasoline grew accordingly. However,
distillation processes produced only a certain amount of
gasoline from crude oil. In 1913, the thermal cracking process
was developed, which subjected heavy fuels to both pressure
and intense heat, physically breaking the large molecules into
smaller ones to produce additional gasoline and distillate
fuels. Visbreaking, another form of thermal cracking, was
developed in the late 1930s to produce more desirable and
valuable products.
Table III:2-1 HISTORY OF REFINING
III:2-2
CATALYTIC PROCESSES
Higher-compression gasoline engines required higher-octane
gasoline with better antiknock characteristics. The
introduction of catalytic cracking and polymerization
processes in the mid- to late 1930s met the demand by
providing improved gasoline yields and higher octane
numbers.
Alkylation, another catalytic process developed in the early
1940s, produced more high-octane aviation gasoline and
petrochemical feedstocks for explosives and synthetic rubber.
Subsequently, catalytic isomerization was developed to
convert hydrocarbons to produce increased quantities of
alkylation feedstocks. Improved catalysts and process
methods such as hydrocracking and reforming were
developed throughout the 1960s to increase gasoline yields
and improve antiknock characteristics. These catalytic
processes also produced hydrocarbon molecules with a
double bond (alkenes) and formed the basis of the modern
petrochemical industry.
TREATMENT PROCESSES
Throughout the history of refining, various treatment methods
have been used to remove nonhydrocarbons, impurities, and
other constituents that adversely affect the properties of
finished products or reduce the efficiency of the conversion
processes. Treating can involve chemical reaction and/or
physical separation. Typical examples of treating are chemical
sweetening, acid treating, clay contacting, caustic washing,
hydrotreating, drying, solvent extraction, and solvent
dewaxing. Sweetening compounds and acids desulfurize
crude oil before processing and treat products during and
after processing.
Following the Second World War, various reforming
processes improved gasoline quality and yield and produced
higher-quality products. Some of these involved the use of
catalysts and/or hydrogen to change molecules and remove
sulfur. A number of
Year Process name Purpose By-products, etc.

1862 Atmospheric distillation Produce kerosene Naphtha, tar, etc.

1870 Vacuum distillation Lubricants (original) Asphalt, residual

Cracking feedstocks (1930s) coker feedstocks

1913 Thermal cracking Increase gasoline Residual, bunker fuel

1916 Sweetening Reduce sulfur & odor Sulfur

1930 Thermal reforming Improve octane number Residual

1932 Hydrogenation Remove sulfur Sulfur

1932 Coking Produce gasoline basestocks Coke

1933 Solvent extraction Improve lubricant viscosity index Aromatics

1935 Solvent dewaxing Improve pour point Waxes

1935 Cat. polymerization Improve gasoline yield & octane number Petrochemical feedstocks

1937 Catalytic cracking Higher octane gasoline Petrochemical feedstocks

1939 Visbreaking Reduce viscosity Increased distillate, tar

1940 Alkylation Increase gasoline octane & yield High-octane aviation

gasoline

1940 Isomerization Produce alkylation feedstock Naphtha

1942 Fluid catalytic cracking Increase gasoline yield & octane Petrochemical feedstocks

1950 Deasphalting Increase cracking feedstock Asphalt

1952 Catalytic reforming Convert low-quality naphtha Aromatics

1954 Hydrodesulfurization Remove sulfur Sulfur

1956 Inhibitor sweetening Remove mercaptan Disulfides

1957 Catalytic isomerization Convert to molecules with high Alkylation feedstocks

octane number

1960 Hydrocracking Improve quality and reduce sulfur Alkylation feedstocks

1974 Catalytic dewaxing Improve pour point Wax

1975 Residual hydrocracking Increase gasoline yield from residual Heavy residuals

III:2-3
the more commonly used treating and reforming processes are
described in this chapter of the manual.
BASICS OF CRUDE OIL
Crude oils are complex mixtures containing many different
hydrocarbon compounds that vary in appearance and
composition from one oil field to another. Crude oils range in
consistency from water to tar-like solids, and in color from
clear to black. An "average" crude oil contains about 84%
carbon, 14% hydrogen, 1-3% sulfur, and less than 1% each of
nitrogen, oxygen, metals, and salts. Crude oils are generally
classified as paraffinic, naphthenic, or aromatic, based on the
predominant proportion of similar hydrocarbon molecules.
Mixed-base
crudes have varying amounts of each type of hydrocarbon.
Refinery crude base stocks usually consist of mixtures of two
or more different crude oils.
Relatively simple crude-oil assays are used to classify crude
oils as paraffinic, naphthenic, aromatic, or mixed. One assay
method (United States Bureau of Mines) is based on
distillation, and another method (UOP "K" factor) is based on
gravity and boiling points. More comprehensive crude assays
determine the value of the crude (i.e., its yield and quality of
useful products) and processing parameters. Crude oils are
usually grouped according to yield structure.

Table III:2-2. TYPICAL APPROXIMATE CHARACTERISTICS AND PROPERTIES AND GASOLINE

POTENTIAL OF VARIOUS CRUDES (Representative average numbers)

Naph. Octane
Paraffins Aromatics Naphthenes Sulfur API gravity yield number
Crude source (% vol) (% vol) (% vol) (% wt) (approx.) (% vol) (typical)

Nigerian 37 9 54 0.2 36 28 60
-Light

Saudi 63 19 18 2 34 22 40
-Light

Saudi 60 15 25 2.1 28 23 35
-Heavy

Venezuela 35 12 53 2.3 30 2 60
-Heavy

Venezuela 52 14 34 1.5 24 18 50
-Light

USA - - - 0.4 40 - -
-Midcont. Sweet

USA 46 22 32 1.9 32 33 55
-W. Texas Sour

North Sea 50 16 34 0.4 37 31 50

-Brent

III:2-4
Crude oils are also defined in terms of API (American
Petroleum Institute) gravity. The higher the API gravity, the
lighter the crude. For example, light crude oils have high API
gravities and low specific gravities. Crude oils with low
carbon, high hydrogen, and high API gravity are usually rich
in paraffins and tend to yield greater proportions of gasoline
and light petroleum products; those with high carbon, low
hydrogen, and low API gravities are usually rich in aromatics.
Crude oils that contain appreciable quantities of hydrogen
sulfide or other reactive sulfur compounds are called "sour."
Those with less sulfur are called "sweet." Some exceptions to
this rule are West Texas crudes, which are always considered
"sour" regardless of their H2S content, and Arabian
high-sulfur crudes, which are not considered "sour" because
their sulfur compounds are not highly reactive.
BASICS OF HYDROCARBON CHEMISTRY
Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbon molecules, which are
organic compounds of carbon and hydrogen atoms that may
Figure III:2-1 Typical Paraffins
THREE PRINCIPAL GROUPS OR SERIES
OF HYDROCARBON COMPOUNDS THAT
OCCUR NATURALLY IN CRUDE OIL
III:2-5
include from one to 60 carbon atoms. The properties of
hydrocarbons depend on the number and arrangement of the
carbon and hydrogen atoms in the molecules. The simplest
hydrocarbon molecule is one carbon atom linked with four
hydrogen atoms: methane. All other variations of petroleum
hydrocarbons evolve from this molecule.
Hydrocarbons containing up to four carbon atoms are usually
gases; those with five to 19 carbon atoms are usually liquids;
and those with 20 or more are solids. The refining process
uses chemicals, catalysts, heat, and pressure to separate and
combine the basic types of hydrocarbon molecules naturally
found in crude oil into groups of similar molecules. The
refining process also rearranges their structures and bonding
patterns into different hydrocarbon molecules and
compounds. Therefore it is the type of hydrocarbon,
(paraffinic, naphthenic, or aromatic) rather than its specific
chemical compounds that is significant in the refining
process.
PARAFFINS
The paraffinic series of hydrocarbon compounds found in
crude oil have the general formula CnH2n+2 and can be either
straight chains (normal) or branched chains (isomers) of
carbon atoms. The lighter, straight-chain paraffin molecules
are found in gases and paraffin waxes. Examples of
straight-chain molecules are methane, ethane, propane, and
butane (gases containing from one to four carbon atoms), and
pentane and hexane (liquids with five to six carbon atoms).
The branched-chain (isomer) paraffins are usually found in
heavier fractions of crude oil and have higher octane numbers
than normal paraffins. These compounds are saturated
hydrocarbons, with all carbon bonds satisfied, that is, the
hydrocarbon chain carries the full complement of hydrogen
atoms.
Figure III:2-2 Typical Aromatics
III:2-6
AROMATICS
Aromatics are unsaturated ring-type (cyclic) compounds
which react readily because they have carbon atoms that are
deficient in hydrogen. All aromatics have at least one benzene
ring (a single-ring compound characterized by three double
bonds alternating with three single bonds between six carbon
atoms) as part of their molecular structure. Naphthalenes are
fused double-ring aromatic compounds. The most complex
aromatics, polynuclears (three or more fused aromatic rings),
are found in heavier fractions of crude oil.
NAPHTHENES
Naphthenes are saturated hydrocarbon groupings with the
general formula CnH2n, arranged in the form of closed rings
(cyclic) and found in all fractions of crude oil except the very
lightest. Single-ring naphthenes (monocycloparaffins) with
five and six carbon atoms predominate, with two-ring
naphthenes
(dicycloparaffins) found in the heavier ends of naphtha.
OTHER HYDROCARBONS
ALKENES
Alkenes are mono-olefins with the general formula CnH2n and
contain only one carbon-carbon double bond in the chain.
The simplest alkene is ethylene, with two carbon atoms joined
by a double bond and four hydrogen atoms. Olefins are
usually formed by thermal and catalytic cracking and rarely
occur naturally in unprocessed crude oil.
DIENES AND ALKYNES
Dienes, also known as diolefins, have two carbon-carbon
double bonds. The alkynes, another class of unsaturated
hydrocarbons, have a carbon-carbon triple bond within the
molecule. Both these series of hydrocarbons have the general
formula CnH2n-2. Diolefins such as 1,2-butadiene and
1,3-butadiene, and alkynes
Figure III:2-3 Typical Napthenes
III:2-7
such as acetylene occur in C5 and lighter fractions from
cracking. The olefins, diolefins, and alkynes are said to be
unsaturated because they contain less than the amount of
hydrogen necessary to saturate all the valences of the carbon
atoms. These compounds are more reactive than paraffins or
naphthenes and readily combine with other elements such as
hydrogen, chlorine, and bromine.
NONHYDROCARBONS
SULFUR COMPOUNDS
Sulfur may be present in crude oil as hydrogen sulfide (H2S),
as compounds (e.g., mercaptans, sulfides, disulfides,
thiophenes, etc.), or as elemental sulfur. Each crude oil has
different amounts and types of sulfur compounds, but as a
rule the proportion, stability, and complexity of the
compounds are greater in heavier crude-oil fractions.
Hydrogen sulfide is a primary contributor to corrosion in
refinery processing units. Other corrosive substances are
elemental sulfur and mercaptans. Moreover, the corrosive
sulfur compounds have an obnoxious odor.
 Figure III:2-4 Typical Alkenes

Pyrophoric iron sulfide results from the corrosive action of
sulfur compounds on the iron and steel used in refinery
process equipment, piping, and tanks. The combustion of
petroleum products containing sulfur compounds produces
undesirables such as sulfuric acid and sulfur dioxide.
C a t a l yt i c h yd r o t r e a t i n g p r o c e s s e s s u c h a s
hydrodesulfurization remove sulfur compounds from refinery
product streams. Sweetening processes either remove the
obnoxious sulfur compounds or convert them to odorless
disulfides, as in the case of mercaptans.
OXYGEN COMPOUNDS
Oxygen compounds such as phenols, ketones, and carboxylic
acids occur in crude oils in varying amounts.
NITROGEN COMPOUNDS
Nitrogen is found in lighter fractions of crude oil as basic
compounds, and more often in heavier fractions of crude oil
as nonbasic compounds that may also include trace metals
such as copper, vanadium, and/or nickel. Nitrogen oxides can
form in process furnaces. The decomposition of nitrogen
compounds in catalytic cracking and hydrocracking processes
forms ammonia and cyanides that can cause corrosion .
TRACE METALS
Metals including nickel, iron, and vanadium are often found
in crude oils in small quantities and are removed during the
refining process. Burning heavy fuel oils in refinery furnaces

Figure III:2-5. Typcial Diolefins and Alkynes

III:2-8
and boilers can leave deposits of vanadium oxide and nickel
oxide in furnace boxes, ducts, and tubes. It is also desirable
to remove trace amounts of arsenic, vanadium, and nickel
prior to processing as they can poison certain catalysts.
SALTS
Crude oils often contain inorganic salts such as sodium
chloride, magnesium chloride, and calcium chloride in
suspension or dissolved in entrained water (brine). These salts
must be removed or neutralized before processing to prevent
catalyst poisoning, equipment corrosion, and fouling. Salt
corrosion is caused by the hydrolysis of some metal chlorides
to hydrogen chloride (HCl) and the subsequent formation of
hydrochloric acid when crude is heated. Hydrogen chloride
may also combine with ammonia to form ammonium chloride
(NH4Cl), which causes fouling and corrosion.
CARBON DIOXIDE
Carbon dioxide may result from the decomposition of
bicarbonates present in or added to crude, or from steam used
in the distillation process.
NAPHTHENIC ACIDS
Some crude oils contain naphthenic (organic) acids, which
may become corrosive at temperatures above 450o F when the
acid value of the crude is above a certain level.
MAJOR REFINERY PRODUCTS
GASOLINE
The most important refinery product is motor gasoline, a
blend of hydrocarbons with boiling ranges from ambient
temperatures to about 400o F. The important qualities for
gasoline are octane number (antiknock), volatility (starting
and vapor lock), and vapor pressure (environmental control).
Additives are often used to enhance performance and provide
protection against oxidation and rust formation.
III:2-9
KERSONE
Kerosene is a refined middle-distillate petroleum product that
finds considerable use as a jet fuel and around the world in
cooking and space heating. When used as a jet fuel, some of
the critical qualities are freeze point, flash point, and smoke
point. Commercial jet fuel has a boiling range of about
375-525º F, and military jet fuel 130-550º F. Kerosene, with
less-critical specifications, is used for lighting, heating,
solvents, and blending into diesel fuel.
LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS (LPG)
LPG, which consists principally of propane and butane, is
produced for use as fuel and is an intermediate material in the
manufacture of petrochemicals. The important specifications
for proper performance include vapor pressure and control of
contaminants.
DISTILLATE FUELS
Diesel fuels and domestic heating oils have boiling ranges of
about 400-700º F. The desirable qualities required for
distillate fuels include controlled flash and pour points, clean
burning, no deposit formation in storage tanks, and a proper
diesel fuel cetane rating for good starting and combustion.
RESIDUAL FUELS
Many marine vessels, power plants, commercial buildings
and industrial facilities use residual fuels or combinations of
residual and distillate fuels for heating and processing. The
two most critical specifications of residual fuels are viscosity
and low sulfur content for environmental control.
COKE AND ASPHALT
Coke is almost pure carbon with a variety of uses from
electrodes to charcoal briquets. Asphalt, used for roads and
roofing materials, must be inert to most chemicals and
weather conditions.
SOLVENTS
A variety of products, whose boiling points and hydrocarbon
composition are closely controlled, are produced for use as
solvents. These include benzene, toluene, and xylene.
PETROCHEMICALS
Many products derived from crude oil refining such as
ethylene, propylene, butylene, and isobutylene are primarily
intended for use as petrochemical feedstocks in the
production of plastics, synthetic fibers, synthetic rubbers, and
other products.
LUBRICANTS
Special refining processes produce lubricating oil base stocks.
Additives such as demulsifiers, antioxidants, and viscosity
improvers are blended into the base stocks to provide the
characteristics required for motor oils, industrial greases,
lubricants, and cutting oils. The most critical quality for
lubricating-oil base stock is a high viscosity index, which
provides for greater consistency under varying temperatures.
III:2-10
COMMON REFINERY CHEMICALS
LEADED GASOLINE ADDITIVES
Tetraethyl lead (TEL) and tetramethyl lead (TML) are
additives formerly used to improve gasoline octane ratings
but are no longer in common use except in aviation gasoline.
OXYGENATES
Ethyl tertiary butyl ether (ETBE), methyl tertiary butyl ether
(MTBE), tertiary amyl methyl ether (TAME), and other
oxygenates improve gasoline octane ratings and reduce
carbon monoxide emissions.
CAUSTICS
Caustics are added to desalting water to neutralize acids and
reduce corrosion. They are also added to desalted crude in
order to reduce the amount of corrosive chlorides in the tower
overheads. They are used in some refinery treating processes
to remove contaminants from hydrocarbon streams.
SULFURIC ACID AND HYDROFLUORIC ACID
Sulfuric acid and hydrofluoric acid are used primarily as
catalysts in alkylation processes. Sulfuric acid is also used in
some treatment processes.
C. PETROLEUM REFINING OPERATIONS
INTRODUCTION
Petroleum refining begins with the distillation, or
fractionation, of crude oils into separate hydrocarbon groups.
The resultant products are directly related to the
characteristics of the crude processed. Most distillation
products are further converted into more usable products by
changing the size and structure of the hydrocarbon molecules
through cracking, reforming, and other conversion processes
as discussed in this chapter. These converted products are
then subjected to various treatment and separation processes
such as extraction, hydrotreat-ing, and sweetening to remove
undesirable constituents and improve product quality.
Integrated refineries incorporate fractionation, conversion,
treatment, and blending operations and may also include
petrochemical processing.
REFINING OPERATIONS
Petroleum refining processes and operations can be separated
into five basic areas:
FRACTIONATION
Fractionation (distillation) is the separation of crude oil in
atmospheric and vacuum distillation towers into groups of
hydrocarbon compounds of differing boiling-point ranges
called "fractions" or "cuts."
Conversion
Conversion processes change the size and/or structure of
hydrocarbon molecules. These processes include:
@ decomposition (dividing) by thermal and
catalytic cracking,
@ unification (combining) through
alkylation and polymerization, and
III:2-11
@ alteration (rear r anging) with
isomerization and catalytic reforming .
TREATMENT
Treatment processes are intended to prepare hydrocarbon
streams for additional processing and to prepare finished
products. Treatment may include the removal or separation of
aromatics and naphthenes as well as impurities and
undesirable contaminants. Treatment may involve chemical
or physical separation such as dissolving, absorption, or
precipitation using a variety and combination of processes
including desalting, drying, hydrodesulfurizing, solvent
refining, sweetening, solvent extraction, and solvent
dewaxing.
FORMULATING AND BLENDING
Formulating and blending is the process of mixing and
combining hydrocarbon fractions, additives, and other
components to produce finished products with specific
performance properties.
OTHER REFINING OPERATIONS
Other refinery operations include light-ends recovery,
sour-water stripping, solid waste and wastewater treatment,
process-water treatment and cooling, storage, and handling,
product movement, hydrogen production, acid and tail-gas
treatment, and sulfur recovery.
Auxiliary operations and facilities include steam and power
generation; process and fire water systems; flares and relief
systems; furnaces and heaters; pumps and valves; supply of
steam, air, nitrogen, and other plant gases; alarms and
sensors; noise and pollution controls; sampling, testing, and
inspecting; and laboratory, control room, maintenance, and
administrative facilities.
III:2-12
 Table III:2-3 OVERVIEW OF PETROLEUM REFINING PROCESSES

Process name Action Method Purpose Feedstock(s) Product(s)

FRACTIONATION PROCESSES

Atmospheric Separation Thermal Separate Desalted crude Gas, gas oil,

distillation fractions oil distillate,residu

Vacuum distillation Separation Thermal Separate w/o Atmospheric Gas oil, lube
cracking tower residual stock, residual

CONVERSION PROCESSES ------- DECOMPOSITION

Catalytic cracking Alteration Catalytic Upgrade Gas oil, coke Gasoline,petro-

gasoline distillate chemical
feedstock
Coking Polymerize Thermal Convert vacu- Residual,heavy Naphtha, gas
um residuals oil, tar oil, coke
Hydrocracking Hydrogenate Catalytic Convert to Gas oil, cracked Lighter, higher-
lighter HCs oil, residual qualityproducts
*Hydrogen Steam Decompose Thermal/cat. Produce Desulfurized Hydrogen, CO,
Reforming hydrogen gas, O2, steam CO2
*Steam Cracking Decompose Thermal Crack large Atm tower hvy Cracked
molecules fuel/distillate naphtha,
coke,residual
Visbreaking Decompose Thermal Reduce Atmospheric Distillate, tar
viscosity tower residual

CONVERSION PROCESSES ------- UNIFICATION

Alkylation Combining Catalytic Unite olefins Tower isobu- Iso-octane

& isoparaffins tane/crckr olefin (alkylate)
Grease com- Combining Thermal Combine soaps Lube oil, fatty Lubricating
pounding & oils acid, alkymetal grease
Polymerization Polymerize Catalytic Unite 2 or Cracker olefins High-octane
more olefins naphtha,
petrochemi-
cal stocks

CONVERSION PROCESSES ----- ALTERATION or REARRANGEMENT

Catalytic reforming Alteration/ Catalytic Upgrade low- Coker/hydro- High oct.

dehydration octane naphtha cracker naphtha reform-
ate/aromatic
Isomerization Rearrange Catalytic Convert strght Butane, pentane, Isobutane/pen-
chain to branch hexane tane/hexane

III:2-13
 TREATMENT PROCESSES

*Amine Treating Treatment Absorption Remove acidic Sour gas, HCs Acid free
contaminants w/CO2 & H2S gases &
liquid HCs
Desalting Dehydration Absorption Remove Crude oil Desalted
contaminants crude
oil
Drying & Sweeten- Treatment Abspt/therm Remove H2O Liq HCs, LPG, Sweet &
ing & sulfur cmpds alky. feedstk dry hydro-
carbons
*Furfural Extrac- Solvent extr. Absorption Upgrade mid Cycle oils & High tion
distillate & lube feedstocks quality die-
lubes sel & lube
oil
Hydrodesulfur- Treatment Catalytic Remove sulfur, High-sulfur De-
ization contaminants residual/gas oil sulfurized
olefins
Hydrotreating Hydrogenation Catalytic Remv impurities Residuals, Cracker
saturate Hcs cracked HCs feed,
distillate,
lube
*Phenol extraction Solvent extr. Abspt/therm Improve visc. Lube oil base High
index, color stocks quality lube
oils
Solvent deasphalting Treatment Absorption Remove asphalt Vac. tower resi- Heavy lube
dual, propane oil, asphalt
Solvent dewaxing Treatment Cool/filter Remve wax Vac. tower lube Dewaxed
from lube stocks oils lube
basestock
Solvent Extraction Solvent extr. Abspt/precip. Separate unsat. Gas oil, reform- High-
oils ate, distillate octane
gasoline
Sweetening Treatment Catalytic Remv H2S,con- Untreated distil- High-
vert mercaptan late/gasoline quality
distilate/
gasoline

*NOTE: These processes are not depicted in the refinery process flow chart.

III:2-14
D. DESCRIPTION OF PETROLEUM REFINING
PROCESSES AND RELATED HEALTH
CONSIDERATIONS
CRUDE OIL PRETREATMENT
(DESALTING)
Crude oil often contains water, inorganic salts, suspended
solids, and water-soluble trace metals. As a first step in the
refining process, to reduce corrosion, plugging, and fouling
of equipment and to prevent poisoning the catalysts in
processing units, these contaminants must be removed by
desalting (dehydration).
The two most typical methods of crude-oil desalting,
chemical and electrostatic separation, use hot water as the
extraction agent. In chemical desalting, water and chemical
surfactant (demulsifiers) are added to the crude, heated so that
salts and other impurities dissolve into the water or attach to
the water, and then held in a tank where they settle out.
Electrical desalting is the application of high-voltage
electrostatic charges to concentrate suspended water globules
in the bottom of the settling tank. Surfactants are added only
when the crude has a large amount of suspended solids. Both
methods of desalting are continuous. A third and
less-common process involves filtering heated crude using
diatomaceous earth.
The feedstock crude oil is heated to between 150o and 350oF
to reduce viscosity and surface tension for easier mixing and
separation of the water. The temperature is limited by the
vapor pressure of the crude-oil feedstock.
Table III:2-4: DESALTING PROCESS
Feedstocks From Process
Crude Storage
III:2-15
AND SAFETY
In both methods other chemicals may be added. Ammonia is
often used to reduce corrosion. Caustic or acid may be added
to adjust the pH of the water wash.
Wastewater and contaminants are discharged from the bottom
of the settling tank to the wastewater treatment facility. The
desalted crude is continuously drawn from the top of the
settling tanks and sent to the crude distillation (fractionating)
tower.
HEALTH AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Fire Prevention and Protection
The potential exists for a fire due to a leak or release of crude
from heaters in the crude desalting unit. Low boiling point
components of crude may also be released if a leak occurs.
Safety
Inadequate desalting can cause fouling of heater tubes and
heat exchangers throughout the refinery. Fouling restricts
product flow and heat transfer and leads to failures due to
increased pressures and temperatures. Corrosion, which
occurs due to the presence of hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen
chloride, naphthenic (organic) acids, and other contaminants
in the crude oil, also causes equipment failure. Neutralized
salts (ammonium chlorides and sulfides), when moistened by
Typical products............ To
Treating Desalted crude..........Atmospheric distillation tower
Waste water..........................Treatment
 Figure II:2-7 Electrostatic Desalting
condensed water, can cause corrosion. Overpressuring the
unit is another potential hazard that causes failures.
Health
Because this is a closed process, there is little potential for
exposure to crude oil unless a leak or release occurs. Where
elevated operating temperatures are used when desalting sour
crudes, hydrogen sulfide will be present. There is the
possibility of exposure to ammonia, dry chemical
demulsifiers, caustics, and/or acids during this operation. Safe
work practices and/or the use of appropriate personal
III:2-16
protective equipment may be needed for exposures to
chemicals and other hazards such as heat, and during process
sampling, inspection, maintenance, and turnaround activities.
Depending on the crude feedstock and the treatment
chemicals used, the wastewater will contain varying amounts
of chlorides, sulfides, bicarbonates, ammonia, hydrocarbons,
phenol, and suspended solids. If diatomaceous earth is used
in filtration, exposures should be minimized or controlled.
Diatomaceous earth can contain silica in very fine particle
size, making this a potential respiratory hazard.
CRUDE OIL DISTILLATION including lubricating oil, heating oil, kerosene, gasoline, and
uncondensed gases (which condense at lower temperatures)
(FRACTIONATION)
are drawn off.
The first step in the refining process is the separation of crude
The fractionating tower, a steel cylinder about 120 feet high,
oil into various fractions or straight-run cuts by distillation in
contains horizontal steel trays for separating and collecting
atmospheric and vacuum towers. The main fractions or
the liquids. At each tray, vapors from below enter
"cuts" obtained have specific boiling-point ranges and can be
perforations and bubble caps. They permit the vapors to
classified in order of decreasing volatility into gases, light
bubble through the liquid on the tray, causing some
distillates, middle distillates, gas oils, and residuum.
condensation at the temperature of that tray. An overflow
pipe drains the condensed liquids from each tray back to the
ATMOSPHERIC DISTILLATION TOWER
tray below, where the higher temperature causes
re-evaporation. The evaporation, condensing, and scrubbing
At the refinery, the desalted crude feedstock is preheated
operation is repeated many times until the desired degree of
using recovered process heat. The feedstock then flows to a
product purity is reached. Then side streams from certain
direct-fired crude charge heater where it is fed into the
trays are taken off to obtain the desired fractions. Products
vertical distillation column just above the bottom, at pressures
ranging from uncondensed fixed gases at the top to heavy fuel
slightly above atmospheric and at temperatures ranging from
oils at the bottom can be taken continuously from a
650º to 700º F (heating crude oil above these temperatures
fractionating tower. Steam is often used in towers to lower
may cause undesirable thermal cracking). All but the heaviest
the vapor pressure and create a partial vacuum. The
fractions flash into vapor. As the hot vapor rises in the tower,
distillation process separates the major constituents of crude
its temperature is reduced. Heavy fuel oil or asphalt residue
oil into so-called straight-run products. Sometimes crude oil
is taken from the bottom. At successively higher points on
is "topped" by distilling off only the lighter fractions, leaving
the tower, the various major products
a heavy residue that is often distilled further under high
vacuum.

Table III:2-5. ATMOSPHERIC DISTILLATION PROCESSES

Feedstocks From Process Typical products................. To

Crude Desalting Separation Gases.................................. Fuel or gas recovery

Naphthas............................ Reforming or treating
Kero or distillates.............. Treating
Gas oil............................... Catalytic cracking
Residual............................ Vacuum tower or visbreaker

III:2-17
 Figure III:2-8 Atmospheric Distillation
VACUUM DISTILLATION TOWER
In order further to distill the residuum or topped crude from
the atmospheric tower at higher temperatures, reduced
pressure is required to prevent thermal cracking. The process
takes place in one or more vacuum distillation towers. The
principles of vacuum distillation resemble those of fractional
distillation and, except that larger-diameter columns are used
to maintain comparable vapor velocities at the reduced
pressures, the equipment is also similar. The internal designs
of some vacuum towers are different from atmospheric towers
in that random packing and demister pads are used instead of
trays. A typical first-phase vacuum tower may produce gas
oils, lubricating-oil base stocks, and heavy residual for
propane deasphalting. A second-phase tower operating at
lower vacuum may distill surplus residuum from the
atmospheric tower, which is not used for lube-stock
processing, and surplus residuum from the first vacuum tower
not used for deasphalting. Vacuum towers are typically used
III:2-18
to separate catalytic cracking feedstocks from surplus
residuum.
OTHER DISTILLATION TOWERS (COLUMNS)
Within refineries there are numerous other, smaller
distillation towers called columns, designed to separate
specific and unique products. Columns all work on the same
principles as the towers described above. For example, a
depropanizer is a small column designed to separate propane
and lighter gases from butane and heavier components.
Another larger column is used to separate ethyl benzene and
xylene. Small "bubble" towers called strippers use steam to
remove trace amounts of light products from heavier product
streams.
HEALTH AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Fire Prevention and Protection

Even though these are closed processes, heaters and
exchangers in the atmospheric and vacuum distillation units
could provide a source of ignition, and the potential for a fire
exists should a leak or release occur.
Safety
An excursion in pressure, temperature, or liquid levels may
occur if automatic control devices fail. Control of
temperature, pressure, and reflux within operating parameters
is needed to prevent thermal cracking within the distillation
towers. Relief systems should be provided for overpressure
and operations monitored to prevent crude from entering the
reformer charge.
The sections of the process susceptible to corrosion include
(but may not be limited to) preheat exchanger (HCl and H2S),
preheat furnace and bottoms exchanger (H2S and sulfur
compounds), atmospheric tower and vacuum furnace (H2S,
sulfur compounds, and organic acids), vacuum tower (H2S
and organic acids), and overhead (H2S, HCl, and water).
Where sour crudes are processed, severe corrosion can occur
in furnace tubing and in both atmospheric and vacuum towers
where metal temperatures exceed 450º F. Wet H2S also will
cause cracks in steel. When processing high-nitrogen crudes,
nitrogen oxides can form in the flue gases of furnaces.
Nitrogen oxides are corrosive to steel when cooled to low
temperatures in the presence of water.
Table III:2-6 VACUUM DISTILLATION PROCESS
Feedstocks From Process
Residuals Atmospheric Separation
tower
Chemicals are used to control corrosion by hydrochloric acid
produced in distillation units. Ammonia may be injected into
the overhead stream prior to initial condensation and/or an
alkaline solution may be carefully injected into the hot
crude-oil feed. If sufficient wash-water is not injected,
deposits of ammonium chloride can form and cause serious
corrosion. Crude feedstocks may contain appreciable
amounts of water in suspension which can separate during
startup and, along with water remaining in the tower from
steam purging, settle in the bottom of the tower. This water
can be heated to the boiling point and create an instantaneous
vaporization explosion upon contact with the oil in the unit.
Health
Atmospheric and vacuum distillation are closed processes and
exposures are expected to be minimal. When sour
(high-sulfur) crudes are processed, there is potential for
exposure to hydrogen sulfide in the preheat exchanger and
furnace, tower flash zone and overhead system, vacuum
furnace and tower, and bottoms exchanger. Hydrogen
chloride may be present in the preheat exchanger, tower top
zones, and overheads. Wastewater may contain water-soluble
sulfides in high concentrations and other water-soluble
compounds such as ammonia, chlorides, phenol, mercaptans,
etc., depending upon the crude feedstock and the treatment
chemicals. Safe work practices and/or the use of appropriate
personal protective equipment may be needed for exposures
to chemicals and other hazards such as heat and noise, and
during sampling, inspection, maintenance, and turnaround
activities.
Typical products................... To
Gas oils................................. Catalytic cracker
Lubricants............................. Hydrotreating or solvent extraction
Residual................................ Deasphalter, visbreaker, or coker
III:2-19
 Figure III:2-9 Vacuum Distillation
SOLVENT EXTRACTION AND
DEWAXING
Solvent treating is a widely used method of refining
lubricating oils as well as a host of other refinery stocks.
Since distillation (fractionation) separates petroleum products
into groups only by their boiling-point ranges, impurities may
remain. These include organic compounds containing sulfur,
nitrogen, and oxygen; inorganic salts and dissolved metals;
and soluble salts that were present in the crude feedstock. In
addition, kerosene and distillates may have trace amounts of
aromatics and naphthenes, and lubricating oil base-stocks
may contain wax. Solvent refining processes including
solvent extraction and solvent dewaxing usually remove these
undesirables at intermediate refining stages or just before
sending the product to storage.
III:2-20
SOLVENT EXTRACTION
The purpose of solvent extraction is to prevent corrosion,
protect catalyst in subsequent processes, and improve finished
products by removing unsaturated, aromatic hydrocarbons
from lubricant and grease stocks. The solvent extraction
process separates aromatics, naphthenes, and impurities from
the product stream by dissolving or precipitation. The
feedstock is first dried and then treated using a continuous
countercurrent solvent treatment operation. In one type of
process, the feedstock is washed with a liquid in which the
substances to be removed are more soluble than in the desired
resultant product. In another process, selected solvents are
added to cause impurities to precipitate out of the product. In
the adsorption process, highly porous solid materials collect
liquid molecules on their surfaces.
The solvent is separated from the product stream by heating,
evaporation, or fractionation, and residual trace amounts are
subsequently removed from the raffinate by steam stripping
or vacuum flashing. Electric precipitation may be used for
separation of inorganic compounds. The solvent is then
regenerated to be used again in the process.
The most widely used extraction solvents are phenol, furfural,
and cresylic acid. Other solvents less frequently used are
liquid sulfur dioxide, nitrobenzene, and 2,2' dichloroethyl
ether. The selection of specific processes and chemical
agents depends on the nature of the feedstock being treated,
the contaminants present, and the finished product
requirements.

Table III:2-7. SOLVENT EXTRACTION PROCESS

Feedstocks From Process Typical products.................... To

Naphthas Atm. tower Treating High octane gasoline............... Treating or blending

Distillates Refined Fuels.......................... Treating or blending
Kerosene Spent agents............................ Treatment or recycle

Figure III:2-10 Aromatics Extraction

Diagrams in Figures II:2-10, 11, 12, 13, 15, and 20

reproduced with the permission of Shell International
Petroleum Company Limited.

III:2-21
 Table III:2-8 SOLVENT DEWAXING PROCESS

Feedstocks From Process Typical products................To

Lube basestock Vacuum tower Treating Dewaxed lubes or wax....... Hydrotreating

Spent agents....................... Treatment or recycle

SOLVENT DEWAXING sulfur dioxide. In addition, there is a catalytic process used

as an alternate to solvent dewaxing.
Solvent dewaxing is used to remove wax from either distillate
or residual basestocks at any stage in the refining process. HEALTH AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
There are several processes in use for solvent dewaxing, but
all have the same general steps, which are: (1) mixing the Fire Prevention and Protection
feedstock with a solvent, (2) precipitating the wax from the
mixture by chilling, and (3) recovering the solvent from the Solvent treatment is essentially a closed process and,
wax and dewaxed oil for recycling by distillation and steam although operating pressures are relatively low, the potential
stripping. Usually two solvents are used: toluene, which exists for fire from a leak or spill contacting a source of
dissolves the oil and maintains fluidity at low temperatures, ignition such as the drier or extraction heater. In solvent
and methyl ethyl ketone (MEK), which dissolves little wax at dewaxing, disruption of the vacuum will create a potential
low temperatures and acts as a wax precipitating agent. Other fire hazard by allowing air to enter the unit.
solvents that are sometimes used include benzene, methyl
isobutyl ketone, propane, petroleum naphtha, ethylene Health
dichloride, methylene chloride, and
Because solvent extraction is a closed process, exposures are
expected to be minimal under normal operating conditions.
However, there is a potential for
exposure to extraction solvents
such as phenol, furfural, glycols,
methyl ethyl ketone, amines, and
other process chemicals. Safe work
practices and/or the use of
appropriate personal protective
equipment may be needed for
exposures to chemicals and other
hazards such as noise and heat, and
during rep air, in sp ection,
maintenance, and turnaround
activities.

III:2-22
 Table III:2-9 VISBREAKING PROCESS

Feedstocks From Process Typical products................ To

Residual Atmospheric tower Decompose Gasoline or distillate...........Treating or blending

Vacuum tower Vapor.............................Hydrotreater
Residue...........................Stripper or recycle
Gases..............................Gas plant

THERMAL CRACKING heavier, higher boiling-point petroleum fractions into more

Because the simple distillation of crude oil produces amounts
and types of products that are not consistent with those
required by the marketplace, subsequent refinery processes
change the product mix by altering the molecular structure of
the hydrocarbons. One of the ways of accomplishing this
change is through "cracking," a process that breaks or cracks
valuable products such as gasoline, fuel oil, and gas oils. The
two basic types of cracking are thermal cracking, using heat
and pressure, and catalytic cracking.
The first thermal cracking process was developed around
1913. Distillate fuels and heavy oils were heated under
pressure in large drums until they cracked into smaller
molecules with better antiknock characteristics. However,
this method produced large amounts of solid, unwanted coke.
This early process has evolved into the following applications
of thermal cracking: visbreaking, steam cracking, and coking.

VISBREAKING PROCESS

Visbreaking, a mild form of thermal cracking, significantly

lowers the viscosity of heavy crude-oil residue without
affecting the boiling point range. Residual from the
atmospheric distillation tower is heated (800-950º F) at
atmospheric pressure and mildly cracked in a heater. It is then
quenched with cool gas oil to control overcracking, and
flashed in a distillation tower. Visbreaking is used to reduce
the pour point of waxy residues and reduce the viscosity of
residues used for blending with lighter fuel oils. Middle
distillates may also be produced, depending on product
demand. The thermally cracked residue tar, which
accumulates in the bottom of the fractionation tower, is
vacuum flashed in a stripper and the distillate recycled.

the
Figure III:2-12 Visbreaking

III:2-23
STEAM CRACKING PROCESS
Steam cracking is a petrochemical process sometimes used
in refineries to produce olefinic raw materials (e.g., ethylene)
from various feedstocks for petrochemicals manufacture. The
feedstocks range from ethane to vacuum gas oil, with heavier
feeds giving higher yields of by-products such as naphtha.
The most common feeds are ethane, butane, and naphtha.
Steam cracking is carried out at temperatures of 1,500-1,600º
F, and at pressures slightly above atmospheric. Naphtha
produced from steam cracking contains benzene, which is
extracted prior to hydrotreating. Residual from steam
cracking is sometimes blended into heavy fuels.
COKING PROCESSES
Coking is a severe method of thermal cracking used to
upgrade heavy residuals into lighter products or distillates.
Coking produces straight-run gasoline (coker naphtha) and
various middle-distillate fractions used as catalytic cracking
feedstocks. The process so completely reduces hydrogen that
the residue is a form of carbon called "coke." The two most
common processes are delayed coking and continuous
(contact or fluid) coking. Three typical types of coke are
obtained (sponge coke, honeycomb coke, and needle coke)
depending upon the reaction mechanism, time, temperature,
and the crude feedstock.
Table III:2-10 COKING PROCESSES
Feedstocks From Process
Residual Atmospheric & vac- Decomposition
uum catalytic cracker
Clarified oil Catalytic cracker
Tars Various units
Wastewater Treatment
(sour)
Gases Gas plant
III:2-24
Delayed Coking
In delayed coking the heated charge (typically residuum from
atmospheric distillation towers) is transferred to large coke
drums which provide the long residence time needed to allow
the cracking reactions to proceed to completion. Initially the
heavy feedstock is fed to a furnace which heats the residuum
to high temperatures (900-950º F) at low pressures (25-30
psi) and is designed and controlled to prevent premature
coking in the heater tubes. The mixture is passed from the
heater to one or more coker drums where the hot material is
held approximately 24 hours (delayed) at pressures of 25-75
psi, until it cracks into lighter products. Vapors from the
drums are returned to a fractionator where gas, naphtha, and
gas oils are separated out. The heavier hydrocarbons
produced in the fractionator are recycled through the furnace.
After the coke reaches a predetermined level in one drum, the
flow is diverted to another drum to maintain continuous
operation. The full drum is steamed to strip out uncracked
hydrocarbons, cooled by water injection, and decoked by
mechanical or hydraulic methods. The coke is mechanically
removed by an auger rising from the bottom of the drum.
Hydraulic decoking consists of fracturing the coke bed with
high-pressure water ejected from a rotating cutter.
Typical products............ To
Naphtha, gasoline...........Distillation column,
blending
Coke........................... Shipping, recycle
Gas oil........................ Catalytic cracking

Continuous Coking
Continuous (contact or fluid) coking is a moving-bed process
that operates at temperatures higher than delayed coking. In
continuous coking, thermal cracking occurs by using heat
transferred from hot, recycled coke particles to feedstock in
a radial mixer, called a reactor, at a pressure of 50 psi. Gases
and vapors are taken from the reactor, quenched to stop any
further reaction, and fractionated. The reacted coke enters a
surge drum and is lifted to a feeder and classifier where the
larger coke particles are removed as product. The remaining
coke is dropped into the preheater for recycling with
feedstock. Coking occurs both in the reactor and in the surge
drum. The process is automatic in that there is a continuous
flow of coke and feedstock.
III:2-25
HEALTH AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Fire Protection and Prevention
Because thermal cracking is a closed process, the primary
potential for fire is from leaks or releases of liquids, gases, or
vapors reaching an ignition source such as a heater. The
potential for fire is present in coking operations due to vapor
or product leaks. Should coking temperatures get out of
control, an exothermic reaction could occur within the coker.
Safety
In thermal cracking when sour crudes are processed,
corrosion can occur where metal temperatures are between
450º and 900º F. Above 900º F coke forms a protective layer
on the metal. The furnace, soaking drums, lower part of the
tower, and high-temperature exchangers are usually subject
to corrosion. Hydrogen sulfide corrosion in coking can also
occur when temperatures are not properly controlled above
900º F.
Continuous thermal changes can lead to bulging and cracking
of coke drum shells. In coking, temperature control must
often be held within a 10-20º F range, as high temperatures
will produce coke that is too hard to cut out of the drum.
Conversely, temperatures that are too low will result in a high
asphaltic-content slurry. Water or steam injection may be
used to prevent buildup of coke in delayed coker furnace
tubes. Water must be completely drained from the coker, so
as not to cause an explosion upon recharging with hot coke.
Provisions for alternate means of egress from the working
platform on top of coke drums are important in the event of
an emergency.
Health
The potential exists for exposure to hazardous gases such as
hydrogen sulfide and carbon monoxide, and trace polynuclear
aromatics (PNAs) associated with coking operations. When
coke is moved as a slurry, oxygen depletion may occur within
confined spaces such as storage silos, since wet carbon will
adsorb oxygen. Wastewater may be highly alkaline and
contain
oil, sulfides, ammonia, and/or phenol. The potential exists in
the coking process for exposure to burns when handling hot
coke or in the event of a steam-line leak, or from steam, hot
water, hot coke, or hot slurry that may be expelled when
opening cokers. Safe work practices and/or the use of
appropriate personal protective equipment may be needed for
exposures to chemicals and other hazards such as heat and
noise, and during process sampling, inspection, maintenance,
and turnaround activities. (Note: coke produced from
petroleum is a different product from that generated in the
steel-industry coking process.)
CATALYTIC CRACKING
Catalytic cracking breaks complex hydrocarbons into simpler
molecules in order to increase the quality and quantity of
lighter, more desirable products and decrease the amount of
residuals. This process rearranges the molecular structure of
hydrocarbon compounds to convert heavy hydrocarbon
feedstocks into lighter fractions such as kerosene, gasoline,
LPG, heating oil, and petrochemical feedstocks.
Catalytic cracking is similar to thermal cracking except that
catalysts facilitate the conversion of the heavier molecules
into lighter products. Use of a catalyst (a material that assists
a chemical reaction but does not take part in it) in the
cracking reaction increases the yield of improved-quality
products under much less severe operating conditions than in
thermal cracking. Typical temperatures are from 850-950º F
at much lower
Table III:2-11 CATALYTIC CRACKING PROCESS
Feedstock From Process
Gas oils Towers, coker Decomposition,
Visbreaker alteration
Deasphalted Deasphalter
recycle
oils
III:2-26
pressures of 10-20 psi. The catalysts used in refinery
cracking units are typically solid materials (zeolite, aluminum
hydrosilicate, treated bentonite clay, fuller's earth, bauxite,
and silica-alumina) that come in the form of powders, beads,
pellets or shaped materials called extrudites.
There are three basic functions in the catalytic cracking
process:
Reaction: Feedstock reacts with catalyst and cracks into
different hydrocarbons.
Regeneration: Catalyst is reactivated by burning off coke.
Fractionation: Cracked hydrocarbon stream is separated into
various products.
The three types of catalytic cracking processes are fluid
catalytic cracking (FCC), moving-bed catalytic cracking, and
Thermofor catalytic cracking (TCC). The catalytic cracking
process is very flexible, and operating parameters can be
adjusted to meet changing product demand. In addition to
cracking, catalytic activities include dehydrogenation,
hydrogenation, and isomerization.
FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING
The most common process is FCC, in which the oil is cracked
in the presence of a finely divided catalyst which is
maintained in an aerated or fluidized state by the oil vapors.
The fluid
Typical products............................... To
Gasoline............................................Treater or blend
Gases................................................Gas plant
Middle distillates...............................Hydrotreat, blend, or
Petrochem feedstocks.......................Petrochem or other
Residue..............................................Residual fuel blend
 Figure III:2-14 Fluid Catalytic Cracking
cracker consists of a catalyst section and a fractionating
section that operate together as an integrated processing unit.
The catalyst section contains the reactor and regenerator,
which with the standpipe and riser forms the catalyst
circulation unit. The fluid catalyst is continuously circulated
between the reactor and the regenerator using air, oil vapors,
and steam as the conveying media.
A typical FCC process involves mixing a preheated
hydrocarbon charge with hot, regenerated catalyst as it enters
the riser leading to the reactor. The charge is combined with
a recycle stream within the riser, vaporized, and raised to
reactor temperature (900-1,000º F) by the hot catalyst. As the
mixture travels up the riser, the charge is cracked at 10-30
psi.
In the more modern FCC units, all cracking takes place in the
riser. The "reactor" no longer functions as a reactor; it merely
serves as a holding vessel for the cyclones. This cracking
continues until the oil vapors are separated from the catalyst
in the reactor cyclones. The resultant product stream
(cracked
III:2-27
product) is then charged to a fractionating column where it is
separated into fractions, and some of the heavy oil is recycled
to the riser.
Spent catalyst is regenerated to get rid of coke that collects on
the catalyst during the process. Spent catalyst flows through
the catalyst stripper to the regenerator, where most of the
coke deposits burn off at the bottom where preheated air and
spent catalyst are mixed. Fresh catalyst is added and worn-out
catalyst removed to optimize the cracking process.
MOVING BED CATALYTIC CRACKING
The moving-bed catalytic cracking process is similar to the
FCC process. The catalyst is in the form of pellets that are
moved continuously to the top of the unit by conveyor or
pneumatic lift tubes to a storage hopper, then flow downward
by gravity through the reactor, and finally to a regenerator.
The regenerator and hopper are isolated from the reactor by
steam seals. The cracked product is separated into recycle gas,
oil, clarified oil, distillate, naphtha, and wet gas.
THERMOFOR CATALYTIC CRACKING
In a typical thermofor catalytic cracking unit, the preheated
feedstock flows by gravity through the catalytic reactor bed.
The vapors are separated from the catalyst and sent to a
fractionating tower. The spent catalyst is regenerated, cooled,
and recycled. The flue gas from regeneration is sent to a
carbon-monoxide boiler for heat recovery.
HEALTH AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Fire Prevention and Protection
Liquid hydrocarbons in the catalyst or entering the heated
combustion air stream should be controlled to avoid
exothermic reactions. Because of the presence of heaters in
catalytic cracking units, the possibility exists for fire due to
a leak or vapor release. Fire protection including concrete or
other insulation on columns and supports, or fixed water
spray or fog systems where insulation is not feasible and in
areas where firewater hose streams cannot reach, should be
considered. In some processes, caution must be taken to
assure prevent explosive concentrations of catalyst dust
during recharge or disposal. When unloading any coked
catalyst, the possibility exists for iron sulfide fires. Iron
sulfide will ignite spontaneously when exposed to air and
therefore mus be wetted with water to prevent it from igniting
vapors. Coked catalyst may be either cooled below 120º F
before they are dumped from the reactor, or dumped into
containers that have been purged and inerted with nitrogen
and then cooled before further handling.
Safety
Regular sampling and testing of the feedstock, product, and
recycle streams should be performed to assure that the
cracking process is working as intended and that no
contaminants have entered the process stream. Corrosives or
deposits in the feedstock can foul gas compressors.
Inspections of critical equipment including pumps,
compressors, furnaces, and heat exchangers should be
conducted as needed. When processing sour crude, corrosion
may be expected where temperatures are
III:2-28
below 900o F. Corrosion takes place where both liquid and
vapor phases exist, and at areas subject to local cooling such
as nozzles and platform supports.
When processing high-nitrogen feedstocks, exposure to
ammonia and cyanide may occur, subjecting carbon steel
equipment in the FCC overhead system to corrosion,
cracking, or hydrogen blistering. These effects may be
minimized by water wash or corrosion inhibitors. Water wash
may also be used to protect overhead condensers in the main
column subjected to fouling from ammonium hydrosulfide.
Inspections should include checking for leaks due to erosion
or other malfunctions such as catalyst buildup on the
expanders, coking in the overhead feeder lines from feedstock
residues, and other unusual operating conditions.
Health
Because the catalytic cracker is a closed system, there is
normally little opportunity for exposure to hazardous
substances during normal operations. The possibility exists of
exposure to extremely hot (700º F) hydrocarbon liquids or
vapors during process sampling or if a leak or release occurs.
In addition, exposure to hydrogen sulfide and/or carbon
monoxide gas may occur during a release of product or vapor.
Catalyst regeneration involves steam stripping and decoking,
and produces fluid waste streams that may contain varying
amounts of hydrocarbon, phenol, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide,
mercaptan, and other materials depending upon the
feedstocks, crudes, and processes. Inadvertent formation of
nickel carbonyl may occur in cracking processes using nickel
catalysts, with resultant potential for hazardous exposures.
Safe work practices and/or the use of appropriate personal
protective equipment may be needed for exposures to
chemicals and other hazards such as noise and heat; during
process sampling, inspection, maintenance and turnaround
activities; and when handling spent catalyst, recharging
catalyst, or if leaks or releases occur.
HYDROCRACKING
Hydrocracking is a two-stage process combining catalytic
cracking and hydrogenation, wherein heavier feedstocks are
cracked in the presence of hydrogen to produce more
desirable products. The process employs high pressure, high
temperature, a catalyst, and hydrogen. Hydrocracking is used
for feedstocks that are difficult to process by either catalytic
cracking or reforming, since these feedstocks are
characterized usually by a high polycyclic aromatic content
and/or high concentrations of the two principal catalyst
poisons, sulfur and nitrogen compounds.
The hydrocracking process largely depends on the nature of
the feedstock and the relative rates of the two competing
reactions, hydrogenation and cracking. Heavy aromatic
feedstock is converted into lighter products under a wide
range of very high pressures (1,000-2,000 psi) and fairly high
temperatures (750-1,500º F), in the presence of hydrogen and
special catalysts. When the feedstock has a high paraffinic
content, the primary function of hydrogen is to prevent the
formation of polycyclic aromatic compounds. Another
important role of hydrogen in the hydrocracking process is to
reduce tar formation and prevent buildup of coke on the
catalyst. Hydrogenation also serves to convert sulfur and
nitrogen compounds present in the feedstock to hydrogen
sulfide and ammonia.
Hydrocracking produces relatively large amounts of isobutane
for alkylation feedstocks. Hydrocracking also performs
isomerization for pour-point control and smoke-point control,
both of which are important in high-quality jet fuel.
Table III:2-12 HYDROCRACKING PROCESS
Feedstocks From
High pour point Catalytic cracker
residuals Atmospheric, vac. tower
Gas oil Vacuum tower, coker
Hydrogen Reformer
plant
HYDROCRACKING PROCESS
In the first stage, preheated feedstock is mixed with recycled
hydrogen and sent to the first-stage reactor, where catalysts
convert sulfur and nitrogen compounds to hydrogen sulfide
and ammonia. Limited hydrocracking also occurs.
After the hydrocarbon leaves the first stage, it is cooled and
liquefied and run through a hydrocarbon separator. The
hydrogen is recycled to the feedstock. The liquid is charged
to a fractionator. Depending on the products desired
(gasoline components, jet fuel, and gas oil), the fractionator
is run to cut out some portion of the first stage reactor
outturn. Kerosene-range material can be taken as a separate
side-draw product or included in the fractionator bottoms
with the gas oil.
The fractionator bottoms are again mixed with a hydro-gen
stream and charged to the second stage. Since this material
has already been subjected to some hydrogen-ation, cracking,
and reforming in the first stage, the operations of the second
stage are more severe (higher temperatures and pressures).
Like the outturn of the first stage, the second stage product is
separated from the hydrogen and charged to the fractionator.
HEALTH AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Fire Prevention and Protection
Because this unit operates at very high pressures and
temperatures, control of both hydrocarbon leaks and
hydrogen releases is important to prevent fires. In some
processes, care is
Process Typical products..................... To
Decomposition Kerosene, jet fuel......................Blending
Hydrogenation Gasoline, distillates....................Blending
Heavy naphthas Recycle, reformer
Gas.............................................Gas
III:2-29
 Figure III-2:15 Two-Stage Hydrocracking
needed to ensure that explosive concentrations of catalytic
dust do not form during recharging.
Safety
Inspection and testing of safety relief devices are important
due to the very high pressures in this unit. Proper process
control is needed to protect against plugging reactor beds.
Unloading coked catalyst requires special precautions to
prevent iron sulfide-induced fires. The coked catalyst should
either be cooled to below 120º F before dumping, or be
placed in nitrogen-inerted containers until cooled.
Because of the operating temperatures and presence of
hydrogen, the hydrogen-sulfide content of the feedstock must
III:2-30
be strictly controlled to a minimum to reduce the possibility
of severe corrosion. Corrosion by wet carbon dioxide in areas
of condensation also must be considered. When processing
high-nitrogen feedstocks, the ammonia and hydrogen sulfide
form ammonium hydrosulfide, which causes serious
corrosion at temperatures below the water dew point.
Ammonium hydrosulfide is also present in sour water
stripping.
Health
Because this is a closed process, exposures are expected to be
minimal under normal operating conditions. There is a
potential for exposure to hydrocarbon gas and vapor
emissions, hydrogen and hydrogen sulfide gas due to
high-pressure leaks. Large quantities of carbon monoxide
may be released during catalyst
regeneration and changeover. Catalyst steam stripping and
regeneration create waste streams containing sour water and
ammonia. Safe work practices and/or the use of appropriate
personal protective equipment may be needed for exposure to
chemicals and other hazards such as noise and heat, during
process sampling, inspection, maintenance, and turnaround
activities, and when handling spent catalyst.
CATALYTIC REFORMING
Catalytic reforming is an important process used to convert
low-octane naphthas into high-octane gasoline blending
components called reformate. Reforming represents the total
effect of numerous reactions such as cracking,
polymerization, dehydrogenation, and isomerization taking
place simultaneously. Depending on the properties of the
naphtha feedstock (as measured by the paraffin, olefin,
naphthene, and aromatic content) and catalysts used,
reformates can be produced with very high concentrations of
toluene, benzene, xylene, and other aromatics useful in
gasoline blending and petrochemical processing. Hydrogen,
a significant by-product, is separated from the reformate for
recycling and use in other processes.
A catalytic reformer comprises a reactor section and a
product-recovery section. More or less standard is a feed
preparation section in which, by combination of
hydrotreatment and distillation, the feedstock is prepared to
specification. Most processes use platinum as the active
catalyst. Sometimes platinum is combined with a second
catalyst (bimetallic catalyst) such as rhenium or another noble
metal.
There are many different commercial catalytic reforming
processes including platforming, powerforming, ultraforming,
and Thermofor catalytic reforming. In the platforming
process, the first step is preparation of the naphtha feed to
remove impurities from the naphtha and reduce catalyst
degradation. The naphtha feedstock is then mixed with
hydrogen, vaporized, and passed through a series of
alternating furnace and fixed-bed
III:2-31
reactors containing a platinum catalyst. The effluent from the
last reactor is cooled and sent to a separator to permit removal
of the hydrogen-rich gas stream from the top of the separator
for recycling. The liquid product from the bottom of the
separator is sent to a fractionator called a stabilizer
(butanizer). It makes a bottom product called reformate;
butanes and lighter go overhead and are sent to the saturated
gas plant.
Some catalytic reformers operate at low pressure (50-200
psi), and others operate at high pressures (up to 1,000 psi).
Some catalytic reforming systems continuously regenerate the
catalyst in other systems. One reactor at a time is taken
off-stream for catalyst regeneration, and some facilities
regenerate all of the reactors during turnarounds.
HEALTH AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Fire Prevention and Protection
This is a closed system; however, the potential for fire exists
should a leak or release of reformate gas or hydrogen occur.
Safety
Operating procedures should be developed to ensure control
of hot spots during start-up. Safe catalyst handling is very
important. Care must be taken not to break or crush the
catalyst when loading the beds, as the small fines will plug up
the reformer screens. Precautions against dust when
regenerating or replacing catalyst should also be considered.
Also, water wash should be considered where stabilizer
fouling has occurred due to the formation of ammonium
chloride and iron salts. Ammonium chloride may form in
pretreater exchangers and cause corrosion and fouling.
Hydrogen chloride from the hydrogenation of chlorine
compounds may form acid or ammonium chloride salt.
Health
Because this is a closed process, exposures are expected to be
minimal under normal operating conditions. There is
potential
for exposure to hydrogen sulfide and benzene should a leak
or release occur.
Small emissions of carbon monoxide and hydrogen sulfide
may occur during regeneration of catalyst. Safe work
practices and/or
appropriate personal protective equipment may be needed for
exposures to chemicals and other hazards such as noise and
heat; during testing, inspecting, maintenance and turnaround
activities; and when handling regenerated or spent catalyst.

Table III:2-13 CATALYTIC REFORMING PROCESS

Feedstocks From Process Typical products...................... To

Desulfurized naphtha Coker Rearrange, High octane gasoline................Blending

Naphthene-rich Hydrocracker dehydrogenate Aromatics.................................Petrochemical
fractions Hydrodesulfur Hydrogen.................................Recycle, hydrotreat, etc.
Straight-run naphtha Atmospheric Gas...........................................Gas plant
fractionator

Figure III:2-16 Platforming Process

III:2-32
CATALYTIC HYDROTREATING
Catalytic hydrotreating is a hydrogenation process used to
remove about 90% of contaminants such as nitrogen, sulfur,
oxygen, and metals from liquid petroleum fractions. These
contaminants, if not removed from the petroleum fractions as
they travel through the refinery processing units, can have
detrimental effects on the equipment, the catalysts, and the
quality of the finished product. Typically, hydrotreating is
done prior to processes such as catalytic reforming so that the
catalyst is not contaminated by untreated feedstock.
Hydrotreating is also used prior to catalytic cracking to
reduce sulfur and improve product yields, and to upgrade
middle-distillate petroleum fractions into finished kerosene,
diesel fuel, and heating fuel oils. In addition, hydrotreating
converts olefins and aromatics to saturated compounds.
CATALYTIC HYDRODESULFURIZATION PROCESS
Hydrotreating for sulfur removal is called
hydrodesulfur-ization. In a typical catalytic
hydrodesulfurization unit, the feedstock is deaerated and
mixed with hydrogen, preheated in a fired heater (600-800º
F) and then charged under pressure (up to 1,000 psi) through
a fixed-bed catalytic reactor. In the reactor, the sulfur and
nitrogen compounds in the feedstock are converted into H2S
and NH3. The reaction products leave the reactor and after
cooling to a low temperature enter a liquid/gas separator. The
hydrogen-rich gas from the high-pressure separation is
recycled to combine with the feedstock, and the low-pressure
gas stream rich in H2S is sent to a gas treating unit where
H2S is removed. The clean gas is then suitable as fuel for the
refinery furnaces. The liquid stream is the product from
hydrotreating and is normally sent to a stripping column for
removal of H2S and other undesirable components. In cases
where steam is used for stripping, the product is sent to a
vacuum drier for removal of water. Hydrodesulfurized
products are blended or used as catalytic reforming feedstock.
III:2-33
OTHER HYDROTREATING PROCESSES
Hydrotreating processes differ depending upon the feedstocks
available and catalysts used. Hydrotreating can be used to
improve the burning characteristics of distillates such as
kerosene. Hydrotreatment of a kerosene fraction can convert
aromatics into naphthenes, which are cleaner-burning
compounds.
Lube-oil hydrotreating uses catalytic treatment of the oil with
hydrogen to improve product quality. The objectives in mild
lube hydrotreating include saturation of olefins and
improvements in color, odor, and acid nature of the oil. Mild
lube hydrotreating also may be used following solvent
processing. Operating temperatures are usually below 600º
F and operating pressures below 800 psi. Severe lube
hydrotreating, at temperatures in the 600-750º F range and
hydrogen pressures up to 3,000 psi, is capable of saturating
aromatic rings, along with sulfur and nitrogen removal, to
impart specific properties not achieved at mild conditions.
Hydrotreating also can be employed to improve the quality of
pyrolysis gasoline (pygas), a by-product from the manufacture
of ethylene. Traditionally, the outlet for pygas has been
motor gasoline blending, a suitable route in view of its high
octane number. However, only small portions can be blended
untreated owing to the unacceptable odor, color, and
gum-forming tendencies of this material. The quality of
pygas, which is high in diolefin content, can be satisfactorily
improved by hydro-treating, whereby conversion of diolefins
into mono-olefins provides an acceptable product for motor
gas blending.
HEALTH AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Fire Prevention and Protection
The potential exists for fire in the event of a leak or release of
product or hydrogen gas.
 Table III:2-14 HYDRODESULFURIZATION PROCESS

Feedstocks From Process Typical products......................To

Naphthas, distillates Atmospheric & Treating, Naphtha....................................Catalytic reformer

Sour gas oil, vacuum tower hydrogenation Hydrogen..................................Recycle
Residuals Catalytic & Distillates..................................Blending
thermal cracker H2S, ammonia...........................Sulfur plant, treater
Gas.............................................Gas plant

Safety or dumped into nitrogen-inerted bins where it can be cooled

Many processes require hydrogen generation to provide for
a continuous supply. Because of the operating temperatures
and presence of hydrogen, the hydrogen sulfide content of the
feedstock must be strictly controlled to a minimum to reduce
corrosion. Hydrogen chloride may form and condense as
hydrochloric acid in the lower-temperature parts of the unit.
Ammonium hydrosulfide may form in high-temperature,
high-pressure units. Excessive contact time and/or
temperature will create coking. Precautions need to be taken
when unloading coked catalyst from the unit to prevent iron
sulfide fires. The coked catalyst should be cooled to below
120o F before removal,
before further handling. Special antifoam additives may be
used to prevent catalyst poisoning from silicone carryover in
the coker feedstock.
Health
Because this is a closed process, exposures are expected to be
minimal under normal operating conditions. There is a
potential for exposure to hydrogen sulfide or hydrogen gas in
the event of a release, or to ammonia should a sour-water leak
or spill occur. Phenol also may be present if high
boiling-point feedstocks are processed. Safe work practices
and/or appropriate personal protective equipment may be
needed for exposures to

Figure III:2-17 Distillate Hydrodesulffurization

III:2-34
chemicals and other hazards such as noise and heat; during
process sampling, inspection, maintenance, and turnaround
activities; and when handling amine or exposed to catalyst.
ISOMERIZATION
Isomerization converts n-butane, n-pentane and n-hexane into
their respective isoparaffins of substantially higher octane
number. The straight-chain paraffins are converted to their
branched-chain counterparts whose component atoms are the
same but are arranged in a different geometric structure.
Isomerization is important for the conversion of n-butane into
isobutane, to provide additional feedstock for alkylation units,
and the conversion of normal pentanes and hexanes into
higher branched isomers for gasoline blending. Isomerization
is similar to catalytic reforming in that the hydrocarbon
molecules are rearranged, but unlike catalytic reforming,
isomerization just converts normal paraffins to isoparaffins.
There are two distinct isomerization processes, butane (C4)
and pentane/hexane (C5/C6). Butane isomerization produces
feedstock for alkylation. Aluminum chloride catalyst plus
hydrogen chloride are universally used for the
low-temperature processes. Platinum or another metal
catalyst is used for the higher-temperature processes. In a
typical low-temperature process, the feed to the isomerization
plant is n-butane or mixed butanes mixed with hydrogen (to
inhibit olefin formation) and passed to the reactor at 230-340º
F and 200-300 psi. Hydrogen is flashed off in a
high-pressure separator and the hydrogen chloride removed
in a stripper column. The resultant butane
Table III:2-15 ISOMERIZATION PROCESSES
Feedstock From Process
n-Butane Various Rearrangement
n-Pentane processes
n-Hexane
III:2-35
mixture is sent to a fractionator (deisobutanizer) to separate
n-butane from the isobutane product.
Pentane/hexane isomerization increases the octane number
of the light gasoline components n-pentane and n-hexane,
which are found in abundance in straight-run gasoline. In a
typical C5/C6 isomerization process, dried and desulfurized
feedstock is mixed with a small amount of organic chloride
and recycled hydrogen, and then heated to reactor
temperature. It is then passed over supported-metal catalyst
in the first reactor where benzene and olefins are
hydrogenated. The feed next goes to the isomerization reactor
where the paraffins are catalytically isomerized to
isoparaffins. The reactor effluent is then cooled and
subsequently separated in the product separator into two
streams: a liquid product (isomerate) and a recycle
hydrogen-gas stream. The isomerate is washed (caustic and
water), acid stripped, and stabilized before going to storage.
SAFETY AND HEALTH CONSIDERATIONS
Fire Protection and Prevention
Although this is a closed process, the potential for a fire
exists should a release or leak contact a source of ignition
such as the heater.
Safety
If the feedstock is not completely dried and desulfurized, the
potential exists for acid formation leading to catalyst
poisoning and metal corrosion. Water or steam must not be
allowed to enter areas where hydrogen chloride is present.
Precautions are
Typical products................To
Isobutane.........................Alkylation
Isopentane........................Blending
Isohexane.........................Blending
Gas.................................Gas Plant
 Figure III:2-18 C4 Isomerization

Figure II:2-19 C5 and C6 Isomerization

III:2-36
needed to prevent HCl from entering sewers and drains.
Health
Because this is a closed process, exposures are expected to be
minimal during normal operating conditions. There is a
potential for exposure to hydrogen gas, hydrochloric acid,
and hydrogen chloride and to dust when solid catalyst is used.
Safe work practices and/or appropriate personal protective
equipment may be needed for exposures to chemicals and
other hazards such as heat and noise, and during process
sampling, inspection, maintenance, and turnaround activities.
POLYMERIZATION
Polymerization in the petroleum industry is the process of
converting light olefin gases including ethylene, propylene,
and butylene into hydrocarbons of higher molecular weight
and higher octane number that can be used as gasoline
blending stocks. Polymerization combines two or more
identical olefin molecules to form a single molecule with the
same elements in the same proportions as the original
molecules. Polymerization may be accomplished thermally
or in the presence of a catalyst at lower temperatures.
The olefin feedstock is pretreated to remove sulfur and other
undesirable compounds. In the catalytic process the
feedstock is either passed over a solid phosphoric acid
catalyst or comes in contact with liquid phosphoric acid,
where an exothermic polymeric reaction occurs. This reaction
requires cooling water and the injection of cold feedstock into
the reactor to control
Table III:2-16 POLYMERIZATION PROCESS
Feedstocks From Process
Olefins Cracking Unification
processes
temperatures between 300º and 450º F at pressures from 200
psi to 1,200 psi. The reaction products leaving the reactor are
sent to stabilization and/or fractionator systems to separate
saturated and unreacted gases from the polymer gasoline
product.
NOTE: In the petroleum industry, polymerization is used to
indicate the production of gasoline components, hence the
term "polymer" gasoline. Furthermore, it is not essential that
only one type of monomer be involved. If unlike olefin
molecules are combined, the process is referred to as
"copolymerization." Polymerization in the true sense of the
word is normally prevented, and all attempts are made to
terminate the reaction at the dimer or trimer (three monomers
joined together) stage. However, in the petrochemical section
of a refinery, polymerization, which results in the production
of, for instance, polyethylene, is allowed to proceed until
materials of the required high molecular weight have been
produced.
SAFETY AND HEALTH CONSIDERATIONS
Fire Prevention and Protection
Polymerization is a closed process where the potential for a
fire could occur due to leaks or releases reaching a source of
ignition.
Safety
The potential for an uncontrolled exothermic reaction exists
should loss of cooling water occur. Severe corrosion leading
to equipment failure will occur should water make contact
with the phosphoric acid, such as during water washing at
shutdowns. Corrosion may also occur in piping manifolds,
Typical products................ To
High octane naphtha...........Gasoline blending
Petrochem. feedstocks.........Petrochemical
Liquefied petro. gas............Storage
III:2-37
 reboilers, exchangers, and other locations where acid may
settle out.
Health
Because this is a closed system, exposures are expected to be
minimal under normal operating conditions. There is a
potential for exposure to caustic wash (sodium hydroxide), to
phosphoric
acid used in the process or washed out during turnarounds,
and to catalyst dust. Safe work practices and/or appropriate
personal protective equipment may be needed for exposures
to chemicals and other hazards such as noise and heat, and
during process sampling, inspection, maintenance, and
turnaround activities.

Figure III:2-20 Polymerization Process

III:2-38
ALKYLATION
Alkylation combines low-molecular-weight olefins (primarily
a mixture of propylene and butylene) with isobutene in the
presence of a catalyst, either sulfuric acid or hydrofluoric
acid. The product is called alkylate and is composed of a
mixture of high-octane, branched-chain paraffinic
hydrocarbons. Alkylate is a premium blending stock because
it has exceptional antiknock properties and is clean burning.
The octane number of the alkylate depends mainly upon the
kind of olefins used and upon operating conditions.
SULFURIC ACID ALKYLATION PROCESS
In cascade type sulfuric acid (H2SO4) alkylation units, the
feedstock (propylene, butylene, amylene, and fresh isobutane)
enters the reactor and contacts the concentrated sulfuric acid
catalyst (in concentrations of 85% to 95% for good operation
and to minimize corrosion). The reactor is divided into zones,
with olefins fed through distributors to each zone, and the
sulfuric acid and isobutanes flowing over baffles from zone
to zone.
The reactor effluent is separated into hydrocarbon and acid
phases in a settler, and the acid is returned to the reactor. The
hydrocarbon phase is hot-water washed with caustic for pH
control before being successively depropanized,
deisobutanized, and debutanized. The alkylate obtained from
the deisobutanizer can then go directly to motor-fuel blending
or be rerun to produce aviation-grade blending stock. The
isobutane is recycled to the feed.
Table II:2-17 ALKYLATION PROCESS
Feedstocks From Process
Petroleum gas Distillation or cracking Unification
Olefins Cat. or hydro cracking
Isobutane Isomerization
III:2-39
HYDROFLUORIC ACID ALKYLATION PROCESS
Phillips and UOP are the two common types of hydro-fluoric
acid alkylation processes in use. In the Phillips process, olefin
and isobutane feedstock are dried and fed to a combination
reactor/settler system. Upon leaving the reaction zone, the
reactor effluent flows to a settler (separating vessel) where the
acid separates from the hydrocarbons. The acid layer at the
bottom of the separating vessel is recycled. The top layer of
hydrocarbons (hydrocarbon phase), consisting of propane,
normal butane, alkylate, and excess (recycle) isobutane, is
charged to the main fractionator, the bottom product of which
is motor alkylate. The main fractionator overhead, consisting
mainly of propane, isobutane, and HF, goes to a
depropanizer. Propane with trace amount of HF goes to an
HF stripper for HF removal and is then catalytically
defluorinated, treated, and sent to storage. Isobutane is
withdrawn from the main fractionator and recycled to the
reactor/settler, and alkylate from the bottom of the main
fractionator is sent to product blending.
The UOP process uses two reactors with separate settlers.
Half of the dried feedstock is charged to the first reactor,
along with recycle and makeup isobutane. The reactor
effluent then goes to its settler, where the acid is recycled and
the hydrocarbon charged to the second reactor. The other
half of the feedstock also goes to the second reactor, with the
settler acid being recycled and the hydrocarbons charged to
the main fractionator. Subsequent processing is similar to the
Phillips process. Overhead from the main fractionator goes to
a depropanizer. Isobutane is recycled to the reaction zone
and alkylate is sent to product blending.
Typical products............... To
High octane gasoline..........Blending
n-Butane & propane...........Stripper or blender
 Figure III:2-21 Sulfuric Acid Alkaylation

Figure III:2-22 Hydrogen Fluoride Alkylation

III:2-40
HEALTH AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Fire Protection and Prevention
Alkylation units are closed processes; however, the potential
exists for fire should a leak or release occur that allows
product or vapor to reach a source of ignition.
Safety
Sulfuric acid and hydrofluoric acid are potentially hazardous
chemicals. Loss of coolant water, which is needed to
maintain process temperatures, could result in an upset.
Precautions are necessary to ensure that equipment and
materials that have been in contact with acid are handled
carefully and are thoroughly cleaned before they leave the
process area or refinery. Immersion wash vats are often
provided for neutralization of equipment that has come into
contact with hydrofluoric acid. Hydrofluoric acid units should
be thoroughly drained and chemically cleaned prior to
turnarounds and entry to remove all traces of iron fluoride
and hydro-fluoric acid. Following shutdown, where water has
been used the unit should be thoroughly dried before
hydrofluoric acid is introduced.
Leaks, spills, or releases involving hydrofluoric acid or
hydrocarbons containing hydrofluoric acid can be extremely
hazardous. Care during delivery and unloading of acid is
essential. Process unit containment by curbs and drainage and
isolation so that effluent can be neutralized before release to
the sewer system should be considered. Vents can be routed
to soda-ash scrubbers to neutralize hydrogen fluoride gas or
hydrofluoric acid vapors before release. Pressure on the
cooling water and steam side of exchangers should be kept
below the minimum pressure on the acid service side to
prevent water contamination.
Some corrosion and fouling in sulfuric acid units may occur
from the breakdown of sulfuric acid esters or where caustic is
added for neutralization. These esters can be removed by
fresh acid treating and hot-water washing. To prevent
corrosion from
III:2-41
hydrofluoric acid, the acid concentration inside the process
unit should be maintained above 65% and moisture below
4%.
Health
Because this is a closed process, exposures are expected to be
minimal during normal operations. There is a potential for
exposure should leaks, spills, or releases occur. Sulfuric acid
and (particularly) hydrofluoric acid are potentially hazardous
chemicals. Special precautionary emergency preparedness
measures and protection appropriate to the potential hazard
and areas possibly affected need to be provided. Safe work
practices and appropriate skin and respiratory personal
protective equipment are needed for potential exposures to
hydro-fluoric and sulfuric acids during normal operations
such as reading gauges, inspecting, and process sampling, as
well as during emergency response, maintenance, and
turnaround activities. Procedures should be in place to ensure
that protective equipment and clothing worn in hydrofluoric
acid activities are decontaminated and inspected before
reissue. Appropriate personal protection for exposure to heat
and noise also may be required.
SWEETENING AND TREATING
PROCESSES
Treating is a means by which contaminants such as organic
compounds containing sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen;
dissolved metals and inorganic salts; and soluble salts
dissolved in emulsified water are removed from petroleum
fractions or streams. Petroleum refiners have a choice of
several different treating processes, but the primary purpose
of the majority of them is the elimination of unwanted sulfur
compounds. A variety of intermediate and finished products,
including middle distillates, gasoline, kerosene, jet fuel and
sour gases are dried and sweetened. Sweetening, a major
refinery treatment of gasoline, treats sulfur compounds
(hydrogen sulfide, thiophene and mercaptan) to improve
color, odor and oxidation stability. Sweetening also reduces
concentrations of carbon dioxide.
Treating can be accomplished at an intermediate stage in the
refining process, or just before sending the finished product
to storage. Choices of a treating method depend on the nature
of the petroleum fractions, amount and type of impurities in
the fractions to be treated, the extent to which the process
removes the impurities, and end-product specifications.
Treating materials include acids, solvents, alkalis, oxidizing,
and adsorption agents.
ACID, CAUSTIC, OR CLAY TREATING
Sulfuric acid is the most commonly used acid treating
process. Sulfuric acid treating results in partial or complete
removal of unsaturated hydrocarbons, sulfur, nitrogen, and
oxygen compounds, and resinous and asphaltic compounds.
It is used to improve the odor, color, stability, carbon residue,
and other properties of the oil. Clay/lime treatment of
acid-refined oil removes traces of asphaltic materials and
other compounds improving product color, odor, and
stability. Caustic treating with sodium (or potassium)
hydroxide is used to improve odor and color by removing
organic acids (naphthenic acids, phenols) and sulfur
compounds (mercaptans, H2S) by a caustic wash. By
combining caustic soda solution with various solubility
promoters (e.g., methyl alcohol and cresols), up to 99% of all
mercaptans as well as oxygen and nitrogen compounds can be
dissolved from petroleum fractions.
DRYING AND SWEETENING
Feedstocks from various refinery units are sent to gas treating
plants where butanes and butenes are removed for use as
alkylation feedstock, heavier components are sent to gasoline
Table III:2-18 SWEETENING AND TREATING PROCESSES
Feedstocks From Process
Gases Various Treatment
Finished products
Intermediates
III:2-42
blending, propane is recovered for LPG, and propylene is
removed for use in petrochemicals. Some mercaptans are
removed by water-soluble chemicals that react with the
mercaptans. Caustic liquid (sodium hydroxide), amine
compounds (diethanolamine) or fixed-bed catalyst sweetening
also may be used. Drying is accomplished by the use of water
absorption or adsorption agents to remove water from the
products. Some processes simultaneously dry and sweeten by
adsorption on molecular sieves.
SULFUR RECOVERY
Sulfur recovery converts hydrogen sulfide in sour gases and
hydrocarbon streams to elemental sulfur. The most widely
used recovery system is the Claus process, which uses both
thermal and catalytic-conversion reactions. A typical process
produces elemental sulfur by burning hydrogen sulfide under
controlled conditions. Knockout pots are used to remove
water and hydrocarbons from feed gas streams. The gases are
then exposed to a catalyst to recover additional sulfur. Sulfur
vapor from burning and conversion is condensed and
recovered.
HYDROGEN SULFIDE SCRUBBING
Hydrogen sulfide scrubbing is a common treating process in
which the hydrocarbon feedstock is first scrubbed to prevent
catalyst poisoning. Depending on the feedstock and the
nature of contaminants, desulfurization methods vary from
ambient temperature-activated charcoal absorption to
high-temperature catalytic hydrogenation followed by zinc
oxide treating.
Products........................To
Butane & butene..............Alkylation
Propane, distillates...........Storage
Gasoline........................Blending
Propylene......................Petrochemical
 Figure III:2-23 Molecular Sieve Drying and Sweetening
HEALTH AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Fire Protection and Prevention
The potential exists for fire from a leak or release of feedstock
or product. Sweetening processes use air or oxygen. If excess
oxygen enters these processes, it is possible for a fire to occur
in the settler due to the generation of static electricity, which
acts as the ignition source.
Health
Because these are closed processes, exposures are expected
to be minimal under normal operating conditions. There is a
potential for exposure to hydrogen sulfide, caustic (sodium
hydroxide), spent caustic, spent catalyst (Merox), catalyst
dust and sweetening agents (sodium carbonate and sodium
bicarbonate). Safe work practices and/or appropriate personal
protective equipment may be needed for exposures to
chemicals
III:2-43
and other hazards such as noise and heat, and during process
sampling, inspection, maintenance, and turnaround activities.
UNSATURATED GAS PLANTS
Unsaturated (unsat) gas plants recover light hydrocarbons (C3
and C4 olefins) from wet gas streams from the FCC, TCC, and
delayed coker overhead accumulators or fractionation
receivers. In a typical unsat gas plant, the gases are
compressed and treated with amine to remove hydrogen
sulfide either before or after they are sent to a fractionating
absorber where they are mixed into a concurrent flow of
debutanized gasoline. The light fractions are separated by
heat in a reboiler, the offgas is sent to a sponge absorber, and
the bottoms are sent to a debutanizer. A portion of the
debutanized hydrocarbon is recycled, with the balance sent to
the splitter for separation. The overhead gases go to a
depropanizer for use as alkylation unit feedstock.
 Table III:2-19 UNSAT GAS PLANT PROCESS
Feedstock From Process
Gas Oils FCC,TCC, Treatment
Delayed coker
HEALTH AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Fire Prevention and Protection
The potential of a fire exists should spills, releases, or vapors
reach a source of ignition.
Safety
In unsat gas plants handling FCC feedstocks, the potential
exists for corrosion from moist hydrogen sulfide and
cyanides. When feedstocks are from the delayed coker or the
TCC, corrosion from hydrogen sulfide and deposits in the
high pressure sections of gas compressors from ammonium
compounds is possible.
Health
Because these are closed processes, exposures are expected
to be minimal under normal operating conditions. There is a
potential for exposures to amine compounds such as
monoethanolamine (MEA), diethanolamine (DEA) and
methyldiethanolamine (MDEA) and hydrocarbons. Safe work
practices and/or appropriate personal protective equipment
may be needed for exposures to chemicals and other hazards
such as noise and heat, and during process sampling,
inspection, maintenance, and turnaround activities.
AMINE PLANTS
Amine plants remove acid contaminants from sour gas and
hydrocarbon streams. In amine plants, gas and liquid
hydrocarbon streams containing carbon dioxide and/or
hydrogen sulfide are charged to a gas absorption tower or
liquid contactor where the acid contaminants are absorbed by
III:2-44
Typical products.................. To
Gasoline................................ Recycle or treating
Gases..................................... Alkylation
counterflowing amine solutions (i.e., MEA, DEA, MDEA).
The stripped gas or liquid is removed overhead, and the
amine is sent to a regenerator. In the regenerator, the acidic
components are stripped by heat and reboiling action and
disposed of, and the amine is recycled.
HEALTH AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Fire Protection and Prevention
The potential for fire exists where a spill or leak could reach
a source of ignition.
Safety
To minimize corrosion, proper operating practices should be
established and regenerator bottom and reboiler temperatures
controlled. Oxygen should be kept out of the system to
prevent amine oxidation.
Health
Because this is a closed process, exposures are expected to be
minimal during normal operations. There is potential for
exposure to amine compounds (i.e., monoethanolamine,
diethanolamine, methyldiethanol-amine), hydrogen sulfide
and carbon dioxide. Safe work practices and/or appropriate
personal protective equipment may be needed for exposures
to chemicals and other hazards such as noise and heat, and
during process sampling, inspection, maintenance and
turnaround activities.
SATURATE GAS PLANTS
Saturate gas plants separate refinery gas components
including butanes for alkylation, pentanes for gasoline
blending, LPGs for fuel, and ethane for petrochemicals.
Because sat gas processes depend on the feedstock and
product demand, each refinery uses different systems, usually
absorption-fractionation or straight fractionation. In
absorption-fractionation, gases and liquids from various
refinery units are fed to an absorber-deethanizer where C2 and
lighter fractions are separated from heavier fractions by lean
oil absorption and removed for use as fuel gas or
petrochemical feed. The heavier fractions are stripped and
sent to a debutanizer, and the lean oil is recycled back to the
absorber-deethanizer. C3/C4 is separated from pentanes in the
debutanizer, scrubbed to remove hydrogen sulfide, and fed to
a splitter where propane and butane are separated. In
fractionation sat-gas plants, the absorption stage is
eliminated.
HEALTH AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Fire Protection and Prevention
There is potential for fire if a leak or release reaches a source
of ignition such as the unit reboiler.
Safety
Corrosion could occur from the presence of hydrogen sulfide,
carbon dioxide, and other compounds as a result of prior
treating. Streams containing ammonia should be dried before
processing. Antifouling additives may be used in absorption
oil to protect heat exchangers. Corrosion inhibitors may be
used to control corrosion in overhead systems.
Health
Because this is a closed process, exposures are expected to be
minimal during normal operations. There is potential for
exposure to hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, and other
III:2-45
products such as diethanolamine or sodium hydroxide carried
over from prior treating. Safe work practices and/or
appropriate personal protective equipment may be needed for
exposures to chemicals and other hazards such as noise and
heat, and during process sampling, inspection, maintenance,
and turnaround activities.
ASPHALT PRODUCTION
Asphalt is a portion of the residual fraction that remains after
primary distillation operations. It is further processed to
impart characteristics required by its final use. In vacuum
distillation, generally used to produce road-tar asphalt, the
residual is heated to about 750º F and charged to a column
where vacuum is applied to prevent cracking.
Asphalt for roofing materials is produced by air blowing.
Residual is heated in a pipe still almost to its flash point and
charged to a blowing tower where hot air is injected for a
predetermined time. The dehydrogen-ization of the asphalt
forms hydrogen sulfide, and the oxidation creates sulfur
dioxide. Steam, used to blanket the top of the tower to entrain
the various contaminants, is then passed through a scrubber
to condense the hydrocarbons.
A third process used to produce asphalt is solvent
deasphalting. In this extraction process, which uses propane
(or hexane) as a solvent, heavy oil fractions are separated to
produce heavy lubricating oil, catalytic cracking feedstock,
and asphalt. Feedstock and liquid propane are pumped to an
extraction tower at precisely controlled mixtures,
temperatures (150-250º F), and pressures of 350-600 psi.
Separation occurs in a rotating disc contactor, based on
differences in solubility. The products are then evaporated
and steam stripped to recover the propane, which is recycled.
Deasphalting also removes some sulfur and nitrogen
compounds, metals, carbon residues, and paraffins from the
feedstock.
 Table III:2-20. SOLVENT DEASPHALTING PROCESS
Feedstock From Process
Residual Vacuum tower Treatment
Atmospheric tower
Reduced crude
SAFETY AND HEALTH CONSIDERATIONS
Fire Protection and Prevention
The potential for a fire exists if a product leak or release
contacts a source of ignition such as the process heater.
Condensed steam from the various asphalt and deasphalting
processes will contain trace amounts of hydrocarbons. Any
disruption of the vacuum can result in the entry of
atmospheric air and subsequent fire. In addition, raising the
temperature of the vacuum tower bottom to improve
efficiency can generate methane by thermal cracking. This
can create vapors in asphalt storage tanks that are not
detectable by flash testing but are high enough to be
flammable.
Safety
Deasphalting requires exact temperature and pressure control.
In addition, moisture, excess solvent, or a drop in operating
temperature may cause foaming, which affects the product
temperature control and may create an upset.
Health
Because these are closed processes, exposures are expected
to be minimal during normal operations. Should a spill or
release occur, there is a potential for exposure to residuals
and asphalt. Air blowing can create some polynuclear
aromatics. Condensed steam from the air-blowing asphalt
process may also contain contaminants. The potential for
exposure to hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide exists in the
production of asphalt. Safe work
III:2-46
Typical products.....................To
Heavy lube oil..........................Treating or lube blending
Asphalt.....................................Storage or shipping
Deasphalted oil.........................Hydrotreat & catalytic cracker
Propane.....................................Recycle
practices and/or appropriate personal protective equipment
may be needed for exposures to chemicals and other hazards
such as noise and heat, and during process sampling,
inspection, maintenance, and turnaround activities.
HYDROGEN PRODUCTION
High-purity hydrogen (95-99%) is required for
hydro-desulfurization, hydrogenation, hydrocracking, and
petrochemical processes. Hydrogen, produced as a by-product
of refinery processes (principally hydrogen recovery from
catalytic reformer product gases), often is not enough to meet
the total refinery requirements, necessitating the
manufacturing of additional hydrogen or obtaining supply
from external sources.
In steam-methane reforming, desulfurized gases are mixed
with superheated steam (1,100-1,600º F) and reformed in
tubes containing a nickel base catalyst. The reformed gas,
which consists of steam, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and
carbon dioxide, is cooled and passed through converters
containing an iron catalyst where the carbon monoxide reacts
with steam to form carbon dioxide and more hydrogen. The
carbon dioxide is removed by amine washing. Any remaining
carbon monoxide in the product stream is converted to
methane.
Steam-naphtha reforming is a continuous process for the
production of hydrogen from liquid hydrocarbons and is, in
fact, similar to steam-methane reforming. A variety of
naphthas in the gasoline boiling range may be employed,
including fuel containing up to 35% aromatics. Following
pretreatment to
 Table III:2-21. STEAM REFORMING PROCESS
Feedstock From Process
Desulfurized Various Decomposition
refinery gas treatment
units
remove sulfur compounds, the feedstock is mixed with steam
and taken to the reforming furnace (1,250-1,500º F) where
hydrogen is produced.
HEALTH AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Fire Protection and Prevention
The possibility of fire exists should a leak or release occur
and reach an ignition source.
Safety
The potential exists for burns from hot gases and superheated
steam should a release occur. Inspections and testing should
be considered where the possibility exists for valve failure
due to contaminants in the hydrogen. Carryover from caustic
scrubbers should be controlled to prevent corrosion in
preheaters. Chlorides from the feedstock or steam system
should be prevented from entering reformer tubes and
contaminating the catalyst.
Health
Because these are closed processes, exposures are expected
to be minimal during normal operating conditions. There is a
potential for exposure to excess hydrogen, carbon monoxide,
and/or carbon dioxide. Condensate can be contaminated by
process materials such as caustics and amine compounds,
with resultant exposures. Depending on the specific process
used, safe work practices and/or appropriate personal
protective equipment may be needed for exposures to
chemicals and other
III:2-47
Typical products.....................To
Hydrogen.................................Processing
Carbon dioxide........................Atmosphere
Carbon monoxide....................Methane
hazards such as noise and heat, and during process sampling,
inspection, maintenance, and turnaround activities.
BLENDING
Blending is the physical mixture of a number of different
liquid hydrocarbons to produce a finished product with
certain desired characteristics. Products can be blended
in-line through a manifold system, or batch blended in tanks
and vessels. In-line blending of gasoline, distillates, jet fuel,
and kerosene is accomplished by injecting proportionate
amounts of each component into the main stream where
turbulence promotes thorough mixing. Additives including
octane enhancers, metal deactivators, anti-oxidants,
anti-knock agents, gum and rust inhibitors, detergents, etc. are
added during and/or after blending to provide specific
properties not inherent in hydrocarbons.
HEALTH AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Fire Prevention and Protection
Ignition sources in the area need to be controlled in the event
of a leak or release.
Health
Safe work practices and/or appropriate personal protective
equipment may be needed for exposures to chemicals and
other hazards such as noise and heat; when handling
additives; and during inspection, maintenance, and
turnaround activities.
LUBRICANT, WAX, AND GREASE phenol, etc.). In a typical phenol unit, the raffinate is mixed
with phenol in the treating section at temperatures below 400º
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
F. Phenol is then separated from the treated oil and recycled.
The treated lube-oil base stocks are then mixed and/or
Lubricating oils and waxes are refined from the residual
compounded with additives to meet the required physical and
fractions of atmospheric and vacuum distillation. The primary
chemical characteristics of motor oils, industrial lubricants,
objective of the various lubricating oil refinery processes is to
and metal working oils.
remove asphalts, sulfonated aromatics, and paraffinic and
isoparaffinic waxes from residual fractions. Reduced crude
GREASE COMPOUNDING
from the vacuum unit is deasphalted and combined with
straight-run lubricating oil feedstock, preheated, and
Grease is made by blending metallic soaps (salts of
solvent-extracted (usually with phenol or furfural) to produce
long-chained fatty acids) and additives into a lubricating oil
raffinate.
medium at temperatures of 400-600º F. Grease may be either
batch-produced or continuously compounded. The
WAX MANUFACTURING PROCESS
characteristics of the grease depend to a great extent on the
metallic element (calcium, sodium, aluminum, lithium, etc.)
Raffinate from the extraction unit contains a considerable
in the soap and the additives used.
amount of wax that must be removed by solvent extraction
and crystallization. The raffinate is mixed with a solvent
SAFETY AND HEALTH CONSIDERATIONS
(propane) and precooled in heat exchangers. The
crystallization temperature is attained by the evaporation of
Fire Protection and Prevention
propane in the chiller and filter feed tanks. The wax is
continuously removed by filters and cold solvent-washed to
The potential for fire exists if a product or vapor leak or
recover retained oil. The solvent is recovered from the oil by
release in the lube blending and wax processing areas reaches
flashing and steam stripping. The wax is then heated with hot
a source of ignition. Storage of finished products, both bulk
solvent, chilled, filtered, and given a final wash to remove all
and packaged, should be in accordance with recognized
oil.
practices.
LUBRICATING OIL PROCESS
While the potential for fire is reduced in lube oil blending,
care must be taken when making metal-working oils and
The dewaxed raffinate is blended with other distillate
compounding greases due to the use of higher blending and
fractions and further treated for viscosity index, color,
compounding temperatures and lower flash point products.
stability, carbon residue, sulfur, additive response, and
oxidation stability in extremely selective extraction processes
using solvents (furfural,

Table III:2-22 LUBRICATING OIL AND WAX MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Feedstock From Process Typical products................To

Lube Vacuum tower, solvent Treatment Dewaxed raffinate............. Lube blend or

compound
feedstock dewaxing, hydrotreating Grease compounding
and solvent extraction, etc. Wax............................... Storage or shipping
additives

III:2-48
Safety Health

Control of treater temperature is important as phenol can
cause corrosion above 400º F. Batch and in-line blending
operations require strict controls to maintain desired product
quality. Spills should be cleaned and leaks repaired to avoid
slips and falls. Additives in drums and bags need to be
handled properly to avoid strain. Wax can clog sewer or oil
drainage systems and interfere with wastewater treatment.
When blending, sampling, and compounding, personal
protection from steam, dusts, mists, vapors, metallic salts, and
other additives is appropriate. Skin contact with any
formulated grease or lubricant should be avoided. Safe work
practices and/or appropriate personal protection may be
needed for exposures to chemicals and other hazards such as
noise and heat; during inspection, maintenance, and
turnaround activities; and while sampling and handling
hydrocarbons and chemicals during the production of
lubricating oil and wax.

E. OTHER REFINERY OPERATIONS

HEAT EXCHANGERS, COOLERS, AND are water, alcohol/water mixtures, or various glycol solutions.
PROCESS HEATERS
HEALTH AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
HEATING OPERATIONS
Fire Protection and Prevention
Process heaters and heat exchangers preheat feedstocks in
A means of providing adequate draft or steam purging is
distillation towers and in refinery processes to reaction
required to reduce the chance of explosions when lighting
temperatures. Heat exchangers use either steam or hot
fires in heater furnaces. Specific start-up and emergency
hydrocarbon transferred from some other section of the
procedures are required for each type of unit. If fire impinges
process for heat input. The heaters are usually designed for
on fin fans, failure could occur due to overheating. If
specific process operations, and most are of cylindrical
flammable product escapes from a heat exchanger or cooler
vertical or box-type designs. The major portion of heat
due to a leak, fire could occur.
provided to process units comes from fired heaters fueled by
refinery or natural gas, distillate, and residual oils. Fired
Safety
heaters are found on crude and reformer preheaters, coker
heaters, and large-column reboilers.
Care must be taken to ensure that all pressure is removed
from heater tubes before removing header or fitting plugs.
COOLING OPERATIONS
Consideration should be given to providing for pressure relief
in heat-exchanger piping systems in the event they are
Heat also may be removed from some processes by air and
blocked off while full of liquid. If controls fail, variations of
water exchangers, fin fans, gas and liquid coolers, and
temperature and pressure could occur on either side of the
overhead condensers, or by transferring heat to other systems.
heat exchanger. If heat exchanger tubes fail and process
The basic mechanical vapor-compression refrigeration
pressure is greater than heater pressure, product could enter
system, which may serve one or more process units, includes
the heater with downstream consequences. If the process
an evaporator, compressor, condenser, controls, and piping.
pressure is less than heater
Common coolants

III:2-49
pressure, the heater stream could enter into the process fluid.
If loss of circulation occurs in liquid or gas coolers, increased
product temperature could affect downstream operations and
require pressure relief.
Health
Because these are closed systems, exposures under normal
operating conditions are expected to be minimal. Depending
on the fuel, process operation, and unit design, there is a
potential for exposure to hydrogen sulfide, carbon monoxide,
hydrocarbons, steam boiler feed-water sludge, and
water-treatment chemicals. Skin contact should be avoided
with boiler blowdown, which may contain phenolic
compounds. Safe work practices and/or appropriate personal
protective equipment against hazards may be needed during
process maintenance, inspection, and turnaround activities
and for protection from radiant heat, superheated steam, hot
hydrocarbon, and noise exposures.
STEAM GENERATION
HEATER AND BOILER OPERATIONS
Steam is generated in main generation plants, and/or at
various process units using heat from flue gas or other
sources. Heaters (furnaces) include burners and a combustion
air system, the boiler enclosure in which heat transfer takes
place, a draft or pressure system to remove flue gas from the
furnace, soot blowers, and compressed-air systems that seal
openings to prevent the escape of flue gas. Boilers consist of
a number of tubes that carry the water-steam mixture through
the furnace for maximum heat transfer. These tubes run
between steam-distribution drums at the top of the boiler and
water-collecting drums at the bottom of the boiler. Steam
flows from the steam drum to the superheater before entering
the steam distribution system.
HEATER FUEL
Heaters may use any one or combination of fuels including
refinery gas, natural gas, fuel oil, and powdered coal.
Refinery
III:2-50
off-gas is collected from process units and combined with
natural gas and LPG in a fuel-gas balance drum. The balance
drum provides constant system pressure, fairly stable
Btu-content fuel, and automatic separation of suspended
liquids in gas vapors, and it prevents carryover of large slugs
of condensate into the distribution system. Fuel oil is
typically a mix of refinery crude oil with straight-run and
cracked residues and other products. The fuel-oil system
delivers fuel to process-unit heaters and steam generators at
required temperatures and pressures. The fuel oil is heated to
pumping temperature, sucked through a coarse suction
strainer, pumped to a temperature-control heater, and then
pumped through a fine-mesh strainer before being burned.
In one example of process-unit heat generation, carbon
monoxide boilers recover heat in catalytic cracking units as
carbon monoxide in flue gas is burned to complete
combustion. In other processes, waste-heat recovery units
use heat from the flue gas to make steam.
STEAM DISTRIBUTION
The distribution system consists of valves, fittings, piping,
and connections suitable for the pressure of the steam
transported. Steam leaves the boilers at the highest pressure
required by the process units or electrical generation. The
steam pressure is then reduced in turbines that drive process
pumps and compressors. Most steam used in the refinery is
condensed to water in various types of heat exchangers. The
condensate is reused as boiler feedwater or discharged to
wastewater treatment. When refinery steam is also used to
drive steam turbine generators to produce electricity, the
steam must be produced at much higher pressure than
required for process steam. Steam typically is generated by
heaters (furnaces) and boilers combined in one unit.
FEEDWATER
Feedwater supply is an important part of steam generation.
There must always be as many pounds of water entering the
system as there are pounds of steam leaving it. Water used in
steam generation must be free of contaminants including
minerals and dissolved impurities that can damage the system
or affect its operation. Suspended materials such as silt,
sewage, and oil, which form scale and sludge, must be
coagulated or filtered out of the water. Dissolved gases,
particularly carbon dioxide and oxygen, cause boiler
corrosion and are removed by deaeration and treatment.
Dissolved minerals including metallic salts, calcium,
carbonates, etc., that cause scale, corrosion, and turbine blade
deposits are treated with lime or soda ash to precipitate them
from the water. Recirculated cooling water must also be
treated for hydrocarbons and other contaminants.
Depending on the characteristics of raw boiler feedwater,
some or all of the following six stages of treatment will be
applicable:
(1) Clarification
(2) Sedimentation
(3) Filtration
(4) Ion exchange
(5) Deaeration
(6) Internal treatment
HEALTH AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Fire Protection and Prevention
The most potentially hazardous operation in steam generation
is heater startup. A flammable mixture of gas and air can
build up as a result of loss of flame at one or more burners
during light-off. Each type of unit requires specific startup
and emergency procedures including purging before lightoff
and in the event of misfire or loss of burner flame.
Safety
If feedwater runs low and boilers are dry, the tubes will
overheat and fail. Conversely, excess water will be carried
over into the steam distribution system and damage the
turbines. Feedwater must be free of contaminants that could
affect operations. Boilers should have continuous or
intermittent blowdown systems to remove water from steam
drums and limit buildup of
III:2-51
scale on turbine blades and superheater tubes. Care must be
taken not to overheat the superheater during startup and
shut-down. Alternate fuel sources should be provided in the
event of loss of gas due to refinery unit shutdown or
emergency. Knockout pots provided at process units remove
liquids from fuel gas before burning.
Health
Safe work practices and/or appropriate personal protective
equipment may be needed for potential exposures to
feedwater chemicals, steam, hot water, radiant heat, and
noise, and during process sampling, inspection, maintenance,
and turnaround activities.
PRESSURE-RELIEF AND FLARE SYSTEMS
PRESSURE-RELIEF SYSTEMS
Pressure-relief systems control vapors and liquids that are
released by pressure-relieving devices and blow-downs.
Pressure relief is an automatic, planned release when
operating pressure reaches a predetermined level. Blowdown
normally refers to the intentional release of material, such as
blowdowns from process unit startups, furnace blowdowns,
shutdowns, and emergencies. Vapor depressuring is the rapid
removal of vapors from pressure vessels in case of fire. This
may be accom-plished by the use of a rupture disc, usually set
at a higher pressure than the relief valve.
SAFETY RELIEF VALVE OPERATIONS
Safety relief valves, used for air, steam, and gas as well as for
vapor and liquid, allow the valve to open in proportion to the
increase in pressure over the normal operating pressure.
Safety valves designed primarily to release high volumes of
steam usually pop open to full capacity. The overpressure
needed to open liquid-relief valves where large-volume
discharge is not required increases as the valve lifts due to
increased spring resistance. Pilot-operated safety relief valves,
with up to six times the capacity of normal relief valves, are
used where tighter
sealing and larger volume discharges are required. (3) Rapid vaporization and pressure
Nonvolatile liquids are usually pumped to oil-water increase from injection of a lower
separation and recovery systems, and volatile liquids are sent boiling-point liquid including water into
to units operating at a lower pressure. a process vessel operating at higher
temperatures.
FLARE SYSTEMS
(4) Expansion of vapor and resultant
A typical closed pressure release and flare system includes over-pressure due to overheated process
relief valves and lines from process units for collection of steam, malfunctioning heaters, or fire.
discharges, knockout drums to separate vapors and liquids,
seals, and/or purge gas for flashback protection, and a flare (5) Failure of automatic controls, closed
and igniter system which combusts vapors when discharging outlets, heat exchanger failure, etc.
directly to the atmosphere is not permitted. Steam may be
injected into the flare tip to reduce visible smoke. (6) Internal explosion, chemical reaction,
thermal expansion, or accumulated
PRESSURE RELIEF HEALTH AND SAFETY gases.
CONSIDERATIONS
Maintenance is important because valves are required to
Fire Protection and Prevention function properly. The most common operating problems are
listed below.
Vapors and gases must not discharge where sources of
ignition could be present. (1) Failure to open at set pressure, because
of plugging of the valve inlet or outlet,
Safety or because corrosion prevents proper
operation of the disc holder and guides.
Liquids should not be discharged directly to a vapor disposal
system. Flare knockout drums and flares need to be large (2) Failure to reseat after popping open due
enough to handle emergency blowdowns. Drums should be to fouling, corrosion, or deposits on the
provided with relief in the event of over pressure. seat or moving parts, or because solids in
the gas stream have cut the valve disc.
Pressure relief valves must be provided where the potential
exists for overpressure in refinery processes due to the (3) Chattering and premature opening,
following causes: because operating pressure is too close to
the set point.
(1) Loss of cooling water, which may greatly
reduce pressure in condensers and Health
increase the pressure in the process unit.
Safe work practices and/or appropriate personal protective
(2) Loss of reflux volume, which may cause equipment may be needed to protect against hazards during
a pressure drop in condensers and a inspection, maintenance, and turnaround activities.
pressure rise in distillation towers
because the quantity of reflux affects the WASTEWATER TREATMENT
volume of vapors leaving the distillation
tower. Wastewater treatment is used for process, runoff, and
sewerage water prior to discharge or recycling. Wastewater
typically contains hydrocarbons, dissolved materials,
suspended solids,

III:2-52
phenols, ammonia, sulfides, and other compounds.
Wastewater includes condensed steam, stripping water, spent
caustic solutions, cooling tower and boiler blowdown, wash
water, alkaline and acid waste neutralization water, and other
process-associated water.
PRETREATMENT OPERATIONS
Pretreatment is the separation of hydrocarbons and solids
from wastewater. API separators, interceptor plates, and
settling ponds remove suspended hydrocarbons, oily sludge,
and solids by gravity separation, skimming, and filtration.
Some oil-in-water emulsions must be heated first to assist in
separating the oil and the water. Gravity separation depends
on the specific gravity differences between water and
immiscible oil globules, which allows free oil to be skimmed
off the surface of the wastewater. Acidic wastewater is
neutralized using ammonia, lime, or soda ash. Alkaline
wastewater is treated with sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid,
carbon dioxide-rich flue gas, or sulfur.
SECONDARY TREATMENT OPERATIONS
After pretreatment, suspended solids are removed by
sedimentation or air flotation. Wastewater with low levels of
solids may be screened or filtered. Flocculation agents are
sometimes added to help separation. Secondary treatment
processes biologically degrade and oxidize soluble organic
matter by the use of activated sludge, unaerated or aerated
lagoons, trickling filter methods, or anaerobic treatments.
Materials with high adsorption characteristics are used in
fixed-bed filters or added to the wastewater to form a slurry
which is removed by sedimentation or filtration. Additional
treatment methods are used to remove oils and chemicals
from wastewater. Stripping is used on wastewater containing
sulfides and/or ammonia, and solvent extraction is used to
remove phenols.
TERTIARY TREATMENT OPERATIONS
Tertiary treatments remove specific pollutants to meet
regulatory discharge requirements. These treatments include
chlorination, ozonation, ion exchange, reverse osmosis,
III:2-53
activated carbon adsorption, etc. Compressed oxygen is
diffused into wastewater streams to oxidize certain chemicals
or to satisfy regulatory oxygen-content requirements.
Wastewater that is to be recycled may require cooling to
remove heat and/or oxidation by spraying or air stripping to
remove any remaining phenols, nitrates, and ammonia.
HEALTH AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Fire Protection and Prevention
The potential for fire exists if vapors from wastewater
containing hydrocarbons reach a source of ignition during
treatment.
Health
Safe work practices and/or appropriate personal protective
equipment may be needed for exposures to chemicals and
waste products during process sampling, inspection,
maintenance, and turnaround activities as well as to noise,
gases, and heat.
COOLING TOWERS
Cooling towers remove heat from process water by
evaporation and latent heat transfer between hot water and
air. The two types of towers are crossflow and counterflow.
Crossflow towers introduce the airflow at right angles to the
water flow throughout the structure. In counterflow cooling
towers, hot process water is pumped to the uppermost plenum
and allowed to fall through the tower. Numerous slats or
spray nozzles located throughout the length of the tower
disperse the water and help in cooling. Air enters at the tower
bottom and flows upward against the water. When the fans or
blowers are at the air inlet, the air is considered to be forced
draft. Induced draft is when the fans are at the air outlet.
COOLING WATER
Recirculated cooling water must be treated to remove
impurities and dissolved hydrocarbons. Because the water is
saturated with oxygen from being cooled with air, the chances
for corrosion are increased. One means of corrosion
prevention is the addition of a material to the cooling water
that forms a protective film on pipes and other metal surfaces.
HEALTH AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Fire Prevention and Protection
When cooling water is contaminated by hydrocarbons,
flammable vapors can be evaporated into the discharge air.
If a source of ignition is present, or if lightning occurs, a fire
may start. A potential fire hazard also exists where there are
relatively dry areas in induced-draft cooling towers of
combustible construction.
Safety
Loss of power to cooling tower fans or water pumps could
have serious consequences in the operation of the refinery.
Impurities in cooling water can corrode and foul pipes and
heat exchangers, scale from dissolved salts can deposit on
pipes, and wooden cooling towers can be damaged by
microorganisms.
Health
Cooling-tower water can be contaminated by process
materials and by-products including sulfur dioxide, hydrogen
sulfide, and carbon dioxide, with resultant exposures. Safe
work practices and/or appropriate personal protective
equipment may be needed during process sampling,
inspection, maintenance, and turnaround activities; and for
exposure to hazards such as those related to noise,
water-treatment chemicals, and hydrogen sulfide when
wastewater is treated in conjunction with cooling towers.
III:2-54
ELECTRIC POWER
Refineries may receive electricity from outside sources or
produce their own power with generators driven by steam
turbines or gas engines. Electrical substations receive power
from the utility or power plant for distribution throughout the
facility. They are usually located in nonclassified areas, away
from sources of vapor or cooling-tower water spray.
Transformers, circuit breakers, and feed-circuit switches are
usually located in substations. Substations feed power to
distribution stations within the process unit areas.
Distribution stations can be located in classified areas,
providing that classification requirements are met.
Distribution stations usually have a liquid-filled transformer
and an oil-filled or air-break disconnect device.
HEALTH AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Fire Protection and Prevention
Generators that are not properly classified and are located too
close to process units may be a source of ignition should a
spill or release occur.
Safety
Normal electrical safety precautions including dry footing,
high-voltage warning signs, and guarding must be taken to
protect against electrocution. Lockout/tagout and other
appropriate safe work practices must be established to prevent
energization while work is being performed on high-voltage
electrical equipment.
Health
Safe work practices and/or the use of appropriate personal
protective equipment may be needed for exposures to noise,
for exposure to hazards during inspection and maintenance
activities, and when working around transformers and
switches that may contain a dielectric fluid which requires
special handling precautions.
GAS AND AIR COMPRESSORS
Both reciprocating and centrifugal compressors are used
throughout the refinery for gas and compressed air. Air
compressor systems include compressors, coolers, air
receivers, air dryers, controls, and distribution piping.
Blowers are used to provide air to certain processes. Plant air
is provided for the operation of air-powered tools, catalyst
regeneration, process heaters, steam-air decoking, sour-water
oxidation, gasoline sweetening, asphalt blowing, and other
uses. Instrument air is provided for use in pneumatic
instruments and controls, air motors and purge connections.
HEALTH AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Fire Protection and Prevention
Air compressors should be located so that the suction does
not take in flammable vapors or corrosive gases. There is a
potential for fire should a leak occur in gas compressors.
Safety
Knockout drums are needed to prevent liquid surges from
entering gas compressors. If gases are contaminated with
solid materials, strainers are needed. Failure of automatic
compressor controls will affect processes. If maximum
pressure could potentially be greater than compressor or
process-equipment design pressure, pressure relief should be
provided. Guarding is needed for exposed moving parts on
compressors. Compressor buildings should be properly
electrically classified, and provisions should be made for
proper ventilation.
Where plant air is used to back up instrument air,
interconnections must be upstream of the instrument air
drying system to prevent contamination of instruments with
moisture. Alternate sources of instrument air supply, such as
use of nitrogen, may be needed in the event of power outages
or compressor failure.
III:2-55
Health
Safe work practices and/or appropriate personal protective
equipment may be needed for exposure to hazards such as
noise and during inspection and maintenance activities. The
use of appropriate safeguards must be considered so that plant
and instrument air is not used for breathing or pressuring
potable water systems.
MARINE, TANK CAR, AND TANK TRUCK
LOADING and UNLOADING
Facilities for loading liquid hydrocarbons into tank cars, tank
trucks, and marine vessels and barges are usually part of the
refinery operations. Product characteristics, distribution
needs, shipping requirements, and operating criteria are
important when designing loading facilities. Tank trucks and
rail tank cars are either top- or bottom-loaded, and
vapor-recovery systems may be provided where required.
Loading and unloading liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) require
special considerations in addition to those for liquid
hydrocarbons.
HEALTH AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Fire Protection and Prevention
The potential for fire exists where flammable vapors from
spills or releases can reach a source of ignition. Where
switch-loading is permitted, safe practices need to be
established and followed. Bonding is used to equalize the
electrical charge between the loading rack and the tank truck
or tank car. Grounding is used at truck and rail loading
facilities to prevent flow of stray currents. Insulating flanges
are used on marine dock piping connections to prevent static
electricity buildup and discharge. Flame arrestors should be
installed in loading rack and marine vapor-recovery lines to
prevent flashback.
Safety
Automatic or manual shutoff systems at supply headers are
needed for top and bottom loading in the event of leaks or
overfills. Fall protection such as railings are needed for
top-loading racks where employees are exposed to falls.
Drainage and recovery systems may be provided for storm
drainage and to handle spills and leaks. Precautions must be
taken at LPG loading facilities not to overload or
overpressurize tank cars and trucks.
Health
The nature of the health hazards at loading and unloading
facilities depends upon the products being loaded and the
products previously transported in the tank cars, tank trucks,
or marine vessels. Safe work practices and/or appropriate
personal protective equipment may be needed to protect
against hazardous exposures when loading or unloading,
cleaning up spills or leaks, or when gauging, inspecting,
sampling, or performing maintenance activities on loading
facilities or vapor-recovery systems.
TURBINES
Turbines are usually gas- or steam-powered and are typically
used to drive pumps, compressors, blowers, and other refinery
process equipment. Steam enters turbines at high
temperatures and pressures, expands across and drives
rotating blades while directed by fixed blades.
HEALTH AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Safety
Steam turbines used for exhaust operating under vacuum
should have safety relief valves on the discharge side, both
for protection and to maintain steam in the event of vacuum
failure. Where maximum operating pressure could be greater
than design pressure, steam turbines should be provided with
relief
III:2-56
devices. Consideration should be given to providing
governors and overspeed control devices on turbines.
Health
Safe work practices and/or appropriate personal protective
equipment may be needed for noise, steam and heat
exposures, and during inspection and maintenance activities.
PUMPS, PIPING AND VALVES
Centrifugal and positive-displacement (i.e., reciprocating)
pumps are used to move hydrocarbons, process water, fire
water, and wastewater through piping within the refinery.
Pumps are driven by electric motors, steam turbines, or
internal combustion engines. The pump type, capacity, and
construction materials depend on the service for which it is
used.
Process and utility piping distribute hydrocarbons, steam,
water, and other products throughout the facility. Their size
and construction depend on the type of service, pressure,
temperature, and nature of the products. Vent, drain, and
sample connections are provided on piping, as well as
provisions for blanking.
Different types of valves are used depending on their
operating purpose. These include gate valves, bypass valves,
globe and ball valves, plug valves, block and bleed valves,
and check valves. Valves can be manually or automatically
operated.
HEALTH AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Fire Protection and Prevention
The potential for fire exists should hydrocarbon pumps,
valves, or lines develop leaks that could allow vapors to reach
sources of ignition. Remote sensors, control valves, fire
valves, and isolation valves should be used to limit the release
of hydrocarbons at pump suction lines in the event of leakage
and /or fire.
Safety
Depending on the product and service, backflow prevention
from the discharge line may be needed. The failure of
automatic pump controls could cause a deviation in process
pressure and temperature. Pumps operated with reduced or no
flow can overheat and rupture. Pressure relief in the discharge
piping should be provided where pumps can be
overpressured. Provisions may be made for pipeline
expansion, movement, and temperature changes to avoid
rupture. Valves and instruments that require servicing or
other work should be accessible at grade level or from an
operating platform. Operating vent and drain connections
should be provided with double-block valves, a block valve
and plug, or blind flange for protection against releases.
Health
Safe work practices and/or appropriate personal pro-tective
equipment may be needed for exposure to haz-ards such as
those related to liquids and vapors when opening or draining
pumps, valves, and/or lines, and during product sampling,
inspection, and maintenance activities.
TANK STORAGE
Atmospheric storage tanks and pressure storage tanks are
used throughout the refinery for storage of crudes,
intermediate
III:2-57
hydrocarbons (during the process), and finished products.
Tanks are also provided for fire water, process and treatment
water, acids, additives, and other chemicals. The type,
construction, capacity and location of tanks depends on their
use and materials stored.
HEALTH AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Fire Prevention and Protection
The potential for fire exists should hydrocarbon storage tanks
be overfilled or develop leaks that allow vapors to escape and
reach sources of ignition. Remote sensors,control valves,
isolation valves, and fire valves may be provided at tanks for
pump-out or closure in the event of a fire in the tank, or in the
tank dike or storage area.
Safety
Tanks may be provided with automatic overflow control and
alarm systems, or manual gauging and checking procedures
may be established to control overfills.
Health
Safe work practices and/or appropriate personal protective
equipment may be needed for exposure to hazards related to
product sampling, manual gauging, inspection, and
maintenance activities including confined-space entry where
applicable.
F. BIBLIOGRAPHY
American Petroleum Institute. 1971. Chemistry and
Petroleum for Classroom Use in Chemistry
Courses. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum
Institute.
__________. 1973. Industrial Hygiene Monitoring Manual
for Petroleum Refineries and Selected
P e t r o c h e mica l Op era t i o n s . Manual
2700-1/79-1M. Washington, D.C.: American
Petroleum Institute.
__________. 1980. Facts About Oil. Manual
4200-10/80-25M. Washington, D.C.: American
Petroleum Institute.
__________. 1990. Management of Process Hazards. RP
750. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum
Institute.
__________. 1990. Inspection of Piping, Tubing, Valves
and
Fittings. RP 574. Washington, D.C.: American
Petroleum Institute.
__________. 1991. Inspection of Fired Boilers and Heaters.
RP 573. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum
Institute.
__________. 1992. Inspection of Pressure Vessels. RP 572.
Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute.
__________. 1992. Inspection of Pressure Relieving
Devices
RP 576. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum
Institute.
__________. 1994. Fire Protection in Refineries. Sixth
Edition. RP 2001. Washington, D.C.: American
Petroleum Institute.
Armistead, George, Jr. 1950. Safety in Petroleum Refining
and Related Industries. New York: John G.
Simmons & Co., Inc.
III:2-58
Exxon Company, USA. 1987. Encyclopedia for the User of
Petroleum Products. Lubetext D400. Houston:
Exxon Company, USA.
Hydrocarbon Processing. 1988. Refining Handbook.
Houston: Gulf Publishing Co.
__________. 1992. Refining Handbook. Houston: Gulf
Publishing Co.
IARC. [No date given.] Occupational Exposures in
Petroleum
Refining. IARC Monographs, Volume 45.
Kutler, A. A. 1969. "Crude distillation." Petro/Chem
Engineering. New York: John G. Simmonds &
Co., Inc.
Mobil Oil Corporation. 1972. Light Products Refining,
Fuels
Manufacture. Mobil Technical Bulletin, 1972.
Fairfax, Virginia: Mobil Oil Corporation.
Parmeggiani, Luigi, Technical Editor. 1983. Encyclopaedia
of
Occupational Health and Safety. Third Edition.
Geneva: International Labour Organization.
Shell International Petroleum Company Limited. 1983. The
Petroleum Handbook. Sixth Edition. Amsterdam:
Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.
Speight, James G. 1980. The Chemistry and Terminology of
Petroleum. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.
Vervalin, Charles H., Editor. 1985. Fire Protection Manual
for Hydrocarbon Processing Plants. Volume 1,
Third edition. Houston: Gulf Publishing Co.
APPENDIX III:2-1. GLOSSARY
ABSORPTION The disappearance of one substance into
another so that the absorbed substance loses its identifying
characteristics, while the absorbing substance retains most of
its original physical aspects. Used in refining to selectively
remove specific components from process streams.
ACID TREATMENT A process in which unfinished
petroleum products such as gasoline, kerosene, and
lubricating oil stocks are treated with sulfuric acid to improve
color, odor, and other properties.
ADDITIVE Chemicals added to petroleum products in small
amounts to improve quality or add special characteristics.
ADSORPTION Adhesion of the molecules of gases or
liquids to the surface of solid materials.
AIR FIN COOLERS A radiator-like device used to cool or
condense hot hydrocarbons; also called fin fans.
ALICYCLIC HYDROCARBONS Cyclic (ringed)
hydrocarbons in which the rings are made up only of carbon
atoms.
ALIPHATIC HYDROCARBONS Hydrocarbons
characterized by open-chain structures: ethane, butane,
butene, acetylene, etc.
ALKYLATION A process using sulfuric or hydro-fluoric
acid as a catalyst to combine olefins (usually butylene) and
isobutane to produce a high-octane product known as
alkylate.
API GRAVITY An arbitrary scale expressing the density of
petroleum products.
AROMATIC Organic compounds with one or more benzene
rings.
III:2-59
ASPHALTENES The asphalt compounds soluble in carbon
disulfide but insoluble in paraffin naphthas.
ATMOSPHERIC TOWER A distillation unit operated at
atmospheric pressure.
BENZENE An unsaturated, six-carbon ring, basic aromatic
compound.
BLEEDER VALVE A small-flow valve connected to a fluid
process vessel or line for the purpose of bleeding off small
quantities of contained fluid. It is installed with a block valve
to determine if the block valve is closed tightly.
BLENDING The process of mixing two or more petroleum
products with different properties to produce a finished
product with desired characteristics.
BLOCK VALVE A valve used to isolate equipment.
BLOWDOWN The removal of hydrocarbons from a process
unit, vessel, or line on a scheduled or emergency basis by the
use of pressure through special piping and drums provided for
this purpose.
BLOWER Equipment for moving large volumes of gas
against low-pressure heads.
BOILING RANGE The range of temperature (usually at
atmospheric pressure) at which the boiling (or distillation) of
a hydrocarbon liquid commences, proceeds, and finishes.
BOTTOMS Tower bottoms are residue remaining in a
distillation unit after the highest boiling-point material to be
distilled has been removed. Tank bottoms are the heavy
materials that accumulate in the bottom of storage tanks,
usually comprised of oil, water, and foreign matter.
BUBBLE TOWER A fractionating (distillation) tower in
which the rising vapors pass through layers of condensate,
bubbling under caps on a series of plates.
CATALYST A material that aids or promotes a chemical
reaction between other substances but does not react itself.
Catalysts increase reaction speeds and can provide control by
increasing desirable reactions and decreasing undesirable
reactions.
CATALYTIC CRACKING The process of breaking up
heavier hydrocarbon molecules into lighter hydrocarbon
fractions by use of heat and catalysts.
CAUSTIC WASH A process in which distillate is treated
with sodium hydroxide to remove acidic contaminants that
contribute to poor odor and stability.
CHD UNIT See Hydrodesulfurization.
COKE A high carbon-content residue remaining from the
destructive distillation of petroleum residue.
COKING A process for thermally converting and upgrading
heavy residual into lighter products and by-product petroleum
coke. Coking also is the removal of all lighter distillable
hydrocarbons that leaves a residue of carbon in the bottom of
units or as buildup or deposits on equipment and catalysts.
CONDENSATE The liquid hydrocarbon resulting from
cooling vapors.
CONDENSER A heat-transfer device that cools and
condenses vapor by removing heat via a cooler medium such
as water or lower-temperature hydrocarbon streams.
CONDENSER REFLUX Condensate that is returned to the
original unit to assist in giving increased conversion or
recovery.
COOLER A heat exchanger in which hot liquid
hydrocarbon is passed through pipes immersed in cool water
to lower its temperature.
III:2-60
CRACKING The breaking up of heavy molecular-weight
hydrocarbons into lighter hydrocarbon molecules by the
application of heat and pressure, with or without the use of
catalysts.
CRUDE ASSAY A procedure for determining the general
distillation and quality characteristics of crude oil.
CRUDE OIL A naturally occurring mixture of hydrocarbons
that usually includes small quantities of sulfur, nitrogen, and
oxygen derivatives of hydrocarbons as well as trace metals.
CYCLE GAS OIL Cracked gas oil returned to a cracking
unit.
DEASPHALTING Process of removing asphaltic materials
from reduced crude using liquid propane to dissolve
nonasphaltic compounds.
DEBUTANIZER A fractionating column used to remove
butane and lighter components from liquid streams.
DE-ETHANIZER A fractionating column designed to
remove ethane and gases from heavier hydrocarbons.
DEHYDROGENATION A reaction in which hydro-gen
atoms are eliminated from a molecule. Dehydro-genation is
used to convert ethane, propane, and butane into olefins
(ethylene, propylene, and butenes).
DEPENTANIZER A fractionating column used to remove
pentane and lighter fractions from hydrocarbon streams.
DEPROPANIZER A fractionating column for removing
propane and lighter components from liquid streams.
DESALTING Removal of mineral salts (most chlorides,
e.g., magnesium chloride and sodium chloride) from crude
oil.
DESULFURIZATION A chemical treatment to remove
sulfur or sulfur compounds from hydrocarbons.
DEWAXING The removal of wax from petroleum products
(usually lubricating oils and distillate fuels) by solvent
absorption, chilling, and filtering.
DIETHANOLAMINE A chemical (C4H11O2N) used to
remove H2S from gas streams.
DISTILLATE The products of distillation formed by
condensing vapors.
DOWNFLOW Process in which the hydrocarbon stream
flows from top to bottom.
DRY GAS Natural gas with so little natural gas liquids that
it is nearly all methane with some ethane.
FEEDSTOCK Stock from which material is taken to be fed
(charged) into a processing unit.
FLASHING The process in which a heated oil under
pressure is suddenly vaporized in a tower by reducing
pressure.
FLASH POINT Lowest temperature at which a petroleum
product will give off sufficient vapor so that the vapor-air
mixture above the surface of the liquid will propagate a flame
away from the source of ignition.
FLUX Lighter petroleum used to fluidize heavier residual so
that it can be pumped.
FOULING Accumulation of deposits in condensers,
exchangers, etc.
FRACTION One of the portions of fractional distillation
having a restricted boiling range.
FRACTIONATING COLUMN Process unit that separates
various fractions of petroleum by simple distillation, with the
column tapped at various levels to separate and remove
fractions according to their boiling ranges.
FUEL GAS Refinery gas used for heating.
III:2-61
GAS OIL Middle-distillate petroleum fraction with a boiling
range of about 350-750º F, usually includes diesel fuel,
kerosene, heating oil, and light fuel oil.
GASOLINE A blend of naphthas and other refinery
products with sufficiently high octane and other desirable
characteristics to be suitable for use as fuel in internal
combustion engines.
HEADER A manifold that distributes fluid from a series of
smaller pipes or conduits.
HEAT As used in the Health Considerations sections of this
document, heat refers to thermal burns for contact with hot
surfaces, hot liquids and vapors, steam, etc.
HEAT EXCHANGER Equipment to transfer heat between
two flowing streams of different temperatures. Heat is
transferred between liquids or liquids and gases through a
tubular wall.
HIGH-LINE OR HIGH-PRESSURE GAS High-pressure
(100 psi) gas from cracking unit distillate drums that is
compressed and combined with low-line gas as gas
absorption feedstock.
HYDROCRACKING A process used to convert heavier
feedstocks into lower-boiling, higher-value products. The
process employs high pressure, high temperature, a catalyst,
and hydrogen.
HYDRODESULFURIZATION A catalytic process in
which the principal purpose is to remove sulfur from
petroleum fractions in the presence of hydrogen.
HYDROFINISHING A catalytic treating process carried
out in the presence of hydrogen to improve the properties of
low viscosity-index naphthenic and medium viscosity-index
naphthenic oils. It is also applied to paraffin waxes and
microcrystalline waxes for the removal of undesirable
components. This process consumes hydrogen and is used in
lieu of acid treating.
HYDROFORMING Catalytic reforming of naphtha at
elevated temperatures and moderate pressures in the presence
of hydrogen to form high-octane BTX aromatics for motor
fuel or chemical manufacture. This process results in a net
production of hydrogen and has rendered thermal reforming
somewhat obsolete. It represents the total effect of numerous
simultaneous reactions such as cracking, polymerization,
dehydrogenation, and isomerization.
HYDROGENATION The chemical addition of hydrogen to
a material in the presence of a catalyst.
INHIBITOR Additive used to prevent or retard undesirable
changes in the quality of the product, or in the condition of
the equipment in which the product is used.
ISOMERIZATION A reaction that catalytically converts
straight-chain hydrocarbon molecules into branched-chain
molecules of substantially higher octane number. The
reaction rearranges the carbon skeleton of a molecule without
adding or removing anything from the original material.
ISO-OCTANE A hydrocar b o n mo l ecu l e
(2,2,4-trimethylpentane) with excellent antiknock
characteristics on which the octane number of 100 is based.
KNOCKOUT DRUM A vessel wherein suspended liquid is
separated from gas or vapor.
LEAN OIL Absorbent oil fed to absorption towers in which
gas is to be stripped. After absorbing the heavy ends from the
gas, it becomes fat oil. When the heavy ends are subsequently
stripped, the solvent again becomes lean oil.
LOW-LINE or LOW-PRESSURE GAS Low-pressure (5
psi) gas from atmospheric and vacuum distillation recovery
systems that is collected in the gas plant for compression to
higher pressures.
NAPHTHA A general term used for low boiling
hydrocarbon fractions that are a major component of
gasoline. Aliphatic naphtha refers to those naphthas
containing less than 0.1% benzene and with carbon numbers
from C3 through C16. Aromatic naphthas have carbon
numbers from C6 through C16 and contain significant
quantities of aromatic hydrocarbons such as benzene
(>0.1%), toluene, and xylene.
III:2-62
NAPHTHENES Hydrocarbons (cycloalkanes) with the
general formula CnH2n, in which the carbon atoms are
arranged to form a ring.
OCTANE NUMBER A number indicating the relative
antiknock characteristics of gasoline.
OLEFINS A family of unsaturated hydrocarbons with one
carbon-carbon double bond and the general formula CnH2n.
PARAFFINS A family of saturated aliphatic hydrocarbons
(alkanes) with the general formula CnH2n+2.
POLYFORMING The thermal conversion of naphtha and
gas oils into high-quality gasoline at high temperatures and
pressure in the presence of recirculated hydrocarbon gases.
POLYMERIZATION The process of combining two or
more unsaturated organic molecules to form a single (heavier)
molecule with the same elements in the same proportions as
in the original molecule.
PREHEATER Exchanger used to heat hydrocarbons before
they are fed to a unit.
PRESSURE-REGULATING VALVE A valve that releases
or holds process-system pressure (that is, opens or closes)
either by preset spring tension or by actuation by a valve
controller to assume any desired position between fully open
and fully closed.
PYROLYSIS GASOLINE A by-product from the
manufacture of ethylene by steam cracking of hydrocarbon
fractions such as naphtha or gas oil.
PYROPHORIC IRON SULFIDE A substance typically
formed inside tanks and processing units by the corrosive
interaction of sulfur compounds in the hydrocarbons and the
iron and steel in the equipment. On exposure to air (oxygen)
it ignites spontaneously.
QUENCH OIL Oil injected into a product leaving a
cracking or reforming heater to lower the temperature and
stop the cracking process.
RAFFINATE The product resulting from a solvent
extraction process and consisting mainly of those components
that are least soluble in the solvents. The product recovered
from an extraction process is relatively free of aromatics,
naphthenes, and other constituents that adversely affects
physical parameters.
REACTOR The vessel in which chemical reactions take
place during a chemical conversion type of process.
REBOILER An auxiliary unit of a fractionating tower
designed to supply additional heat to the lower portion of the
tower.
RECYCLE GAS High hydrogen-content gas returned to a
unit for reprocessing.
REDUCED CRUDE A residual product remaining after the
removal by distillation of an appreciable quantity of the more
volatile components of crude oil.
REFLUX The portion of the distillate returned to the
fractionating column to assist in attaining better separation
into desired fractions.
REFORMATE An upgraded naphtha resulting from
catalytic or thermal reforming.
REFORMING The thermal or catalytic conversion of
petroleum naphtha into more volatile products of higher
octane number. It represents the total effect of numerous
simultaneous reactions such as cracking, polymerization,
dehydrogenation, and isomerization.
REGENERATION In a catalytic process the reactivation of
the catalyst, sometimes done by burning off the coke deposits
III:2-63
under carefully controlled conditions of temperature and
oxygen content of the regeneration gas stream.
SCRUBBING Purification of a gas or liquid by washing it
in a tower.
SOLVENT EXTRACTION The separation of materials of
different chemical types and solubilities by selective solvent
action.
SOUR GAS Natural gas that contains corrosive,
sulfur-bearing compounds such as hydrogen sulfide and
mercaptans.
STABILIZATION A process for separating the gaseous and
more volatile liquid hydrocarbons from crude petroleum or
gasoline and leaving a stable (less-volatile) liquid so that it
can be handled or stored with less change in composition.
STRAIGHT-RUN GASOLINE Gasoline produced by the
primary distillation of crude oil. It contains no cracked,
polymerized, alkylated, reformed, or visbroken stock.
STRIPPING The removal (by steam-induced vaporization
or flash evaporation) of the more volatile components from a
cut or fraction.
SULFURIC ACID TREATING A refining process in
which unfinished petroleum products such as gasoline,
kerosene, and lubricating oil stocks are treated with sulfuric
acid to improve their color, odor, and other characteristics.
SULFURIZATION Combining sulfur compounds with
petroleum lubricants.
SWEETENING Processes that either remove obnoxious
sulfur compounds (primarily hydrogen sulfide, mercaptans,
and thiophens) from petroleum fractions or streams, or
convert them, as in the case of mercaptans, to odorless
disulfides to improve odor, color, and oxidation stability.
SWITCH LOADING The loading of a high static-charge
retaining hydrocarbon (i.e., diesel fuel) into a tank truck, tank
car, or other vessel that has previously contained a low-flash
hydrocarbon (gasoline) and may contain a flammable mixture
of vapor and air.
TAIL GAS The lightest hydrocarbon gas released from a
refining process.
THERMAL CRACKING The breaking up of heavy oil
molecules into lighter fractions by the use of high temperature
without the aid of catalysts.
TURNAROUND A planned complete shutdown of an entire
process or section of a refinery, or of an entire refinery to
perform major maintenance, overhaul, and repair operations
and to inspect, test, and replace process materials and
equipment.
VACUUM DISTILLATION The distillation of petroleum
under vacuum which reduces the boiling temperature
sufficiently to prevent cracking or decomposition of the
feedstock.
VAPOR The gaseous phase of a substance that is a liquid at
normal temperature and pressure.
VISBREAKING Viscosity breaking is a low-temperature
cracking process used to reduce the viscosity or pour point of
straight-run residuum.
WET GAS A gas containing a relatively high proportion of
hydrocarbons that are recoverable as liquids.

III:2-64
 SECTION III: CHAPTER 3
PRESSURE VESSEL GUIDELINES
A. INTRODUCTION
Recent inspection programs for metallic pressure containment
vessels and tanks have revealed cracking and damage in a
considerable number of the vessels inspected.
Safety and hazard evaluations of pressure vessels, as also
presented in PUB 8-1.5, need to consider the consequences
of a leakage or a rupture failure of a vessel.
Two consequences result from a complete rupture:
@ Blast effects due to sudden expansion of the
pressurized fluid; and
@ Fragmentation damage and injury, if vessel rupture
occurs.
A. Introduction.........................................III:3-1
B. Recent Cracking Experience in
Pressure Vessels..........................III:3-2
C. Nondestructive Examiniation
Methods.......................................III:3-6
D. Information for Safety
Assessment..................................III:3-9
E. Bibliography........................................III:3-9
Appendix II:3-1. Recordkeeping Data
for Steel Vessels and Low-
Pressure Storage Tanks..........III:3-10
III:3-1
For a leakage failure, the hazard consequences can range from
no effect to very serious effects:
@ Suffocation or poisoning, depending on the nature of
the contained fluid, if the leakage occurs into a closed
space;
@ Fire and explosion for a flammable fluid are
included as a physical hazard; and
@ Chemical and thermal burns from contact with
process liquids.
Only pressure vessels and low pressure storage tanks widely
used in process, pulp and paper, petroleum refining, and
petrochemical industries and for water treatment systems of
boilers and steam generation equipment are covered in this
chapter. Excluded are vessels and tanks used in many other
applications and also excludes other parts of a pressure
containment system such as piping and valves.
The types and applications of pressure vessels included and
excluded in this chapter are summarized in Table III:3-1. An
illustration of a schematic pressure vessel is presented in
Figure III:3-1.
NOTE: Though this review of pressure vessels excludes
inspection or evaluation of safety release valves, the
compliance officer should be aware that NO valves or
T-fittings should be present between the vessel and the
safety relief valve.
Pressure Vessel Design Codes. Most of the pressure or
storage vessels in service in the United States will have been
designed and constructed in accordance with one of the
following two design codes:
@ The ASME Code, or Section VIII of the ASME
(American Society of Mechanical Engineers) Boiler
and Pressure Vessel Code; or
@ The API Standard 620 or the American Petroleum
Institute Code which provides rules for lower
pressure vessels not covered by the ASME Code.
TABLE III:3-1. VESSEL TYPES
Vessels included:
Stationary and unfired
Used for pressure containment of
gases and liquids
Constructed of carbon steel or
low alloy steel
Operated at temperatures between
-75 and 315 C (-100 and 600 F)
B. RECENT CRACKING EXPERIENCE IN PRESSURE VESSELS
DEAERATOR SERVICE
Deaeration refers to the removal of noncondensible gases,
primarily oxygen, from the water used in a steam generation
system.
In addition, some vessels designed and constructed between
1934 to 1956 may have used the rules in the "API-ASME
Code for Unfired Pressure Vessels for Petroleum Liquids and
Gases." This code was discontinued in 1956.
Vessels certification can only be performed by trained
inspectors qualified for each code. Written tests and
practical experience are required for certification. Usually,
the compliance office is not equipped for this task, but is able
to obtain the necessary contract services.
Vessel types specifically excluded:
Vessels used as fired boilers
Vessels used in high-temperature processes
(above 315 C, 600 F) or at very low and cryogenic temperatures
Vessels and containers used in transportable systems
Storage tanks that operate at nominally atmospheric
pressure
Piping and pipelines
Safety and pressure-relief valves
Special-purpose vessels, such as those for human occupancy.
Deaerators are widely used in many industrial applications
including power generation, pulp and paper, chemical, and
petroleum refining and in many public facilities such as
hospitals and schools where steam generation is required. In
actual practice, the deaerator vessel can be separate from the
III:3-2
 Figure III:3-1. Some Major Parts of a Pressure Vessel
storage vessel or combined with a storage vessel into one
unit.
Typical operational conditions for deaerator vessels range up
to about 300 psi and up to about 150 C (300 F). Nearly all
of the vessels are designed to ASME Code resulting in vessel
wall thicknesses up to but generally less than 25 mm (1 in).
The vessel material is almost universally one of the carbon
steel grades.
Analysis of incident survey data and other investigations has
determined the following features about the deaerator vessel
cracking.
@ Water hammer is the only design or operational
factor that correlates with cracking.
@ Cracking is generally limited to weld regions of
vessels that had not been postweld heat treated.
@ Corrosion fatigue appears to be the predominant
mechanism of crack formation and growth.
III:3-3
The failures and the survey results have prompted TAPPI
(Technical Association of Pulp and Paper Industry), the
National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors, and
NACE (National Association of Corrosion Engineers) to
prepare inspection, operation and repair recommendations.
For inspection, all recommendations suggest:
@ Special attention to the internal surface of all welds
and heat-affected zones (HAZ); and
@ Use of the wet fluorescent magnetic particle (WFMT)
method for inspection.
The TAPPI and the NACE recommendations also contain
additional items, such as:
@ Inspection by personnel certified to American Society
for Nondestructive Testing's SNT-TC-1A minimum
Level I and interpretation of the results by minimum
Level II; and
@ Reinspection within one year for repaired vessels, 1-2
years for vessels with discontinuities but unrepaired,
 and 3-5 years for vessels found free of discontinuities.
AMINE SERVICE
The amine process is used to remove hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
from petroleum gases such as propane and butane. It is also
used for carbon dioxide (CO2) removal in some processes.
Amine is a generic term and includes monoethanolamine
(MEA), diethanolamine (DEA) and others in the amine
group. These units are used in petroleum refinery, gas
treatment and chemical plants.
The operating temperatures of the amine process are generally
in the 38 to 93 C (100 to 200 F) range and therefore the
plant equipment is usually constructed from one of the
carbon steel grades. The wall thickness of the pressure
vessels in amine plants is typically about 25 mm (1 in).
Although the possibility of cracking of carbon steels in an
amine environment has been known for some years, real
concern about safety implications was highlighted by a 1984
failure of the amine process pressure vessel. Overall, the
survey found about 40% cracking incidence in a total of 294
plants. Cracking had occurred in the absorber/contactor, the
regenerator and the heat exchanger vessels, and in the piping
and other auxiliary equipment. Several of the significant
findings of the survey were:
@ All cracks were in or near welds.
@ Cracking occurred predominantly in stressed or
unrelieved (not PWHT) welds.
@ Cracking occurred in all amine vessel processes but
was most prevalent in MEA units.
@ WFMT and UT (ultrasonic test) were the
predominant detection methods for cracks; internal
examination by WFMT is the preferred method.
III:3-4
Information from laboratory studies indicate that pure amine
does not cause cracking of carbon steels but amine with
carbon dioxide in the gas phase causes severe cracking. The
presence or absence of chlorides, cyanides, or hydrogen
sulfide may also be factors but their full role in the cracking
mechanism are not completely known at present.
WET HYDROGEN SULFIDE
Wet Hydrogen Sulfide refers to any fluid containing water
and hydrogen sulfide (H2S). Hydrogen is generated when
steel is exposed to this mixture and the hydrogen can enter
into the steel. Dissolved hydrogen can cause cracking,
blistering, and embrittlement.
The harmful effects of hydrogen generating environments on
steel have been known and recognized for a long time in the
petroleum and petrochemical industries. In particular,
sensitivity to damage by hydrogen increases with the hardness
and strength of the steel and damage and cracking are more
apt to occur in high strength steels.
@ Significant cracks can start from very small hard
zones associated with welds; these hard zones are not
detected by conventional hardness tests.
@ Initially small cracks can grow by a stepwise form of
hydrogen blistering to form through thickness cracks.
@ NACE/API limits on weld hardness may not be
completely effective in preventing cracking.
@ Thermal stress relief (postweld heat treatment,
PWHT) appears to reduce the sensitivity to and the
severity of cracking.
Wet hydrogen sulfide has also been found to cause service
cracking in liquified petroleum gas (LPG) storage vessels.
The service cracking in the LPG vessels occurs
predominantly in the weld heat affected zone (HAZ). The
vessels are usually
spherical with wall thickness in the 20 mm to 75 mm (0.8 in
to 3 in) range.
Recommendations for new and existing wet hydrogen- sulfide
vessels to minimize the risk of a major failure include:
@ Use lower-strength steels for new vessels;
@ Schedule an early inspection for vessels more than
five years in service;
@ Improve monitoring to minimize breakthrough of
hydrogen sulfide; and
@ Replace unsafe vessels or downgrade to less- severe,
usually lower-pressure, service.
AMMONIA SERVICE
Commercial refrigeration systems, certain chemical processes,
and formulators of agricultural chemicals will be sites of
ammonia service tanks.
Careful inspections of vessels used for storage of ammonia
(in either vapor or liquid form) in recent years have resulted
in evidence of serious stress corrosion cracking problems.
The vessels for this service are usually constructed as spheres
from one of the carbon steel grades, and they operate in the
ambient temperature range.
The water and oxygen content in the ammonia has a strong
influence on the propensity of carbon steels to crack in this
environment.
Cracks have a tendency to be found to be in or near the welds
in as-welded vessels. Cracks occur both transverse and
parallel to the weld direction. Thermal stress relieving seems
to be a mitigating procedure for new vessels, but its efficacy
for older vessels after a period of operation is dubious partly
because small, undetected cracks may be present.
III:3-5
PULP DIGESTER SERVICE
The kraft pulping process is used in the pulp and paper
industry to digest the pulp in the papermaking process. The
operation is done in a relatively weak (a few percent) water
solution of sodium hydroxide and sodium sulfide typically in
the 110 to 140 C (230 to 285 F) temperature range.
Since the early 1950s, a continuous version of this process
has been widely used. Nearly all of the vessels are ASME
Code vessels made using one of the carbon steel grades with
typical design conditions of 175 to 180 C (350 to 360 F)
and 150 psig.
These vessels had a very good service record with only
isolated reports of cracking problems until the occurrence of
a sudden rupture failure in 1980. The inspection survey has
revealed that about 65% of the properly inspected vessels had
some cracking. Some of the cracks were fabrication flaws
revealed by the use of more sensitive inspection techniques
but most of the cracking was service-induced. The inspection
survey and analysis indicates the following features about the
cracking.
@ All cracking was associated with welds.
@ Wet fluorescent magnetic particle (WFMT) testing
with proper surface preparation was the most
effective method of detecting the cracking.
@ Fully stress-relieved vessels were less susceptible.
@ No clear correlation of cracking and noncrack-ing
could be found with vessel age and manufacture or
with process variables and practices.
@ Analysis and research indicate that the cracking is
due to a caustic stress corrosion cracking mechanism
although its occurrence at the relatively low caustic
concentrations of the digester process was
unexpected.
Currently, preventive measures such as weld cladding, spray
coatings, and anodic protection are being studied, and
considerable information has been obtained. In the @ Welds and adjacent regions;
meantime, the recommended guideline is to perform an
annual examination. @ Vessels that have not been thermally stress relieved
(no PWHT of fabrication welds); and
SUMMARY OF SERVICE CRACKING
@ Repaired vessels, especially those without PWHT
EXPERIENCE
after repair.
The preceding discussion shows a strong influence of
The evaluation of the severity of the detected cracks can be
chemical environment on cracking incidence. This is a
done by fracture mechanics methods. This requires specific
factor that is not explicitly treated in most design codes.
information about stresses, material properties, and flaw
Service experience is the best and often the only guide to
indications. Generalized assessment guidelines are not easy
in-service safety assessment.
to formulate. However, fortunately, many vessels in the
susceptible applications listed above operate at relatively low
For vessels and tanks within the scope of this document, the
stresses, and therefore, cracks have a relatively smaller effect
service experience indicates that the emphasis of the
on structural integrity and continued safe operation.
inspection and safety assessment should be on:

@ Vessels in deaerator, amine, wet H2S, ammonia and

pulp digesting service;

C. NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION METHODS

Of the various conventional and advanced nondestructive
examination (NDE) methods, five are widely used for the
examination of pressure vessels and tanks by certified
pressure vessel inspectors. The names and acronyms of these
common five methods are:
referred to as "surface" examination methods and the last two
as "volumetric" methods. Table II of PUB 8-1.5 summarizes
the main features of these five methods.
VISUAL EXAMINATION (VT)

@ VT Visual Examination, A visual examination is easy to conduct and can cover a large
area in a short time.
@ PT Liquid Penetrant Test,
It is very useful for assessing the general condition of the
@ MT Magnetic Particle Test, equipment and for detecting some specific problems such as
severe instances of corrosion, erosion, and hydrogen
@ RT Gamma and X-ray Radiography, and blistering. The obvious requirements for a meaningful visual
examination are a clean surface and good illumination.
@ UT Ultrasonic Test.

VT, PT and MT can detect only those discontinuities and

defects that are open to the surface or are very near the
surface. In contrast, RT and UT can detect conditions that are
located within the part. For these reasons, the first three are
often

III:3-6
LIQUID PENETRANT TEST (PT)
This method depends on allowing a specially formulated
liquid (penetrant) to seep into an open discontinuity and then
detecting the entrapped liquid by a developing agent. When
the penetrant is removed from the surface, some of it remains
entrapped in the discontinuities. Application of a developer
draws out the entrapped penetrant and magnifies the
discontinuity. Chemicals which fluoresce under black
(ultraviolet) light can be added to the penetrant to aid the
detectability and visibility of the developed indications. The
essential feature of PT is that the discontinuity must be
"open," which means a clean, undisturbed surface.
The PT method is independent of the type and composition
of the metal alloy so it can be used for the examination of
austenitic stainless steels and nonferrous alloys where the
magnetic particle test is not applicable.
MAGNETIC PARTICLE TEST (MT)
This method depends on the fact that discontinuities in or
near the surface perturb magnetic flux lines induced into a
ferromagnetic material. For a component such as a pressure
vessel where access is generally limited to one surface at a
time, the "prod" technique is widely used. The magnetic field
is produced in the region around and between the prods
(contact probes) by an electric current (either AC or DC)
flowing between the prods. The ferromagnetic material
requirement basically limits the applicability of MT to carbon
and low- alloy steels.
The perturbations of the magnetic lines are revealed by
applying fine particles of a ferromagnetic material to the
surface. The particles can be either a dry powder or a wet
suspension in a liquid. The particles can also be treated to
fluoresce under black light. These options lead to variations
such as the "wet fluorescent magnetic particle test" (WFMT).
MT has some capability for detecting subsurface defects.
However, there is no easy way to determine the limiting depth
III:3-7
of sensitivity since it is highly dependent on magnetizing
current, material, and geometry and size of the defect. A very
crude approximation would be a depth no more than 1.5 mm
to 3 mm (1/16 in to 1/8 in).
A very important precaution in performing MT is that corners
and surface irregularities also perturb the magnetic field.
Therefore, examining for defects in corners and near or in
welds must be performed with extra care. Another precaution
is that MT is most sensitive to discontinuities which are
oriented transverse to the magnetic flux lines and this
characteristic needs to be taken into account in determining
the procedure for inducing the magnetic field.
RADIOGRAPHY (RT)
The basic principle of radiographic examination of metallic
objects is the same as in any other form of radiography such
as medical radiography. Holes, voids, and discontinuities
decrease the attenuation of the X-ray and produce greater
exposure on the film (darker areas on the negative film).
Because RT depends on density differences, cracks with
tightly closed surfaces are much more difficult to detect than
open voids. Also, defects located in an area of a abrupt
dimensional change are difficult to detect due to the
superimposed density difference. RT is effective in showing
defect dimensions on a plane normal to the beam direction
but determination of the depth dimension and location
requires specialized techniques.
Since ionizing radiation is involved, field application of RT
requires careful implementation to prevent health hazards.
ULTRASONIC TESTING (UT)
The fundamental principles of ultrasonic testing of metallic
materials are similar to radar and related methods of using
electromagnetic and acoustic waves for detection of foreign
objects. The distinctive aspect of UT for the inspection of
metallic parts is that the waves are mechanical, so the test DETECTION PROBABILITIES AND FLAW
equipment requires three basic components.
SIZING
@ Electronic system for generating electrical signal.
The implementation of NDE (nondestructive examination)
results for structural integrity and safety assessment involves
@ Transducer system to convert the electrical signal
a detailed consideration of two separate but interrelated
into mechanical vibrations and vice versa and to
factors.
inject the vibrations into and extract them from the
material.
@ Detecting the discontinuity.
@ Electronic system for amplifying, processing and
@ Identifying the nature of the discontinuity and
displaying the return signal.
determining its size.
Very short signal pulses are induced into the material and
Much of the available information on detection and sizing
waves reflected back from discontinuities are detected during
capabilities has been developed for aircraft and nuclear power
the "receive" mode. The transmitting and detection can be
applications. This kind of information is very specific to the
done with one transducer or with two separate transducers
nature of the flaw, the material, and the details of the test
(the tandem technique).
technique, and direct transference to other situations is not
always warranted.
Unlike radiography, UT in its basic form does not produce a
permanent record of the examination. However, more recent
The overall reliability of NDE is obviously an important
versions of UT equipment include automated operation and
factor in a safety and hazard assessment. Failing to detect or
electronic recording of the signals.
undersizing existing discontinuities reduces the safety margin
while oversizing errors can result in unnecessary and
Ultrasonic techniques can also be used for the detection and
expensive outages. High reliability results from a
measurement of general material loss such as by corrosion
combination of factors.
and erosion. Since wave velocity is constant for a specific
material, the transit time between the initial pulse and the
@ Validated procedures, equipment and test personnel.
back reflection is a measure of the travel distance and the
thickness.
@ Utilization of diverse methods and techniques.

@ Application of redundancy by repetitive and

independent tests.

Finally, it is useful to note that safety assessment depends on

evaluating the "largest flaw that may be missed, not the
smallest one that can be found."

III:3-8
D. INFORMATION FOR SAFETY ASSESSMENT
This chapter and PUB 8-1.5 has a large amount of
information on the design rules, inspection requirements, and
service experience, relevant to pressure vessels and low
pressure storage tanks used in general industrial applications.
Though the compliance officer is not usually qualified as a
pressure vessel inspector, as a summary and a reminder,
Appendix III:3-1
E. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Chuse, R. 1984. Pressure Vessels: The ASME Code
Simplified. 6th ed. McGraw-Hill: New York.
Forman, B. Fred. 1981. Local Stresses in Pressure
Vessels. Pressure Vessel Handbook Publishing, Inc.: Tulsa.
Hammer, W. 1981. Pressure Hazards in Occupational
Safety
Management and Engineering. 2nd ed. Prentice-Hall:
New York.
McMaster, R. C. and McIntire, P. (eds.) 1982-1987.
Nondestructive Testing Hand-book. 2nd ed., Vols. 1-3.
American Society for Metals/American Society of
Nondestructive Testing: Columbus.
III:3-9
outlines the information, data, and recordkeeping that are
necessary, useful, or indicative of safe management of
operating vessels and tanks.
These records, besides the construction and maintenance logs
usually are kept by the plant engineer, maintenance
supervisor, or facility manager, will be indicative of the
surveillance activities around safe operation of pressure
vessels.
Megyesy, E. F. 1986. Pressure Vessel Handbook. 7th ed.
Pressure Vessel Handbook Publishing Inc.: Tulsa.
OSHA Instruction Pub 8-1.5. 1989. Guidelines for Pressure
Vessel Safety Assessment. Occupational Safety and
Health Administration: Washington, D.C.
Thielsch, H. 1975. Defects and Failures in Pressure
Vessels and Piping. 2nd ed., Chaps. 16 and 17. Reinhold:
New York.
Yokell, S. 1986. Understanding the Pressure Vessel Code.
Chemical Engineering 93(9):75-85.
APPENDIX III:3-1. RECORDKEEPING DATA FOR STEEL
VESSELS AND LOW PRESSURE STORAGE
TANKS

INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE @ Date vessel was placed in service

This outline summarizes information and data that will be @ Interruption dates if not in continuous service.
helpful in assessing the safety of steel pressure vessels and
low pressure storage tanks that operate at temperatures DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
between -75 and 315 C (-100 and 600 F). INFORMATION
VESSEL IDENTIFICATION AND Information that will identify the code or standard used for
DOCUMENTATION the design and construction of the vessel or tank and the
specific design values, materials, fabrication methods, and
Information that identifies the specific vessel being assessed inspection methods used include the following items:
and provides general information about it include the
following items: @ Design code
-- ASME Code Section and Division, API
@ Current owner of the vessel Standard or other design code used

@ Vessel location @ Type of construction

-- Original location and current location if it -- Shop or field fabricated or other fabrication
has been moved method

@ Vessel identification @ VIII, division 1 or 2 vessels

-- Manufacturer's serial number -- Maximum allowable pressure and
-- National Board number if registered with NB temperature
-- Minimum design temperature
@ Manufacturer identification
-- Name and address of manufacturer @ API 620 vessels
-- Authorization or identification number of the -- Design pressure at top and maximum fill
manufacturer
@ Additional requirements included such as
@ Date of manufacture of the vessel -- Appendix Q (Low-Pressure Storage Tanks
For Liquified Hydrocarbon Gases) and
@ Data report for the vessel -- Appendix R (Low-Pressure Storage Tanks
-- ASME U-1 or U-2, API 620 form or other for Refrigerated Products)
applicable report

III:3-10
 @ Other design code vessels @ Vessel history
-- Maximum design and allowable pressures -- Alterations, reratings, and repairs performed
-- Maximum and minimum operating -- Date(s) of changes or repairs
temperatures

@ Vessel materials IN-SERVICE INSPECTION

-- ASME, ASTM, or other specification names
and numbers for the major parts Information about inspections performed on the vessel or tank
and the results obtained that will assist in the safety
@ Design corrosion allowance assessment include the following items:

@ Thermal stress relief (PWHT, postweld heat @ Inspection(s) performed

treatment) -- Type, extent, and dates
-- Design code requirements
-- Type, extent, and conditions of PWHT @ Examination methods
performed -- Preparation of surfaces and welds
-- Techniques used (visual, magnetic particle,
@ Nondestructive examination (NDE) of welds penetrant test, radiography, ultrasonic)
-- Type and extent of examination performed
-- Time when NDE was performed (before or @ Qualifications of personnel
after PWHT or hydrotest) -- ASNT (American Society for Nondestructive
Testing) levels or equivalent of examining
SERVICE HISTORY and supervisory personnel

Information on the conditions of operating history of the @ Inspection results and report
vessel or tank that will be helpful in safety assessment include -- Report form used (NBIC NB-7, API 510 or
the following items: other)
-- Summary of type and extent of damage or
@ Fluids handled cracking
-- Type and composition, temperature and -- Disposition (no action, delayed action or
pressures repaired)

@ Type of service SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS

-- Continuous, intermittent or irregular
@ Significant changes in service conditions
-- Changes in pressures, temperatures, and fluid
compositions and the dates of the changes
Survey results indicate that a relatively high proportion of
vessels in operations in several specific applications have
experienced inservice related damage and cracking.
Information on the following items can assist in assessing the
safety of vessels in these applications:

III:3-11
@ Service application @ Problem mitigation
-- Deaerator, amine, wet hydrogen sulfide, -- Written plans and actions
ammonia, or pulp digesting
EVALUATION OF INFORMATION
@ Industry bulletins and guidelines for this application
-- Owner/operator awareness of information The information acquired for the above items is not adaptable
to any kind of numerical ranking for quantitative safety
@ Type, extent, and results of examinations assessment purposes. However, the information can reveal
-- Procedures, guidelines and recommendations the owner or user's apparent attention to good practice,
used careful operation, regular maintenance, and adherence to the
-- Amount of damage and cracking recommendations and guidelines developed for susceptible
-- Next examination schedule applications. If the assessment indicated cracking and other
serious damage problems, it is important that the inspector
@ Participation in industry survey for this application obtain qualified technical advice and opinion.

III:3-12
 SECTION III: CHAPTER 4
INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS AND ROBOT SYSTEM
SAFETY
A. INTRODUCTION
Industrial robots are programmable multifunctional
mechanical devices designed to move material, parts, tools,
or specialized devices through variable programmed motions
to perform a variety of tasks. An industrial robot system
includes not only industrial robots but also any devices and/or
sensors required for the robot to perform its tasks as well as
sequencing or monitoring communication interfaces.
A. Introduction........................................III:4-1
B. Types and Classification
of Robots.....................................III:4-2
C. Hazards................................................III:4-7
D. Investigation Guidelines..................III:4-10
E. Control and Safeguarding
Personnel..................................III:4-10
F. Bibliography.....................................III:4-13
Appendix III:4-1. Glossary for
Robotics and Robotic
System.......................................III:4-14
Appendix III:4-2. Other Robotic
Systems.....................................III:4-18
III:4-1
Robots are generally used to perform unsafe, hazardous,
highly repetitive, and unpleasant tasks. They have many
different functions such as material handling, assembly, arc
welding, resistance welding, machine tool load and unload
functions, painting, spraying, etc. See Appendix III:4-1 for
common definitions.
Most robots are set up for an operation by the
teach-and-repeat technique. In this mode, a trained operator
(programmer) typically uses a portable control device (a teach
pendant) to teach a robot its task manually. Robot speeds
during these programming sessions are slow.
This instruction includes safety considerations necessary to
operate the robot properly and use it automatically in
conjunction with other peripheral equipment. This
instruction applies to fixed industrial robots and robot
systems only. See Appendix III:4-2 for the systems that are
excluded.
ACCIDENTS: PAST STUDIES
Studies in Sweden and Japan indicate that many robot
accidents do not occur under normal operating conditions but,
instead during programming, program touch-up or
refinement, maintenance, repair, testing, setup, or adjustment.
During many of these operations the operator, programmer,
or corrective maintenance worker may temporarily be within
the robot's working envelope where unintended operations
could result in injuries.
Typical accidents have included the following:
@ A robot's arm functioned erratically during a
programming sequence and struck the operator.
@ A materials handling robot operator entered a robot's
work envelope during operations and was pinned
between the back end of the robot and a safety pole.
@ A fellow employee accidentally tripped the power
switch while a maintenance worker was servicing an
assembly robot. The robot's arm struck the
maintenance worker's hand.
ROBOT SAFEGUARDING
The proper selection of an effective robotic safeguarding
system should be based upon a hazard analysis of the robot
system's
B. TYPES AND CLASSIFICATION OF ROBOTS
Industrial robots are available commercially in a wide range
of sizes, shapes, and configurations. They are designed and
fabricated with different design configurations and a different
number of axes or degrees of freedom. These factors of a
robot's design influence its working envelope (the volume of
working or reaching space). Diagrams of the different robot
design configurations are shown in Figure III:4-1.
SERVO AND NONSERVO
All industrial robots are either servo or nonservo controlled.
Servo robots are controlled through the use of sensors that
continually monitor the robot's axes and associated
components for position and velocity. This feedback is
compared to pretaught information which has been
programmed and stored in the robot's memory.
III:4-2
use, programming, and maintenance operations. Among the
factors to be considered are the tasks a robot will be
programmed to perform, start-up and command or
programming procedures, environmental conditions, location
and installation requirements, possible human errors,
scheduled and unscheduled maintenance, possible robot and
system malfunctions, normal mode of operation, and all
personnel functions and duties.
An effective safeguarding system protects not only operators
but also engineers, programmers, maintenance personnel, and
any others who work on or with robot systems and could be
exposed to hazards associated with a robot's operation. A
combination of safeguarding methods may be used.
Redundancy and backup systems are especially
recommended, particularly if a robot or robot system is
operating in hazardous conditions or handling hazardous
materials. The safeguarding devices employed should not
themselves constitute or act as a hazard or curtail necessary
vision or viewing by attending human operators.
Nonservo robots do not have the feedback capability, and
their axes are controlled through a system of mechanical stops
and limit switches.
TYPE OF PATH GENERATED
Industrial robots can be programmed from a distance to
perform their required and preprogrammed operations with
different types of paths generated through different control
techniques. The three different types of paths generated are
Point-to-Point Path, Controlled Path, and Continuous Path.
POINT-TO-POINT PATH
Robots programmed and controlled in this manner are
programmed to move from one discrete point to another
within
Regulator Coordinate Robot Cylindrical Roordinate Robot

Spherical Coordinate Robot Arituclated Arm Robot

Gantry Robot SCARA Robot

Figure III:4-1. Robot Arm Design Configurations.

III:4-3
the robot's working envelope. In the automatic mode of
operation, the exact path taken by the robot will vary slightly
due to variations in velocity, joint geometries, and point
spatial locations. This difference in paths is difficult to
predict and therefore can create a potential safety hazard to
personnel and equipment.
CONTROLLED PATH
The path or mode of movement ensures that the end of the
robot's arm will follow a predictable (controlled) path and
orientation as the robot travels from point to point. The
coordinate transformations required for this hardware
management are calculated by the robot's control system
computer. Observations that result from this type of
programming are less likely to present a hazard to personnel
and equipment.
CONTINUOUS PATH
A robot whose path is controlled by storing a large number or
close succession of spatial points in memory during a
teaching sequence is a continuous path controlled robot.
During this time, and while the robot is being moved, the
coordinate points in space of each axis are continually
monitored on a fixed time base, e.g., 60 or more times per
second, and placed into the control system's computer
memory. When the robot is placed in the automatic mode of
operation, the program is replayed from memory and a
duplicate path is generated.
ROBOT COMPONENTS
Industrial robots have four major components: the
mechanical unit, power source, control system, and tooling
(Figure III:4-2):
MECHANICAL UNIT
The robot's manipulative arm is the mechanical unit. This
mechanical unit is also comprised of a fabricated structural
frame with provisions for supporting mechanical linkage and
joints, guides, actuators (linear or rotary), control valves, and
III:4-4
sensors. The physical dimensions, design, and
weight-carrying ability depend on application requirements.
POWER SOURCES
Energy is provided to various robot actuators and their
controllers as pneumatic, hydraulic, or electrical power. The
robot's drives are usually mechanical combinations powered
by these types of energy, and the selection is usually based
upon application requirements. For example, pneumatic
power (low-pressure air) is used generally for low weight
carrying robots.
Hydraulic power transmission (high-pressure oil) is usually
used for medium to high force or weight applications, or
where smoother motion control can be achieved than with
pneumatics. Consideration should be given to potential
hazards of fires from leaks if petroleum-based oils are used.
Electrically powered robots are the most prevalent in
industry. Either AC or DC electrical power is used to supply
energy to electromechanical motor-driven actuating
mechanisms and their respective control systems. Motion
control is much better, and in an emergency an electrically
powered robot can be stopped or powered down more safely
and faster than those with either pneumatic or hydraulic
power.
CONTROL SYSTEMS
Either auxiliary computers or embedded microprocessors are
used for practically all control of industrial robots today.
These perform all of the required computational functions as
well as interface with and control associated sensors,
grippers, tooling, and other associated peripheral equipment.
The control system performs the necessary sequencing and
memory functions for on-line sensing, branching, and
integration of other equipment. Programming of the
controllers can be done on-line or at remote off-line control
stations with electronic data transfer of programs by cassette,
floppy disc, or telephone modem.
 Figure III:4-2. Industrial Robots: Major Components

Self-diagnostic capability for troubleshooting and ROBOT PROGRAMMING BY TEACHING

maintenance greatly reduces robot system downtime.
METHODS
Some robot controllers have sufficient capacity, in terms of
A program consists of individual command steps which state
computational ability, memory capacity, and input-output
either the position or function to be performed, along with
capability to serve also as system controllers and handle many
other informational data such as speed, dwell or delay times,
other machines and processes.
sample input device, activate output device, execute, etc.
Programming of robot controllers and systems has not been
When establishing a robot program, it is necessary to
standardized by the robotics industry; therefore, the different
establish a physical or geometrical relationship between the
manufacturers use their own proprietary programming
robot and other equipment or work to be serviced by the
languages which require special training of personnel.
robot. To establish these coordinate points precisely within
the robot's

III:4-5
working envelope, it is necessary to control the robot WALK-THROUGH PROGRAMMING OR
manually and physically teach the coordinate points. To do
TEACHING
this as well as determine other functional programming
information, three different teaching or programming
A person doing the teaching has physical contact with the
techniques are used: lead-through, walk-through, and
robot arm and actually gains control and walks the robot's
off-line.
arm through the desired positions within the working
envelope (Figure III:4-4).
LEAD-THROUGH PROGRAMMING OR TEACHING
During this time, the robot's controller is scanning and storing
This method of teaching uses a proprietary teach pendant (the
coordinate values on a fixed time basis. When the robot is
robot's control is placed in a "teach" mode), which allows
later placed in the automatic mode of operation, these values
trained personnel physically to lead the robot through the
and other functional information are replayed and the
desired sequence of events by activating the appropriate
program run as it was taught. With the walk-through method
pendant button or switch. Position data and functional
of programming, the person doing the teaching is in a
information are "taught" to the robot, and a new program is
potentially hazardous position because the operational
written (Figure III:4-3). The teach pendant can be the sole
safeguarding devices are deacti-vated or inoperative.
source by which a program is established, or it may be used
in conjunction with an additional programming console
OFF-LINE PROGRAMMING
and/or the robot's controller. When using this technique of
teaching or programming, the person performing the teach
The programming establishing the required sequence of
function can be within the robots working envelope with
functional and required positional steps is written on a remote
operational safeguarding devices deactivated or inoperative.
computer console (Figure III:4-5). Since the console is
distant from the robot and its controller, the written program
has to be transferred to the robot's controller and precise
positional data established to achieve the actual coordinate
information for the robot and other equipment. The program
can be transferred directly or by cassette or floppy discs.
After the program has been completely transferred to the
robot's controller, either the lead-through or walk-through
technique can be used for obtaining actual positional
coordinate information for the robot's axes.

When programming robots with any of the three techniques

discussed above, it is generally required that the program be
verified and slight modifications in positional information
made. This procedure is called program touch-up and is
normally carried out in the teach mode of operation. The
teacher manually leads or walks the robot through the
programmed steps. Again, there are potential hazards if
safeguarding devices are deactivated or inoperative.

Figure III:4-3. Robot Lead-Through

Programming or Teaching.

III:4-6
DEGREES OF FREEDOM
Regardless of the configuration of a robot, movement along
each axis will result in either a rotational or a translational
movement. The number of axes of movement (degrees of
freedom) and their arrangement, along with their sequence of
operation and structure, will permit movement of the robot to
any point within its envelope. Robots have three arm
movements (up-down, in-out, side-to-side). In addition, they
can have as many as three additional wrist movements on the
end of the robot's arm: yaw (side to side), pitch (up and
down), and rotational (clockwise and counterclockwise).

C. HAZARDS
The operational characteristics of robots can be significantly
different from other machines and equipment. Robots are
capable of high-energy (fast or powerful) movements through
a large volume of space even beyond the base dimensions of
the robot (see Figure II:4-6). The pattern and initiation of
movement of the robot is predictable if the item being
"worked" and the environment are held constant. Any change
to the object being worked (i.e., a physical model change) or
environmental changes can affect the programmed
movements.
Thus, a worker can be hit by one robot while working on
another, trapped between them or peripheral equipment, or hit
by flying objects released by the gripper.
A robot with two or more resident programs can find the
current operating program erroneously calling another
existing program with different operating parameters such as
velocity, acceleration, or deceleration, or position within the
robot's

Some maintenance and programming personnel may be

required to be within the restricted envelope while power is
available to actuators. The restricted envelope of the robot
can overlap a portion of the restricted envelope of other
robots or work zones of other industrial machines and related
equipment.

Figure III:4-4. Walk-through Programming and

Teacher.
Figure III:4-5. Off-line Programming or Teaching

III:4-7
 Figure III:4-6. A Robot’s Work Envelope.
restricted envelope. The occurrence of this might not be
predictable by maintenance or programming personnel
working with the robot. A component malfunction could also
cause an unpredictable movement and/or robot arm velocity.
Additional hazards can also result from the malfunction of, or
errors in, interfacing or programming of other process or
peripheral equipment. The operating changes with the
process being performed or the breakdown of conveyors,
clamping mechanisms, or process sensors could cause the
robot to react in a different manner.
TYPES OF ACCIDENTS
Robotic incidents can be grouped into four categories: a
robotic arm or controlled tool causes the accident, places an
individual in a risk circumstance, an accessory of the robot's
mechanical parts fails, or the power supplies to the robot are
uncontrolled.
III:4-8
IMPACT OR COLLISION ACCIDENTS
Unpredicted movements, component malfunctions, or
unpredicted program changes with the robot's arm or
peripheral equipment can result in contact accidents.
CRUSHING AND TRAPPING ACCIDENTS
A worker's limb or other body part can be trapped between a
robot's arm and other peripheral equipment, or the individual
may be physically driven into and crushed by other peripheral
equipment.
MECHANICAL PART ACCIDENTS
The breakdown of the robot's drive components, tooling or
end-effector, peripheral equipment, or its power source is a
mechanical accident. The release of parts, failure of gripper
mechanism, or the failure of end-effector power tools (e.g.,
grinding wheels, buffing wheels, deburring tools, power
screwdrivers, and nut runners) are a few types of mechanical
failures.
OTHER ACCIDENTS
Other accidents can result from working with robots.
Equipment that supplies robot power and control represents
potential electrical and pressurized fluid hazards. Ruptured
hydraulic lines could create dangerous high-pressure cutting
streams or whipping hose hazards. Environmental accidents
from arc flash, metal spatter, dust, electromagnetic, or
radio-frequency interference can also occur. In addition,
equipment and power cables on the floor present tripping
hazards.
SOURCES OF HAZARDS
The expected hazards of machine to man can be expected
with several additional variations.
HUMAN ERRORS
Inherent prior programming, interfacing activated peripheral
equipment, or connecting live input-output sensors to the
microprocessor or a peripheral can cause dangerous,
unpredicted movement or action by the robot from human
error. The incorrect activation of the "teach pendant" or
control panel is a frequent human error. The greatest
problem, however, is overfamiliarity with the robot's
redundant motions so that an individual places himself in a
hazardous position while programming the robot or
performing maintenance on it.
CONTROL ERRORS
Intrinsic faults within the control system of the robot, errors
in software, electromagnetic interference, and radio frequency
interference are control errors. In addition, these errors can
occur from faults in the hydraulic, pneumatic, or electrical
subcontrols associated with the robot or robot system.
III:4-9
UNAUTHORIZED ACCESS
Entry into a robot's safeguarded area is hazardous because the
person involved may not be familiar with the safeguards in
place or their activation status.
MECHANICAL FAILURES
Operating programs may not account for cumulative
mechanical part failure, and faulty or unexpected operation
may occur.
ENVIRONMENTAL SOURCES
Electromagnetic or radio-frequency interference (transient
signals) should be considered to exert an undesirable
influence on robotic operation and increase the potential for
injury to any person working in the area. Solutions to
environmental hazards should be documented prior to
equipment start-up.
POWER SYSTEMS
Pneumatic, hydraulic, or electrical power sources that have
malfunctioning control or transmission elements in the robot
power system can disrupt electrical signals to the control
and/or power-supply lines. Fire risks are increased by
electrical overloads or by use of flammable hydraulic oil.
Electrical shock and release of stored energy from
accumulating devices also can be hazardous to personnel.
IMPROPER INSTALLATION
The design, requirements, and layout of equipment, utilities,
and facilities of a robot or robot system, if inadequately done,
can lead to inherent hazards.
D. INVESTIGATION GUIDELINES
MANUFACTURED, REMANUFACTURED,
AND REBUILT ROBOTS
All robots should meet minimum design requirements to
insure safe operation by the user. Consideration needs to be
given to a number of factors in designing and building the
robots to industry standards. If older or obsolete robots are
rebuilt or remanufactured, they should be upgraded to
conform to current industry standards.
Every robot should be designed, manufactured,
remanufactured, or rebuilt with safe design and
manufacturing considerations. Improper design and
manufacture can result in hazards to personnel if minimum
industry standards are not conformed to on mechanical
components, controls, methods of operation, and other
required information necessary to insure safe and proper
operating procedures.
To insure that robots are designed, manufactured,
remanufactured, and rebuilt to insure safe operation, it is
recommended that they comply with Section 4 of the
ANSI/RIA R15.06-1992 standard for Manufacturing,
Remanufacture, and Rebuild of Robots.
E. CONTROL AND SAFEGUARDING PERSONNEL
For the planning stage, installation, and subsequent operation
of a robot or robot system, one should consider the following.
RISK ASSESSMENT
At each stage of development of the robot and robot system
a risk assessment should be performed.
III:4-10
INSTALLATION
A robot or robot system should be installed by the users in
accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations and in
conformance to acceptable industry standards. Temporary
safeguarding devices and practices should be used to
minimize the hazards associated with the installation of new
equipment. The facilities, peripheral equipment, and
operating conditions which should be considered are:
@ Installation specifications,
@ Physical facilities,
@ Electrical facilities,
@ Action of peripheral equipment integrated with the
robot,
@ Identification requirements,
@ Control and emergency stop requirements, and
@ Special robot operating procedures or conditions.
To insure safe operating practices and safe installation of
robots and robot systems, it is recommended that the
minimum requirements of Section 5 of the ANSI/RIA
R15.06-1992, Installation of Robots and Robot Systems be
followed. In addition, OSHA's Lockout/ Tagout standards
(29 CFR 1910.147 and 1910.333) must be be followed for
servicing and maintenance.
There are different system and personnel safeguarding
requirements at each stage. The appropriate level of
safeguarding determined by the risk assessment should be
applied. In addition, the risk assessments for each stage of
development should be documented for future reference.
SAFEGUARDING DEVICES
Personnel should be safeguarded from hazards associated
with the restricted envelope (space) through the use of one or
more safeguarding devices:
@ Mechanical limiting devices,
@ Nonmechanical limiting devices,
@ Presence sensing safeguarding devices,
@ Fixed barriers (which prevent contact with moving
parts), and
@ Interlocked barrier guards.
AWARENESS DEVICES
Typical awareness devices include chain or rope barriers with
supporting stanchions or flashing lights, signs, whistles, and
horns . They are usually used in conjunction with other
safeguarding devices.
SAFEGUARDING THE TEACHER
Special consideration must be given the teacher or person
who is programming the robot. During the teach mode of
operation, the person performing the teaching has control of
the robot and associated equipment and should be familiar
with the operations to be programmed, system interfacing,
and control functions of the robot and other equipment.
When systems are large and complex, it can be easy to
activate improper functions or sequence functions improperly.
Since the person doing the training can be within the robot's
restricted envelope, such mistakes can result in accidents.
Mistakes in programming can result in unintended movement
or actions with similar results. For this reason, a restricted
speed of 250 mm/sec. or 10 in/sec. should be placed on any
part of the robot during training to minimize potential injuries
to teaching personnel.
Several other safeguards are suggested in the ANSI/RIA
R15.06-1992 standard to reduce the hazards associated with
teaching a robotic system.
III:4-11
OPERATOR SAFEGUARDS
The system operator should be protected from all hazards
during operations performed by the robot. When the robot is
operating automatically, all safeguarding devices should be
activated, and at no time should any part of the operator's
body be within the robot's safeguarded area.
For additional operator safeguarding suggestions, see the
ANSI/RIA R15.06-1992 standard, Section 6.6.
ATTENDED CONTINUOUS OPERATION
When a person is permitted to be in or near the robots
restricted envelope to evaluate or check the robots motion or
other operations, all continuous operation safeguards must be
in force. During this operation, the robot should be at slow
speed, and the operator would have the robot in the teach
mode and be fully in control of all operations.
Other safeguarding requirements are suggested in the
ANSI/RIA R15.06-1992 standard, Section 6.7.
MAINTENANCE & REPAIR PERSONNEL
Safeguarding maintenance and repair personnel is very
difficult because their job functions are so varied.
Troubleshooting faults or problems with the robot, controller,
tooling, or other associated equipment is just part of their job.
Program touchup is another of their jobs as is scheduled
maintenance, and adjustments of tooling, gages, recalibration,
and many other types of functions.
While maintenance and repair is being performed, the robot
should be placed in the manual or teach mode, and the
maintenance personnel perform their work within the
safeguarded area and within the robots restricted envelope.
Additional hazards are present during this mode of operation
because the robot system safeguards are not operative.
To protect maintenance and repair personnel, safeguarding
techniques and procedures as stated in the ANSI/RIA
R15.06-1992 standard, Section 6.8, are recommended.
MAINTENANCE
Maintenance should occur during the regular and periodic
inspection program for a robot or robot system. An
inspection program should include, but not be limited to, the
recommendations of the robot manufacturer and manufacturer
of other associated robot system equipment such as conveyor
mechanisms, parts feeders, tooling, gages, sensors, and the
like.
These recommended inspection and maintenance programs
are essential for minimizing the hazards from component
malfunction, breakage, and unpredicted movements or actions
by the robot or other system equipment.
To insure proper maintenance, it is recommended that
periodic maintenance and inspections be documented along
with the identity of personnel performing these tasks.
III:4-12
SAFETY TRAINING
Personnel who program, operate, maintain, or repair robots or
robot systems should receive adequate safety training, and
they should be able to demonstrate their competence to
perform their jobs safely. Employers can refer to OSHA's
publication 2254 (Revised), "Training Requirements in
OSHA Standards and Training Guidelines."
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
To ensure minimum safe operating practices and safeguards
for robots and robot systems covered by this instruction, the
following sections of the ANSI/RIA R15.06-1992 must also
be considered:
@ Section 6 - Safeguarding Personnel
@ Section 7 - Maintenance of Robots and Robot
Systems
@ Section 8 - Testing and Start-up of Robots and Robot
Systems
@ Section 9 - Safety Training of Personnel
Robots or robotic systems must comply with the following
regulations:
Occupational Safety and Health Administration, OSHA 29
CFR 1910.333 and OSHA 29 CFR Part 1910.147, "Control
of Hazardous Energy Source (Lockout/Tagout); Final Rule."
F. BIBLIOGRAPHY
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) American
National Safety Standard ANSI/ RIA R15.06-1992.
Industrial Robots and Robot Systems - Safety
Requirements. American National Standards Institute,
Inc., 1430 Broadway, New York, New York 10018
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH)
Alert Publication No. 85103. Request for Assistance in
Preventing the Injury of Workers by Robots. National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Division of
Safety Research, 944 Chestnut Ridge Road, Morgantown,
West Virginia 26505
Occupational Safety and Health Administration Publication
No. 3067. Concepts and Techniques of Machine
Safeguarding. U.S. Department of Labor, 1980
(reprinted 1983). Superintendent of Documents, U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20210
Robotic Industries Association, 900 Victors Way, P.O. Box
3724, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106
III:4-13
Occupational Safety and Health Administration Publication
No.
2254 (Revised). Training Requirements in OSHA
Standards and Training Guidelines. Superintendent of
Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C. 20210
National Safety Council Data Sheet 1-717-85. Robots.
National
Safety Council, 444 N. Michigan Avenue, Chicago,
Illinois 60611
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH)
Technical Report Publication No. 880108. Safe
Maintenance Guidelines for Robotic Workstations.
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,
Division of Safety Research, 944 Chestnut Ridge Road,
Morgantown, West Virginia 26505
OSHA Instruction Publication No. 8-1.3. 1987. Guideline
for
Robotics Safety. Occupational Safety and Health
Administration, Washington, DC
APPENDIX III:4-1. GLOSSARY FOR ROBOTICS AND ROBOTIC
SYSTEMS
Actuator Barrier
A power mechanism used to effect motion of the robot; a A physical means of separating persons from the restricted
device that converts electrical, hydraulic, or pneumatic energy envelope (space).
into robot motion.
Control Device
Application Program Any piece of control hardware providing a means for human
The set of instructions that defines the specific intended tasks intervention in the control of a robot or robot system, such as
of robots and robot systems. This program may be originated an emergency-stop button, a start button, or a selector switch.
and modified by the robot user.
Control Program
Attended Continuous Operation The inherent set of control instructions that defines the
The time when robots are performing (production) tasks at a capabilities, actions and responses of the robot system. This
speed no greater than slow speed through attended program program is usually not intended to be modified by the user.
execution.
Coordinated Straight Line Motion
Attended Program Verification Control wherein the axes of the robot arrive at their respective
The time when a person within the restricted envelope (space) end points simultaneously, giving a smooth appearance to the
verifies the robot's programmed tasks at programmed speed. motion. Control wherein the motions of the axes are such
that the Tool Center Point (TCP) moves along a prespecified
Automatic Mode type of path (line, circle, etc.)
The robot state in which automatic operation can be initiated.
Device
Automatic Operation Any piece of control hardware such as an emergency-stop
The time during which robots are performing programmed button, selector switch, control pendant, relay, solenoid valve,
tasks through unattended program execution. sensor, etc.

Awareness Barrier Drive Power

Physical and/or visual means that warns a person of an
approaching or present hazard.
Awareness Signal
A device that warns a person of an approaching or present
hazard by means of audible sound or visible light.
The energy source or sources for the robot actuators.
Emergency Stop
The operation of a circuit using hardware-based components
that overrides all other robot controls, removes drive power
from the robot actuators, and causes all moving parts to stop.

Axis
The line about which a rotating body such as tool turns.

III:4-14
 Enabling Device
A manually operated device that permits motion when
continuously activated. Releasing the device stops robot
motion and motion of associated equipment that may present
a hazard.
End-effector
An accessory device or tool specifically designed for
attachment to the robot wrist or tool mounting plate to enable
the robot to perform its intended task. (Examples may
include gripper, spot-weld gun, arc-weld gun, spray- paint
gun, or any other application tools.)
Energy Source
Any electrical, mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, chemical,
thermal, or other source.
Envelope (Space), Maximum
The volume of space encompassing the maximum designed
movements of all robot parts including the end-effector,
workpiece, and attachments.
Restricted Envelope (Space)
That portion of the maximum envelope to which a robot is
restricted by limiting devices. The maximum distance that
the robot can travel after the limiting device is actuated
defines the boundaries of the restricted envelope (space) of
the robot.
NOTE: The safeguarding interlocking logic and robot
program may redefine the restricted envelope (space) as the
robot performs its application program.
(See Appendix D of the ANSI/RIA R15.06-1992
Specification).
Operating Envelope (Space)
That portion of the restricted envelope (space) that is actually
used by the robot while performing its programmed motions.
Hazard
A situation that is likely to cause physical harm.
III:4-15
Hazardous Motion
Any motion that is likely to cause personal physical harm.
Industrial Equipment
Physical apparatus used to perform industrial tasks, such as
welders, conveyors, machine tools, fork trucks, turn tables,
positioning tables, or robots.
Industrial Robot
A reprogrammable, multifunctional manipulator designed to
move material, parts, tools, or specialized devices through
variable programmed motions for the performance of a
variety of tasks.
Industrial Robot System
A system that includes industrial robots, the end-effectors,
and the devices and sensors required for the robots to be
taught or programmed, or for the robots to perform the
intended automatic operations, as well as the communication
interfaces required for interlocking, sequencing, or
monitoring the robots.
Interlock
An arrangement whereby the operation of one control or
mechanism brings about or prevents the operation of another.
Joint Motion
A method for coordinating the movement of the joints such
that all joints arrive at the desired location simultaneously.
Limiting Device
A device that restricts the maximum envelope (space) by
stopping or causing to stop all robot motion and is
independent of the control program and the application
programs.
Maintenance
The act of keeping the robots and robot systems in their
proper operating condition.
Mobile Robot
A self-propelled and self-contained robot that is capable of
moving over a mechanically unconstrained course.
Muting
The deactivation of a presence-sensing safeguarding device
during a portion of the robot cycle.
Operator
The person designated to start, monitor, and stop the intended
productive operation of a robot or robot system. An operator
may also interface with a robot for productive purposes.
Pendant
Any portable control device, including teach pendants, that
permits an operator to control the robot from within the
restricted envelope (space) of the robot.
Presence-Sensing Safeguarding Device
A device designed, constructed, and installed to create a
sensing field or area to detect an intrusion into the field or
area by personnel, robots, or other objects.
Program
1. (noun) A sequence of instructions to be executed by the
computer or robot controller to control a robot or robot
system;
2. (verb) to furnish (a computer) with a code of instruction;
3. (verb) to teach a robot system a specific set of movements
and instructions to accomplish a task.
Rebuild
To restore the robot to the original specifications of the
manufacturer, to the extent possible.
Remanufacture
To upgrade or modify robots to the revised specifications of
the manufacturer and applicable industry standards.
Repair
To restore robots and robot systems to operating condition
after damage, malfunction, or wear.
III:4-16
Robot Manufacturer
A company or business involved in either the design,
fabrication, or sale of robots, robot tooling, robotic peripheral
equipment or controls, and associated process ancillary
equipment.
Robot System Integrator
A company or business who either directly or through a
subcontractor will assume responsibility for the design,
fabrication, and integration of the required robot, robotic
peripheral equipment, and other required ancillary equipment
for a particular robotic application.
Safeguard
A barrier guard, device, or safety procedure designed for the
protection of personnel.
Safety Procedure
An instruction designed for the protection of personnel.
Sensor
A device that responds to physical stimuli (such as heat, light,
sound, pressure, magnetism, motion, etc.) and transmits the
resulting signal or data for providing a measurement,
operating a control, or both.
Service
To adjust, repair, maintain, and make fit for use.
Single Point of Control
The ability to operate the robot such that initiation or robot
motion from one source of control is possible only from that
source and cannot be overridden from another source.
Slow Speed Control
A mode of robot motion control where the velocity of the
robot is limited to allow persons sufficient time either to
withdraw the hazardous motion or stop the robot.
Start-up
Routine application of drive power to the robot or robot
system.
Start-up, Initial Teach Mode
Initial drive power application to the robot or robot system The control state that allows the generation and storage of
after one of the following events: positional data points effected by moving the robot arm
through a path of intended motions.
@ Manufacture or modification
@ Installation or reinstallation Teacher
@ Programming or program editing A person who provides the robot with a specific set of
@ Maintenance or repair instructions to perform a task.

Teach Tool Center Point (TCP)

The generation and storage of a series of positional data
points effected by moving the robot arm through a path of
intended motions.
The origin of the tool coordinate system.
User
A company, business, or person who uses robots and who
contracts, hires, or is responsible for the personnel associated
with robot operation.

III:4-17
APPENDIX III:4-2. OTHER ROBOTIC SYSTEMS NOT COVERED
BY THIS CHAPTER
Service robots are machines that extend human capabilities.
Automatic guided-vehicle systems are advanced
material-handling or conveying systems that involve a
driverless vehicle which follows a guide-path.
Undersea and space robots include in addition to the
manipulator or tool that actually accomplishes a task, the
vehicles or platforms that transport the tools to the site.
These vehicles are called remotely operated vehicles (ROVs)
or autonomous undersea vehicles (AUVs); the feature that
distinguishes them is, respectively, the presence or absence of
an electronics tether that connects the vehicle and surface
control station.
Automatic storage and retrieval systems are storage racks
linked through automatically controlled conveyors and an
automatic storage and retrieval machine or machines that ride
on floor-mounted guide rails and power-driven wheels.
III:4-18
Automatic conveyor and shuttle systems are comprised of
various types of conveying systems linked together with
various shuttle mechanisms for the prime purpose of
conveying materials or parts to prepositioned and
predetermined locations automatically.
Teleoperators are robotic devices comprised of sensors and
actuators for mobility and/or manipulation and are controlled
remotely by a human operator.
Mobile robots are freely moving automatic programmable
industrial robots
Prosthetic robots are programmable manipulators or devices
for missing human limbs.
Numerically controlled machine tools are operated by a
series of coded instructions comprised of numbers, letters of
the alphabet, and other symbols. These are translated into
pulses of electrical current or other output signals that
activate motors and other devices to run the machine.