Environmental

Studies - I

Dr. Pradip Ashok Saymote

 Contents
Fundamentals of Environment
1. Meaning, Definition and Components 1
A. Meaning 2
B. Definition 2
C. Components 2
a. Abiotic Components 4
b. Biotic Components 6
2. Man-Environment Relationship 8
3. Importance of Environmental Studies 10
4. Environmental Literacy and Awareness 11
5. Interdisciplinary Nature of EVS 13

Ecosystem Dynamics and Functioning

6. Ecosystem – Meaning, Classification and Types 15
7. Fundamental Concepts : 18
A) Concept of Habitat 18
B) Food Chain 19
C) Food Web 20
D) Ecological Pyramids 23
E) Ecological Stability 26
8. Major Ecosystem of the World 27
7. Major Natural Ecosystem 31
8. Managed Ecosystem 39
REFERENCES. 44
 Environmental Studies
1) Meaning, Definition and Components
Introduciton . . .
The biologist Jacob Van
Uerkal (1864-1944)
introduced the term
‘environment’ in Ecology.
As per Environment
Protection Act 1986,
Environment is the sum
total of land, water, air,
interrelationships among
themselves and also with
the human beings and
other living organisms.
In our Solar system only,
planet Earth is gifted by
‘environment’. The
existance of life and
development of human
being is an outcome of
environment.
2018 - 19 Sem - I 1
Fundamentals of Environment
Now a days the word environment is often being used by
almost all people around us, in discussion, on television and
in newspapers. The word ‘Environment’ is derived from the
French word ‘Environner’ which means to encircle,
around or surrounding’. Environment literally means
everything i.e. surrounding external objects, influences of
circumstances under which some or something exists.
The term environment includes physical, chemical and other
natural forces. In the environment there are different
interactions between animals, plants, soil, water, and other
living and non-living things. According to sociologist, it is the
circumstances of life of people or society in their life
conditions. Since everything is part of our environment, the
word 'environment' is used to talk about many
things. People in different fields of knowledge use the word
environment differently. Rather environmental science is the
interdisciplinary field studies the interactions among the
physical, chemical and biological components of the
environment. Therefore, environment is very significant and
focused academic discipline of 21st century.
We exist, survive and sustain because of existence of
environment rather we are influence by surrounding
environment. It comprises the set of natural, social and
cultural values existing in a place and at a particular time that
influence in the life of the human being. It is not only the
space in which life develops, but it also includes living beings,
objects, water, soil, air and the relations between them as well
as intangibles like culture.
 Meaning . . .
It is the environment that The environment is a complex system consisting of natural
affects the way of life of the and artificial elements that are interrelated and which are
society, including natural, modified by human action. The conservation of this is
social and cultural values essential to the sustainable life of current generations and
that exist in a place and generations. However, with the growth of societies human
time. and the expansion of urban settlements, today the
environment is also modified by actions and developments
human, often resulting in serious environmental damage.

Definition . . .
“Environment is the sum of
external conditions within
which an object, organism
or community exists”.
As the ‘environment’ is interdisciplinary sbject it can be
defined by several ways:
 ‘Environment is our surrounding’.
 ‘Environment is anything immediately surrounding an ob-
ject and exerting a direct influence on it’. - P. Gisbert
 ‘Environment is an external force which influences us’. -
E. J. Ross
 The circumstances, objects, conditions by which one is
surrounded, the complex of physical, chemical and biotic
factors that act upon an organism, or an ecological com-
munity and determine its form and survival, the aggregate
of social, cultural factors that influence the life of an indi-
vidual or community.
 The whole outer physical and biological system in which
man and other organisms are living and interacting is
known as Environment.

Components of Environment . . .
The entire environment of planet earth is comprised in to
four major components i.e.
(a) Atmosphere : The protective blanket of gases which
is surrounding the earth.
(b) Lithosphere : This consists of upper mantle and the
crust
(c) Hydrosphere : This is a collective term given to all
different forms of water.
(d) Biosphere : The realm of living organisms and their
interactions with the environment

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Environmental Studies 2018 - 19 Sem - I 3

The planet earth is alive and support life on earth, rather it

is the only known planet where living things exists and
human being is one of the major components. The man is
active agent and created his own environment which is
known as man-made environment.
The present-day environment can be cisualized to have
physical, chemical, scientific and technological components in
which organism remains embedded. The behavioural pattern
of organism, results from interaction between genetic
components and environmental components. United Nations
Conference on Human Environment at Stockholm in 1972
focused the attention on the human environment which
seems to pose a threat for the very survial of mankind.

Figure -1 : Components of Environment

 I. Physical / Natural Components . . .
Physical environment The natural or physical components of environment are
refers to all abiotic factors having two sub categories i.e.
or conditions like A) Abiotic / Non-Living Components
temperature, light, rainfall,
All physical and chemical aspects of the environment that
soil, minerals etc.
exert an influence on living organism are abiotic components.
These are:
1. Lithosphere
The lithosphere or the crust is made of different layers such
as SiAl (Silica + Aluminum) and SiMa (Silica + Magnesium).
The topography is controlled by lithosphere. Land is substra-
tum or support for plants, animals and man. It provides food
for flora and fauna. It is important interface between the abi-
otic and biotic components.

2. Hydrosphere
It includes all the oceans, sea, lake, rivers, wells, springs, etc.
which cover 71% earth’s surface. The water is most essential
component as it is control and formulate environment of an
area like wet, dry, or moist. The distribution of flora, fauna as
well as human activities (rather all living components) are
directly or indirectly depends on hydrosphere.

3. Atmosphere
Atmosphere is a 100% envelope around the earth comprised
of different gases which is approximate 320km thick. It is
comprising of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.03% carbon-
dioxide and other several gases. It is important medium of
climate and weather. The atmosphere as of today has been
derived from the earth itself by chemical and biochemical
reactions. The vertical structure of atmosphere is very much
related to radiant energy absorption and this can be described
in terms of variable of temperature. The zones layer at 60 km
height filter ultra-violate rays and keep our earth safe.

4. Other
There are many other factors which are already covered in
above section but they are having own significance hence they
are considered separately, as o components of environment
such as:

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Environmental Studies 2018 - 19 Sem - I 5

4.1 Location
The location, size, configuration of an area is important as it
govern the distribution of several physical and economic
attributes which influences human life. The local
environment get varies from place to place, hence location is
vital component of environment.

4.2 Geology
The composition of underlying rocks in a region is
considered as geological structure. In construction activity the
rock structure is playing important role. The minerals, coal,
oil and gas are having economic importance. Therefore,
geology is also equally important component of
environment.

4.3 Climate
Climate refers to the general condition of the atmosphere –
the air that surrounds us. Temperature, humidity, winds, air-
pressure, rainfall, etc. are the basic elements of climate. The
climate is controlling factor for living things and human
activities i.e. agriculture, transport, population distribution,
etc.

4.4 Topography
The physical features of a region like mountains, plateaus,
plains, valleys, etc. are the form of topography. These
topographical factors of environment influence the
distribution and development of economic activities as well
as micro environment.

4.5 Energy
In our solar system ‘Sun’ is the main source of energy and
light. The energy derived from solar radiation is important to
life on earth. Light is essential for photosynthesis in plants
and vision for animals. Energy directly or indirectly affects
the growth, development and survival of living things. Flow
of energy is most important process of environment.

The biotic component
encompasses all the zones
on the Earth in which life
is present, i.e. entire bio-
resources of the earth.
Unit 1: Fundamentals of Environment
B) Biotic / Living Components / Biosphere
The biotic components include living organism, such as
plants, animals, and man, as well as their organization,
interaction within the environment.
1. Vegetation
Natural vegetation exist on the land in the form of trees,
bushes, grass, etc. Vegetation producing their own food
through photosynthesis also provide food for microorganism,
animals and even for man. It helps in the process of recycling
organic matter and nutrients in the environment, influencing
local climatic condition and maintaining ecological balance, so
the natural vegetation is major component of environment.
2. Animals
Animals are equally important component of environment
including human being. The animals can be grouped in two
categories i.e. herbivores and carnivores. The animals are the
major component of food chain and balancing this cycle of
environment.
Interdependence of micro-organisms  Plants 
Herbivores  Carnivores forms network called Food Web.
3. Human Being / Man
Man is one of the components of environment like other
animals but due to the intellectual capacity he over utilizing
the resources. The human occupations require direct
adjustment to the environmental conditions. Man is
continuously disturbing the natural environment under the
title of development. Modern man endowed with the power
of science and technology has through his activities
drastically altered the environment rendering his very survival
threatned.
4. Soil
Soil is most important component of environment.
According to some scholar soil is consider as abiotic because
it is not alive. On the contrary some scientists consider soil as
biotic factor as it is containing different life cycle. Soil is
having productivity and it is growing pants and agricultural
crops.
By: Dr. Pradip A. Saymote
 Environmental Studies
Man has made many
contributions to
environment. These are
earlier results of our
scientific and development
strategiesis.
Man Made Environment
comprises of the
environment, which has
been created by man
himself for the purpose of
full- filling his needs and
in order to make his life
more convenient and
easier.
2018 - 19 Sem - I 7
II. Man-Made (Cultural) Components …
The cultural or man-made components means all those
aspects that are the creations of mankind as a whole.
Whatever that is produced by man and evolved in the process
of civilizations, form the components of cultural (man-made)
environment. There are some cultural or anthropogenic
components which are invisible (e.g. construction- buildings,
roads, farms and factories, etc.). Some components are
abstract (e.g. human will – power, skills, etc.). Human
tendency, law and order, human race, religion, language are
also human components.
1. Socio-Cultural
Socio-cultural environment develops as consequences of
human qualities like religion, political set-up, ethnic character,
of the population of an area. The distribution of population,
density affects the surrounding natural resources as well as
region. Social traditions are important e.g. some religions are
worshipping the animals which is having correlation with
leather industry.
2. Economic
The economic activities of man like farming, mining,
grazing, fishing, manufacturing and trade, etc. are
consuming different resources and directly or indirectly
associated with environment. The availability, utilization or
exploitation of resources is depending on environmental
condition of particular region. The technological
development is availing human being to control natural
setting and carry economic activities e.g. establishing different
factories at extreme climatic condition, producing wheat and
corn in temperate grassland, ploughing and harvesting huge
area in single day, etc.
3. Political
The government plays significant role in planning and
decision making for the state. The political decisions are
affecting natural condition of an area as well as economic
development of people in society e.g. Appiko movement,
save Western Ghats movement, etc.

Man is the integral part of
environment and both are
inter-related.
The environment is
influencing on human life
on the contrary man is also
modify the environment as
per need.
Actually, man is
responsible for all these
burning issues and its
recovery is depend on the
interest, initative and
errforts made by the
society.
The uneven distribution of
resources and prifit-
oriented capitalism is
responsible for
environmental crisis.
Unit 1: Fundamentals of Environment
4. Psychological
The psychology of man is directly or indirectly controlling
the decision making as well as human activities. The act
carried out by man is associated with his surrounding and
ultimately environment.
2) Man-Environment Relationship
Man and Environment have a reciprocal or mutual
relationship. It is said that man is social animal i.e. man is one
of the animals among all which are there on earth’s surface.
Man is having better mental ability than others, as a result
human being is utilizing the resources more than others.
Thus, all living beings including man and their environment
are mutually reactive affecting each other by different ways.
There is a dynamic equilibrium between human being
(society) and environment.
Man has developed different social structures like industrial,
agricultural, religious, aesthetic etc. but these all are supported
by natural environment. But so-called development process
has led to several issues like ecological imbalances, depletion
of resources, pollution, environmental degradation, etc. The
interaction between environment and society depends largely
on the social and political system.
The uneven distribution of natural resources, uneven eco-
nomic and social development, uneven population distribu-
tion, etc. make different perception of the governments and
individuals towards environment. The inequality gave birth to
exploitation of natural resources, unplanned urbanization,
profit-oriented capitalism and industrialization which has cre-
ated ecological imbalance and environmental crisis around the
world. These issues before the present civilized society, are
created by us.
According to determinism, man is a passive agent, and nature
is active agent which controls and determines the action as
well as decision-making processes of man. The
environmental determinism focus that despite numerous
By: Dr. Pradip A. Saymote
 Environmental Studies 2018 - 19 Sem - I 9

possibilities, man, has not been able to get rid of the

obstacles set by the physical forces.
The environment is influencing on man by different ways but
same time man is modifying the environment as per his
needs. Man is acting on environment and altering the
environment through different actions, same time
environment is reacting on man and other living components.
The possibilism is reaction to environmental determinism i.e.
man is not just the products of their environment. The
technical skill developed by man can grow banana, rice and
rubber plants in extreme conditions like tundra, Greenland,
and Antarctica.

The relationship between The best way to maintain man-environment relations is man
man and environment should able to understand the different possibilities in
depend upon the change in environment. The nature provides possibilities and man
organization and attitude should utilizes them according to his culture, traditions, and
of society. levels of socio-economic development. There should not be
over exploitation of resources rather it must be in sustainable
manner.
Following are some of the possible ways to tackling the prob-
lems and maintaining our environment:
(a) Taking effective measures for population control.
(b) Optimum use of natural resources.
(c) Conserving and protecting biodiversity.
(d) Creating public awareness about the benefits and impli-
cations of environment.
(e) Giving top priority for environmental protection.
(f) Developing ecofriendly industrial and technological pro-
cesses.
(g) Promoting sustainable agriculture which will not harm
the environment.
(h) Using bio-fertilizer or ecofriendly fertilizers.
(i) Using minimum amount of pesticides and insecticides.
(j) Developing waste land by adopting afforestation
(k) Developing suitable biotechnology to clean up hazardous
wastes in the environment.
(l) Choosing suitable technique to treat the pollutants before
their discharge into environment.
 3) Importance of Environmental Studies
The importance of environmental studies are as follows:
1) This subject help to students to understand the nature
of our environment, its structure and functions. It
clarifies modern environmental concept like how to
conserve biodiversity. This subject focusing on the
changing relationship between man and environment.
2) Environmental studies give us the better idea of nature
and natural surroundings in which we live. It teaches
us the more sustainable way of living.
3) It describes how to use natural resources more effi-
ciently.
4) The growing concern about the occurring changes in
environment by human actions has led to the
development of this subject. It explains the behaviour of
organism under natural conditions.
5) It defines the interrelationship between organisms in
populations and communities. This is an
interdisciplinary subject. Environmental studies is having
strong linkages with natural sciences, physical sciences
(like Geology, Geography, Physics, Chemistry, Biology),
Social Sciences, Humanities etc.
6) Environmental study aware and educate people
regarding environmental issues and problems at
local, national and international levels. The ‘Green
Environment Education’ which very much essential about
different environmental issues.
7) Environmental studies provide career opportunities.
There are opening in the corporate world, in private
industries, and NGO. The assessment and analysis of
different issues related to environment are carried out.
The job may be as an employee or free-lances consultants.
8) The condition is arising such a way that the
environmental studies needs to make mandatory for
students of graduation and post-graduation. In an
important judgment the supreme court of India, directed
the government (state and central) to make the

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Environmental Studies 2018 - 19 Sem - I 11

environmental studies is mandatory. Environmental

education is important for human being.
9) Learning and education programs are having vital
importance. In light of present dangerous problems
environmental education environmental training,
environmental meeting and seminars, environmental
programmes are being conducted to educate people of
their duites towards environmental protection
10) For human progress and development. In present
industrial civilization dependence of man on environment
has increased. It is essential to revaluate as to which raw
material has to be used in what manner and to what
extent so that industrial growth be continued and natural
balance remains intact. This will keep the natural balance
remains maintained. Study of environment and through
proper evaluation of environment tackled and the crisis
be avered.
11) For environmental management. The damage being
inflicted to environment and the depletion of resources
have become the cause of concern for human race. It is
through environmental education that man can get
proper knowledge about the management of resources
and putting the same into action can help in proper
management of resuores and environment.

4) Environmental Literacy and Awareness

In today’s world due to industrialization and increasing popu-
lation, there is over exploitation of natural resources. Our en-
vironment is being increasingly degraded by human activities,
hence there is need to protect the pricesless environment. It
is not only the duty of government but also the people to take
active role for protecting the environment. Protecting our en-
vironment is economically more viable than cleaning it up
once, it is damaged.
The role of mass media such as newspapers, radio, television,
etc. is also very important to make people aware regarding
environment. There are various institutions, which are playing
 positive role towards environment to make people aware re-
garding environment.
According to UNESCO, the objectives of environmental
studies are:
(a) Creating the awareness about environmental problems
among people.
(b) Imparting basic knowledge about the environment and
its allied problems.
(c) Developing an attitude of concern for the environment.
(d) Motivating public to participate in environment protec-
tion and environment improvement.
(e) Acquiring skills to help the concerned individuals in
identifying and solving environmental problems.
(f) Striving to attain harmony with nature.

Education for a healthy environment, must begin early in the

family, teaching them to children to avoid wasting energy, e.g.
using lamps, low consumption, or do not leave taps open
unnecessarily; No fouling the planet with non-biodegradable
elements that pollute (throw waste in the bins and not on
public roads) and so on.
This education must continue and the school, but they are
adults who must realize first, to be able to educate by
example, since this company is at stake the very existence of
the planet, threatened by environmental problems, which can
be reversed: hole in the ozone layer, greenhouse effect, acid
rain, loss of biodiversity, among others. According to
UNESCO, the guiding principles of environmental
education should be as follows:
(a) Environmental education should be compulsory, right
from the primary up to the post graduate stage.
(b) Environmental education should have an interdisci-
plinary approach by including physical, chemical, bio-
logical as well as socio-cultural aspects of the
environment. It should build a bridge between biolo-
gy and technology.
(c) Environmental education should consider the histori-
cal perspective, the current and the potential historical
issues.

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Environmental Studies 2018 - 19 Sem - I 13

(d) Environmental education should emphasize the im-

portance of sustainable development i.e., economic
development without degrading the environment.
(e) Environmental education should emphasize the neces-
sity of seeking international cooperation in environ-
mental planning.
(f) Environmental education should lay more stress on
practical activities and first-hand experiences.

5) Interdisciplinary Nature of EVS

The multidisciplinary nature of environmental studies in-
cludes various disciplines of study; each contributing to
a holistic understanding of the processes and phenomena oc-
curring on our planet, in our solar system and universe. The
environment is complex and actually made up of many differ-
ent environments, including natural, constructed and cultural
environments, hence environmental studies is the inter disci-
plinary examination of how biology, geology, politics policy
studies, law, geology, religion engineering, chemistry and eco-
nomics combine to inform the consideration of humanity’s
effects on the natural world.
The disciplines included in environmental education are ge-
ography, environmental sciences, environmental engineering
and environmental management. It generally covers the areas
as environment and enterprise, interaction of nature, socio-
economic dimensions, environment impact assessment, eco-
nomics of pollution, prevention, environmental management
standards, etc.
(a) Geography
The subject geography studies the relationship be-
tween man and his environment. The components of envi-
ronment like lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and
biosphere are the main study areas of geography. Geography
is very broad subject dealing with different subjects under its
umbrella and environmental studies is one of the main
branches of geography.
 Figure - Multidisciplinary nature of environmental studies

(b) Environmental Science

It deals with the scientific study of environmental
system (air, water, soil and land), the inherent or induced
changes on organisms and the environmental damages in-
curred as a result of human interaction with the environ-
ment.
(C) Environmental Engineering
It deals with the study of technical processes in-
volved in the protection of environment from the potential-
ly deleterious effects of human activity and improving the
environmental quality for the health and well beings of
humans.
(D) Environmental Management
It promotes due regard for physical, social and eco-
nomic environment of the enterprise or projects. It encour-
ages planned investment at the start of the production chain
rather than forced investment in cleaning up at the end.

Unit 1: Fundamentals of Environment By: Dr. Pradip A. Saymote

 Environmental Studies
Ecosystem Dynamics and Functioning
6) Ecosystem – Meaning, Classification and Types
An ecosystem is a system
formed by the interactions of
a variety of individual
organisms with each other
and with their physical
environment.
An ecosystem is a community of
living organisms (populations of
species) interacting with one
another and with its non-living
physical and chemical
environment. The interactions
are such as ot perpetuate the
community and remain stable
under varying conditions.
2018 - 19 Sem - I 15
Before we define the term ecosystem in a formal way, we
must get to know a few more basic terms. An organism is any
living thing – an animal, a plant, ore microbe. A mosquito, a
fish, a plat, a rabbit, a tree an elephant, a human being – all
are organisms. A cell is the basic unit of life in organisms. An
organism like bacterium consists of a single cell, while most
organisms have many cells. The organisms in this world can
be classified into different species.
The term ‘ecosystem’ was coined in year 1930 by Roy
Clapham. The word, ‘eco’, meaning environment, and its
system. It is a complex of coordinated unit in the
environment.
The term ‘Ecosystem’ is ‘the physical and biological
components of an environment and their interrelation with
each other in a unit’.
British ecologist Arthur G. Tansley from Oxford refined the
term in 1935, as the interactions among biotic and abiotic
components of an environment at a particular site / place.
Ecosystem Consist of …
 Physical and Biological factors
 Nearly self – contained
 Exchanging Energy
 Interaction between the components
 Nutrients exchange within the system
 Forming Ecological Unit, etc.
Definition of Ecosystem …
1. “An ecosystem is a natural system consisting of all plants,
animals and microorganisms (biotic factors) in an area
functioning together with all the non-living physical
(abiotic factors) of the environment” (Christopherson
1997).
2. An Ecosystem is a unit that includes all of the organisms
in a given area interacting with the physical environment
so that a flow of energy takes place within the system.
 3. “The organisms and the physical features of the habitat
form an ecological complex or more briefly an
ecosystem.” (Clarke, 1954)
The similar or related ecosystems on land to form
biomes. A biome usually has a distinct climate and life
forms adapted to the climate. For example, Deserts,
grassland, tropical rain forest, temperate forests,
coniferous forest, and tundra. A biome is simply more
extensive and complex than an ecosystem.

Classification of Ecosystem …
The ecosystems are classified based on a number of factors.
1. According to the Environment
1. Aquatic Ecosystem,
2. Terrestrial Ecosystem,
3. Air Ecosystem
2. According to the Degree of Human Intervention
1. Natural and
2. Artificial.
3. Types According to Size
1. Micro (Small),
2. Meso (Medium) and
3. Macro (Large)
4. On the basis of Physiographic Characteristics /
Habitat
1. Land and
2. Water (Terrestrial and Aquatic)
5. On the basis of Water Characteristics
1. Fresh water and
2. Saline Water
6. On the basis of Topography and Climate
1. Forest,
2. Grassland,
3. Mountain and
4.Desert

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Environmental Studies 2018 - 19 Sem - I 17

Types of Ecosystem …
1. On the basis of Physiographic Characteristics /
Habitat

Figure – Types of Ecosystem on the basis of habitat

Figure – Types of Ecosystem on the basis of habitat

Functions of Ecosystem …
AN ecosystem is minimal grouping of diverse organisms that
interact and function togetherin order to sustain life.
o Energy Flow
o Food Chains, Food Webs and Trophic
Structures
o Nutrients Cycles
o Productivity
o Control and Regulation
o Ecological Succession
 The ecosystem sustain life. Individual organisms or
populations cannot sustain life indefinitely. No single species
can produce all the food it needs, decompose all its wastes,
and reuse the matter to produce more food.
Ecosystems are surely wondering of nature. Ecosystem
services that nature gives us (virtually free) include provision
of food and water, climate regulation, soild formation,
maintenance of the biogechemical cycles, waste removal and
detoxification, and control of pests and diseases.

7) Fundamental Concepts :
A) Concept of Habitat
A habitat is originated from In general manner a habitat is the natural home or
Latin word i.e. ‘inhabits’ i.e. environment of a plant, animal, or other organism. This
an ecological or word in use since year 1755. A habitat provides organisms the
environmental area which space to live there with food, water, shelter for their survival.
is inhabited by a particular All living organisms on plant earth has a habitat.
species of animal, plant or • A habitat is not necessarily a geographical area, it can
other type of organism. be
• the interior of a stem,
• a rotten log, a rock or
• for a parasitic organism it is the body of its host,
part of the host's body such as the digestive tract,
or
• a single cell within the host's body.

Habitat is the area where a species is biologically adapted to

live. The habitat of a given species or population is marked
by the physical and biological features of its environment
such as the vegetation, climatic conditios, presence of water,
and moisture, soil type, etc. Habitats greatly vary from
organism to organism, because all living things have
different needs for survival. Some species have flexible
habitat needs, while other species require very specific
habitats in order to survive.
• Habitats change over time – by natural or man-made
causes. This may be due to
• The eruption of a volcano, an earthquake,
a tsunami, a wildfire or
• A change in oceanic currents; or
• The change in the climate, (weather patterns) or
due to human activities

Unit 1: Fundamentals of Environment By: Dr. Pradip A. Saymote

 Environmental Studies
In ecology, a food chain is
a series of organisms that
eat one another so that
energy and nutrients flow
from one to the next.
2018 - 19 Sem - I 19
B) Food Chain
All living organisms need energy for doing any biological
work such as growing, moving, reproducing, and maintaining
themselves. The energy comes from food. How does any
organism get its food? The only way is to eat another
organism. The flow of food energy in an ecosystem
progress through a food chain
The sequence of eating some one and being eaten by
some one is an ecosystem is known as food chain. The biotic
components are linked, interlinked and cross-linked
through tropic levels to form food chains. Food chains
overlap, sicne mos organism have more than one item on
their menu. Hence it is a complex network of interconnected
food chains.
A Typical Food Chain …
A typical food chain, starting from the bottom where it has
the producers and it is moving upward. The tropic level of
phases of food chain is :
I. Primary Producers
The primary producers are at the base or foundation
layer of the food chain. The primary producers are
autotrophs and are most often photosynthetic organisms
such as plants, algae, or cyanobacteria.
II. Primary Consumers
The organisms that eat the primary producers are called
as primary consumers. Primary consumers are
usually herbivores, plant-eaters, though they may be algae
eaters or bacteria eaters.
III. Secondary Consumers
The organisms that eat the primary consumers are called
as secondary consumers. The secondary consumers are
generally meat-eaters and also known as carnivores.
IV. Tertiary consumers
The organisms that eat the secondary consumers are
called as tertiary consumers. These are carnivore which are
further eating carnivores, like eagles or big fish.
 V. Quaternary consumers
Some food chains have additional further levels, such
as quaternary consumers i.e. the carnivores animals that
eat tertiary consumers. Organisms at the very top of a food
chain are called apex consumers.

Trophic Levels …

Major Types of Food Chain …

There are different types of food chains in our environment.
1. Grazing Food Chain, beginning with autotrophs,
2. Detrital Food Chain, beginning with dead organic
matter

1. Grazing Food Chain - Major

In a grazing food chain, energy and nutrients move from
plants to the next different levels. The Grazing food chain
starts with green pants and ends with carnivores.
e.g. Grass  Grasshopper  Frog  Snake  Hawk

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Environmental Studies 2018 - 19 Sem - I 21

2. Detritus Food Chain

The dead organic matter of plants and animals is broken
down by decomposers (e.g., bacteria and fungi), and moves to
 detritivores and then  carnivores.
e.g.: Leaf litter Algae  Crabs  Small Carnivorous
Fish  Large Carnivorous Fish
OR
Dead organic Matter  Fungi  Bacteria

Energy Transfer …
At each energy transfer about 90% energy is lost for
respiration and metabolic reactions and only 10% of the
energy passes on. The non-degradable items like
pesticides or plastic is not decomposing and remain in
ecosystem as it is and become harmful.

C) Food Web
• Food web is an important ecological concept. The
food webs are made of different food chains. It
represents feeding relationships within a
community.
• It also implies the transfer of food energy from its
source in plants through herbivores further into
carnivores.
• The length of these food chains was mostly limited
upto 4 or 5 links. The food chains are not isolated
rather interlinked together into food webs (which he
called "food cycles").
• The richness of species community, and
ecosystem productivity and stability are associated
with food web.
 Figure – Food Web
Above diagram including a series of arrows, each arrow
pointing from one species to another. It represents the flow
of food energy from one feeding group of organisms to
another.

Applications of Food Web …

• Food webs are constructed to describe the
interactions among species or the direct
relationships between different orgnainisms in the
ecosystem.
• Food webs represent the structure and it can be used
to study bottom-up or top-down control of
community structure in an ecosystem.
• Food webs is also useful to understand the different
patterns of energy transfer in terrestrial as well as
aquatic ecosystems.

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D) Ecological Pyramids
The use of ecological pyramid was first described by Charles
Elton in 1927 hence it is also known as Eltonian pyramid.
The other names used for an ecological pyramid are
trophic pyramid, / energy pyramid, or food pyramid, etc.
An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation designed
to show the biomass or bio productivity at each trophic
level in a particualr ecosystem. In ecosystem the energy
flows through several phases and starts from the base. The
number, biomass and energy of organisms gradually decrease
from the producer to the consumer level (bottom to top).
This process is represented by a pyramid called ecological
pyramid.

Types of Pyramids …
There are different types of ecological pyramids existed in
nature. These are classified on the different categories i.e.

1. The Pyramid of Energy

The energy pyramids begin with producers on the bottom
(producers - plants) and proceed through the various trophic
levels. The plants are primary producers and produce their
own food these are consumed by herbivores, the herbivores
are eaten by carnivores, etc.
• The energy pyramid describes the overall nature of the
ecosystem.
• During the flow of energy from organism to other,
there is considerable loss of energy in the form of
heat.
• The Primary producers i.e. autotrophs have maximum
energy. On the contarary the tertiary consumers have
least energy.
• The energy pyramid always upright and vertical. This
shows the flow of energy at different trophic levels.
• The energy is minimum at base level i.e. producers, it
decreases down as moving up and lowest at apex.
• At each trophic level, there is successive loss of
energy in the form of heat, respiration, and other
process.
 2. The Pyramid of Numbers
It is the representation of number of organisms are
existing in each trophic level. This type of pyramid may be
upright (e.g. Grassland ecosystem), inverted (Parasitic
ecosystem) or dumbbell shaped (Forest ecosystem).
• It is the relationship in terms of number of
producers, herbivores and the carnivores at their
successive trophic levels.
• There is a decrease in the number of individuals from
the lower to the higher trophic levels.
The number pyramid varies from ecosystem to ecosystem as
per change in the region, climate and other geographical
conditions. e.g.
 In croplands the crops are more in numbers.
 The grasshoppers feeding on crop plants are lesser
in number,
 The frogs feeding on grasshopper are still lesser in
number.
 The snakes feeding on frogs are fewer in number.

Types of the Pyramid of Numbers

A) Upright Pyramid of Number
This type of pyramid is found in the aquatic and
grassland ecosystem. In these ecosystems there are
numerous small autotrophs which support  lesser
herbivores which further support  smaller number of
carnivores and therefore this pyramid is upright.

B) Partly Upright Pyramid of Number

It is seen in the forest ecosystem where the number of
producers is lesser in number and support a large
number of herbivores and which in turn support a fewer
number of carnivores.

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Environmental Studies 2018 - 19 Sem - I 25

C) Inverted Pyramid of Number

This type of ecological pyramid is seen in parasitic food
chain where one primary producer supports numerous
parasites which further support to more hyper-parasites.

3. The Pyramid of Biomass

This is the pyramid which represent how much biomass (the
amount of living or organic matter present in an
organism) is present in the organisms at each trophic level.
In simple words it can be termed as turnover in biomass.
• Fundamental aspect: The net dry weight is plotted to
that of the producers, herbivores, carnivores, etc.
• There is a gradual decrease in the biomass from the
producers to the higher trophic levels.
• The net organisms collected from each feeding level and
are then dried and weighed.
• This dry weight is the biomass and it represents the
amount of energy available in the form of organic
matter of the organisms.
There are two types of pyramid of biomass, they are:
A) Upright pyramid, and
B) Inverted pyramid of biomass

1. Upright Pyramid of Biomass

• This occurs when the larger net biomass of producers
supports a smaller` weight of consumers.
For example: Forest ecosystem.

2. Inverted Pyramid of Biomass

• This happens when the smaller weight of
producers is supporting to the consumers of
larger weight.
For example: Aquatic ecosystem.
 E) Ecosystem Stability

The concept of ecological stability emerged in the first half

of the 20th century, but popularize in the 1970s. In 1997,
Grimm and Wissel made an inventory of 167 definitions
used in the literature and found 70 different stability
concepts. One of the strategies that these two authors
proposed to clarify the subject is to replace ecological
stability with more specific terms, such as constancy,
resilience and persistence.
Stable ecological systems prosperous in nature, and
documented by the scientific literature.
• An ecosystem has ecological stability (or equilibrium)
• If it does not experience unexpected large
changes in its characteristics across time, or
• If it is capable of returning to its equilibrium
state after an alarming situation (a capacity
known as resilience).
• Nevertheless, it is important to mention that not
every community or ecosystem in nature is
stable.
• It is possible for an ecosystem or a community to be
stable in some of their properties and unstable in
others;
• e.g. in response to a drought, a plant community
might conserve biomass but lose biodiversity.
• The, noise plays an important role on biological
systems and, in some scenarios, it can fully determine
their temporal dynamics.
• Local stability indicates that a system is stable over
small short-lived disturbances,
• While global stability indicates a system highly
resistant to change in species
composition and/or food web dynamics.

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Environmental Studies 2018 - 19 Sem - I 27

8) Major Ecosystems of the World

The biosphere is the biggest ecosystem which combines
all existing ecosystems of the world. There are several
ecosystems working at macro to micro level at global
level difficult to classify them in particular groups. The
factors which are contributing to develop different
ecosystems i.e. physiography, climate, natural vegetation, soil
and water bodies,
Each region has its own / different ecosystem. Regional
climate interacts with regional biotic and abiotic components
and produce large, easily recognizable community units.
Following are some of the major ecosystms at global scale

1. Fresh Water Ecosystem

There are two main types of fresh water ecosystems i.e.
A) Standing water / lentic (calm) — Rake, pond, swamp.
• This habitat occupies a small portion of the
earth’s surface. It provides water for drinking,
domestic purpose and for industry.
e.g. A pond is a good example of fresh water
ecosystem, which contains a self-sufficient, self-
regulating system.

(ii) Running water / lotic (washed) — River, spring, stream

• Lakes, swamps and river delta have their own
ecosystems
• It contains producers, consumers and decomposers
which interact and are responsible for the unique
ecosystem.

2. Marine (Ocean) Ecosystem

Marine (Ocean) ecosystem is different than fresh water
because of its salt content as well as its volume.
(i) The sea water covers 70 per cent of earth’s area,
(ii) The sea is deep topography,
(iii) The sea is continuous, and water is circulating, etc.
 In a marine ecosystem, the ecology of shallow and deep
waters as well as estuarine part is different from each
other due to its geographical condition.
Each ocean in itself represents a very large and stable
ecosystem

3. Grassland Ecosystem
Grasslands occupy about 19 % of the earth’s area, which
include tropical and temperate grasslands.
There are different nutrients and elements are present in
soil and air like carbon dioxide, water, nitrates, phosphates,
sulfates, etc. and contributing a lot.
• The producers are  grasses, small trees and
shrubs.
• The primary consumers  cows, buffaloes, sheep,
goats, deer, rabbits, and other animals,
• The secondary consumers  foxes, jackals,
snakes, frogs, lizards, birds, etc.
The active microbes interact with dead organic matter
and bring minerals back to the soil after decomposition.
Pastoralism and livestock ranching are the main
occupation in these regions.

4. Forest Ecosystem
About 30 % of the land area of the earth is under forest
cover. But the forests are declining day by day due to human
activities
1. Coniferous forests  The stretch as broad belts
across North America and Eurasia.
2. Temperate deciduous forests  Occupy areas
in eastern North America, parts of Europe, Japan
and also in Australia.
3. Tropical evergreen forests  Found in the
tropical regions.
• The producers  trees of different species.
• The primary consumers  animals of various types,

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Environmental Studies 2018 - 19 Sem - I 29

• The secondary consumers  carnivores’ animals like

lions, tigers, snakes, birds, foxes, etc.
It is the habitat of several animal, species but desturbed
due to human activities as a result decreasing very fast. This
leads to global climate and different problems

5. Desert Ecosystem
Regions having less than 25 cms of rainfall are considered
as deserts and they are unevenly distributed around the world.
There are three life forms of plants that are adapted to
deserts:
(i) The annuals, which avoid drought by growing only
when there is adequate moisture,
(ii) The succulents, such as the cacti, which store water,
and
(iii) The desert shrubs, which have numerous branches
and a special root system
The most common animals, apart from camels and
goats, are reptiles and insects. These speices are able to
live under extreme conditions. Due to poor vegetation, dead
organic matter is less and some fungi as well as bacteria
act as decomposers.
There are widespread cold deserts in the north and south
poles, covered by ice caps having entirely different type of
ecosystem.

6. Cropland Ecosystem – Managed

Ecosystem
The cropland ecosystem, is man-engineered ecosystems.
Man has developed croplands considering the soil,
climatic and other environmental conditions.
These ecosystems contain dominant crop species like
wheat, maize, jowar, paddy, sugarcane, cotton, tea,
coffee, etc.
In this ecosystem the abiotic components are dominant i.e.
climatic conditions, mineral contents of the soil, topography,
 etc. In this system man using chemical fertilizers and/or
proving water, irrigation for the growth of grop.
The food grains, pulses and commercial crops are grown in
these croplands, provide food and fodder not only to man
and his animals, but also for birds, rats, rabbits, and
other smaller reptiles insects, etc.
The decomposition of dead organic matter of plants and
animals make the minerals available again for soil.

Major ecosystems in India …

On the basis of physiography, climate, natural vegetation, soil
following ecosystems found in our country
1. Himalayan Mountain Ecosystem
2. Plain Ecosystem
3. Desert Ecosystem
4. Central India Plateau Ecosystem
5. Peninsular (Deccan plateau) Ecosystem
6. Coastal Plain Ecosystem
7. Island Ecosystem
The above listed ecosystmes are the major and occupied huge
area but these are again further can be divided into sub-
ecosystem regions.

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Environmental Studies 2018 - 19 Sem - I 31

8) Major Natural Ecosystems –

There are different ecosystems on the earths surface which
are diverse nature from region to region. Following are some
of the significant natural ecosystems on the plant earth.
• Wetlands,
• Mangroves,
• Rivers and
• Lakes

1. Wetlands Ecosystem
A wetland is an area of land that is either covered by
water or saturated with water. Here water is
often groundwater, seeping up from an aquifer or spring.
Water can also come from a nearby river or lake even
seawater
Wetlands exist in :
• Every country and
• In every climatic zone, from the polar regions to
the tropics, and
• From high altitudes to dry regions.,

Importance of Wetlands Ecosystem

Wetlands cover a small portion of the earth’s surface, yet they
are essential systems –
• They are rich in nature and vital to human life
• This act as water sources and purifiers
• They protect sea shores
• These are the planet’s greatest natural carbon
stores
• They are significant to agriculture and fisheries
• It contains diverse and beautiful nature

The wetlands are comprised of …

1. Peatlands
Peatlands are wetlands with a thick water-logged soil layer
made up of dead and decaying plant material. It includes
moors, bogs, mires, peat swamp forests and permafrost
tundra. Peatlands represent half of the Earth’s wetlands and
cover 3% of the global total land area.
 Why are the peatlands important?
The petlands are having very important role in ecosystem as:
1) Source of Water: Peatlands absorb heavy rainfall,
providing protection against floods, and release water
slowly, a supply of clean water.
2) Source of Food: Millions of people depend on
peatlands for herding cattle, catching fish, and
farming.
3) Home of Species: Tropical peat swamp forests are
home to thousands of animals and plants
4) Role in Climate change: Peatlands contain twice as
much carbon as the world’s forests. When peatlands
get disturbed it become significant sources of Green
House Gases emission.

2. High Altitude Wetlands

Glacial lakes ecosystems are unique and support to sustain
the natural species as well as livelihoods of people. The high-
altitude wetlands are major water storage from rain and glacial
melt. It feed groundwater stores, trap sediments and recycle
nutrients, enhancing the quantity and quality of water.
Why are high altitude wetlands important?
1) Species: These wetlands are important stopping
points for migratory birds and breeding grounds for
birds, fish and amphibians.
2) Disaster reduction: It also works as disaster reducer.
It promotes to growth of vegetation, reduces soil
erosion and buffers flow of water.
It providing a steady flow of water downstream, and
reducing the severity of disasters such as landslides,
floods and droughts.

3. Arctic wetlands
The wetlands are the main ecosystem in the Arctic region.
These peatlands, rivers, lakes, and shallow bays cover nearly
60% of the total surface area. Arctic wetlands store
enormous amounts of greenhouse gases and are critical for

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Environmental Studies 2018 - 19 Sem - I 33

global biodiversity. They are also the main source of

livelihoods for local indigenous peoples.
Why are Arctic Wetlands important?
1) Species: Arctic wetlands offer unique habitats to
both plants and animals. For many migratory species
the Arctic provides necessary breeding and feeding
areas.
2) Livelihoods: Over four million people, including
more than 30 different indigenous groups, live in the
Arctic. People living in the Arctic depend on wetlands
for fish, harvesting of plants and as pastures for
grazing.
3) Climate change: Arctic wetlands contain enormous
stocks of organic carbon in their soils, and are
dependent on frozen permafrost for their ability to
store carbon. As temperatures rise and the permafrost
thaws, huge amounts of greenhouse gases may be
released into the atmosphere.

2. Mangrove Ecosystem
The term "mangrove" refers to a tidally influenced wetland
ecosystem within the intertidal zone. Mangrove also
designates the marine tidal forest that includes trees, shrubs,
palms, epiphytes and ferns. These are highly productive but
extremely sensitive
Mangroves are natural vegetation grows in area where saline
and freshwater, meets on the land. Mangrove forests are
found in tropical and subtropical regions in tidal areas, which
are frequently flooded with salt water.
Mangrove forests occupy about 15.2 million hectares of
tropical coast worldwide: across Africa, Australia, Asia and
America.
 Governing Factors of Mangrove
Ecosystem
1) Climatic factor: The climate is major governing factor in
the formation and functioning of ecosystem. The
fluctuation of temperature. Rainfall, and regular wind flow
are important aspects of climatic factor.
2) Sedimentation: The sedimentation plays very major role
for the growth of mangrove.
3) Soil: The soil structure and soil salinity are the main
agents, controlling the distribution of mangroves.
4) Tidal Amplitude: The tidal fluctuation has the major role
for mangrove habitats, as most mangroves grow well in
between the Mean High-Water Spring Tide (MHWST)
and Mean Sea Level (MSL)
Why are mangroves important?
1) Disaster reduction: Mangrove forests provide
protection and shelter against extreme weather
events, such as storm winds and floods. Mangroves
absorb and reduce the tidal force the coastlines. A
mangrove can reduce the destructive force of a
tsunami by up to 90%.
2) Home of Species: Mangrove leaves and roots
provide nutrients that nourish plankton, algae, fish
and shellfish. Mangroves are also home to many
birds and mammals – such as mangrove monkeys in
South Asia.
3) Climate change: Mangroves rival the carbon storage
potential of rainforests.

Threats to Mangrove Ecosystem

Natural Threats:
• Climate change;
• Cyclones;
• Damage by Shellfishes
• Insect pests such as caterpillars, woodborers
• Drying of mangrove trees

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Environmental Studies 2018 - 19 Sem - I 35

Anthropogenic Threats:
• Tree felling for fuel wood and wood products;
• Reclamation for agriculture and aquaculture;
• Urban development
• Industrialization

Sustainable use of Mangrove ecosystem:

• Culture (Agriculture, Aquaculture -capture fisheries,

culture fish),
• Protective from natural hazards (cyclones, storm
surges & erosion)
• Natural products useful for medicinal purposes,
drugs, etc.;
• Other products (timber, salt production, honey, etc.);
• Socio-economic aspects;
• Tourism
• Traditional medicines

Conservation of the Mangrove ecosystem

• Afforestation
• Legislation (including laws and policies);
• Monitoring and Surveys (land and aerial, etc.);
• Protection (including conservation, parks
development, etc.)

3. River Ecosystem
A river is a natural watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing
towards an ocean, a lake, a sea, or another river. The Rivers
originate at high altitudes and flow in different stages and
meet sea / ocean. Whereas the ‘deltas’ are found on the
mouth of rivers (at last stage), where the flow of water slows
down and spreads out into expanses of wetlands and shallow
water.
The river ecosystem refers to the relationships that living
organisms have with each other and with the surrounding
area environment of a river catchment area.
 River ecosystems consists of :
• Flowing water that is mostly unidirectional
• A state of continuous physical change (physiography
change)
• Many different (and changing) microhabitats
• Variability in the flow rates of water
• Plants and animals that have adapted to live within
water flow conditions, etc.

Characteristics of River Ecosystem

1) Water Flow : The water flow is continuously carrying
vertical and horizontal erosion and also deposits the
sedimentation. River ecosystem is having capability to
alter the shape of terrain and also create a variety of
changing habitats.
2) Light : Light provides energy for photosynthesis,
which produces the primary food source for the river.
3) Temperature: Water temperature in rivers varies with
the environment. Water can be heated or cooled
through radiation. Temperature differences can be
significant between the surface and the bottom of
deep, slow-moving rivers. Climate, shading and
elevation all affect water temperature.
4) Water Chemistry: The chemistry of the water varies
from one river ecosystem to another. It is often
determined by inputs from the surrounding
environment or catchment area But can also be
influenced by rain and the addition of pollution from
human sources. Oxygen is the most important
chemical constituent of river systems – most
organisms need it for survival.
5) Bacteria: Bacteria are present in large numbers in
river waters. They play a significant role in energy
recycling. Bacteria decompose organic material into
inorganic compounds that can be used by plants and
by other microbes.

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Environmental Studies 2018 - 19 Sem - I 37

6) Plants: Plants performs process of

photosynthesise which converting light energy from
the Sun into chemical energy. A variety of plants can
be found growing within a river system. Some plants
are free-floating while others are rooted in areas of
reduced current. Algae are the most significant source
of primary food in most rivers or streams.
7) Fish: The ability of fish to live in a river system
depends on their speed and duration of that speed.
This ability varies and is related to the area of habitat
the fish may occupy in the river. Most fish tend to
remain close to the bottom, the banks or behind
obstacles, swimming in the current only to feed or
change location.
8) Birds: A large number of birds also inhabit river
ecosystems. They are not tied to the water as fish are
and spend some of their time in terrestrial habitats.
Fish and water invertebrates are an important food
source for water birds.
Why are rivers and deltas important?
1) Water and food: Rivers serve as important sources
of drinking water, food and irrigation for crops. River
waters also recharge lakes and transport fertile
sediments that enrich floodplains and marshes.
2) Transport: Rivers also play an essential role as
highways for transportation and commerce and as
sources of energy.
3) Species: Rivers and deltas provide critical habitat for
fish and other freshwater animals such as amphibians
and shellfish.

4. Lake Ecosystem
A lake ecosystem includes biotic (living) plants, animals and
micro-organisms, as well as abiotic (nonliving) physical and
chemical interactions. Lakes are inland bodies of water that
lack any direct exchange with an ocean.
 Lake ecosystems are made up of the physical, chemical and
biological properties contained within these water bodies.
They may be shallow or deep, permanent or temporary. Lake
ecosystems are influenced by their watersheds, and the
geological, chemical and biological processes.
Although lakes contain < 0.01% of all the water on the
Earth’s surface, they hold >98% of the liquid surface
freshwater. Many organisms depend on freshwater for
survival, and humans frequently depend on lakes for
many ‘goods and services’ such as:
• Drinking water,
• Waste removal,
• Fisheries,
• Agricultural irrigation,
• Industrial activity, and
• Recreation.

Zones of Lake Ecosystem

On the basis of the depth of water, penetration of light and
the types of plants, animals in the pond, the pond / lake is
divided as:
1) Littoral: It is a peripheral shallow water zone in which
light can reach up to the bottom. It contains warm and
oxygen rich circulating water. So, this zone includes
abundant rooted vegetations and different types of
consumers.
2) O Limnetic: It is the central part of a pond up to where
there is penetration of effective light. The associated
organisms are small crustaceans, rotifers, insects and their
larvae and algae. The water level, oxygen content, and
temperature in this zone varies time to time.
Decomposers are almost absent here.
3) Profundal: This is the deep-water region where there is
no effective light penetration. There the microscopic
plants and decomposers are present. These can be used as
important hotspot for biodiversity. Lakes provides fresh
water and significant for our terrestrial wildlife.

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 Environmental Studies 2018 - 19 Sem - I 39

Managed Ecosystems
The managed ecosystems are also known as man-made
ecosystem. There are many man-made ecosystems existed
around us, out of that some of the important managed
ecosystems are:
1. Aquaculture
2. Urban Ecosystem

1. Aquaculture Ecosystem
Aquaculture (less commonly spelled aquiculture), also
known as aqua-farming, is the farming of fish, crustaceans,
molluscs, aquatic plants, algae, and other organisms.
Aquaculture involves cultivating freshwater and saltwater
populations under controlled conditions. Mari-culture refers
to aquaculture practiced in marine environments and in
underwater habitats.

History of Aquaculture
The farming of fish and other water dwelling species dates
back to ancient Chinese and Egyptian civilizations. Although
these same techniques have persisted over the years, abundant
availability of wild species have kept aquaculture practices at
relatively small scales. As the human population continues to
increase, the wild sources of these species are becoming
depleted and aquaculture is stepping in to fill the demand.
This rapid expansion of aquaculture has brought to light a
number of drawbacks, which require stronger understanding
of the relationships between aquaculture systems and social
and natural ecosystems.

Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries

Aquatic ecosystems, inland, They also perform many other important environmental
coastal and marine, provide functions, e.g. in relation to meteorological events, pollution
humans with resources for etc., contributing to general human well-being. They are used
recreation, food and by both capture fisheries and aquaculture as well as other
livelihood. competing sectors. Achieving sustainable use of aquatic
ecosystems has been the main and largely failed objective of
fisheries management.
 The formally adopted Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries
(EAF) imposes further efforts in that direction, implying
better understanding and better governance.
Fisheries usually better relate to the intermediate ecosystem
size, range and of social structures in charge of their
stewardship. Wild or ranched stocks and other organisms in
aquaculture ecosystem affect each other. The degradation and
pollution imposed by industries are affecting, with long-
lasting including on the production of fisheries, seafood
quality and fishers' livelihood.
Natural variability and climate change have significant
implications for productivity and management. Catastrophic
natural events (e.g. typhoons, tsunamis) have significant
impact on resources, infrastructures and people.
Understanding, predicting and accounting for them is a
significant challenge of the coming days decade.

Community Aquaculture
Local farming promotes food security and economic stability
in coastal communities. Many coastal communities depend on
aquaculture for food and income using it supplement
traditional fishing practices. Community aquaculture usually
occurs close to shore or on land in coastal ponds
Asian and African societies have been farming fish for
centuries employing complex multi-trophic systems in order
to maximize the benefits of their efforts.
For example: some Chinese villages grow various species of
Carp in flooded rice fields to concurrently fertilize the fields
and provide nutrients for fish. Even before this, the
Egyptians used similar mixed agricultural designs in their
farming.

Industrial / Commercial Aquaculture

Large-scale intensive Fish farming at the industrial scale has been growing as more
aquaculture for profit fish stocks become depleted. Some fish are farmed at an
benefiting companies. industrial level because production costs are low or market
values are high. Due to the high costs of feeds, especially for
carnivorous species, industrial aquaculture has been
dominated by filter feeding and grazer species. As wild stocks

Unit 1: Fundamentals of Environment By: Dr. Pradip A. Saymote

 Environmental Studies
The pros and cons of
aquaculture, each is relevant
to varying degrees based on
species farmed, geographic
location and the intensity of
farming.
2018 - 19 Sem - I 41
of high value carnivorous species (such as salmon, shrimp
and tuna) continue to fall, farming these species to meet
increasing demand is becoming more profitable.
Costs and Benefits
As new technology there are benefits and risks to aquaculture,
especially mariculture, farming in the ocean. Collaborative
research and intimate relationships between industry,
regulation and academia will help ensure safe and efficient
expansion.
Benefits
• Alternative/Additional Protein Source
• Relieve Pressure on Wild Stocks
• Stable, Nutritious Food Source
• Stable Income Source
Costs
• Pollution
• Habitat Destruction
• Feed Inputs
• Diseases & Parasites
• Land Use
• Freshwater Resources
2. Urban Ecosystem
Urban ecosystems are the cities, towns, and urban strips
constructed by humans. Urban ecosystems apply the
ecosystem approach to urban areas. Urban ecosystems are
dynamic ecosystems that have similar interactions and
behaviours as natural ecosystems.
Urban ecosystems are a hybrid of natural and man-made
elements whose interactions are affected not only by the
natural environment, but also culture, personal behaviour,
politics, economics and social organisation.
Urban areas are home to more than 54% of the global
population in 2017, and this proportion is expected to reach
by 66% in 2050. The urban areas cover a small proportion of
 the Earth's land surface (<1%), they account for 67-76% of
global energy consumption and 71-76% of fossil fuel-related
CO2 emissions, 60% of all residential water use, and 80% of
the wood used for industrial purposes.

Urban areas act as Many of the environmental problems faced today (e.g. global
population centres warming, water and air pollution and inadequate access to
providing goods and safe drinking water) can be traced back to cities and lifestyle
services not only for its choices.
population, but also for
There is common misconception is that cities are separate
populations worldwide.
from nature and do not need to be considered in the study of
ecosystems. Another common assumption is that by studying
the different parts of a city (transportation infrastructure,
parks, economic base, etc.), one can understand how the city
functions.
The size and number of modern urban ecosystems is unique
where fossil fuel use is a key factor. Unhealthy urban
ecosystems can lead to local and wider environmental
degradation, social problems, economic decline, human
health problems, etc.

Characteristics of Urban Ecosystem

• There is difference between the ecology of cities and
ecology in cities.
• The urban ecosystem focuses on the relationship
between ecosystem services and human health and well-
being.
• Great inequalities in the relationship between
environment and health are to be expected across any
urban area.
• Clear physical and mental health benefits accrue from the
use of urban green-spaces.
• Urban governance has a major influence on the response
to opportunities offered by nature in cities.
• The urban ecosystem contains both individual and layered
(nested) systems from three spheres:
(a) the natural environment,
(b) the built environment and

Unit 1: Fundamentals of Environment By: Dr. Pradip A. Saymote

Environmental Studies 2018 - 19 Sem - I 43

(c) the socio-economic environment.

• Urban ecosystems can no longer be considered as a
separate entity to the environment as they have direct
and indirect impacts on the immediate and wider
environments.

Role of Experts, Specialists

• Urban ecosystem management is multidisciplinary in
nature and can adapt quickly to changes.
• It is a composition of social, environmental, economic
and decision-making tools, etc.
• Enhance understanding of urban areas as social-
ecological systems, and generate knowledge and guidance
for better urban ecosystem management;
• Identify key issues in urban ecosystem management, and
its linkage to urban sustainability and resilience;
• Help for better plan and designing urban ecosystems to
increase their sustainability and resilience.
• Build a network and platform to bring scientists,
practitioners, and policy & decision makers together,
about our ecological understanding of urban areas
and raise attention and public awareness of the
importance of urban ecosystems to enhance the
human well-being.
• The ecology of cities assesses the health and well-being
benefits of urban green-space, vegetated areas and water
bodies.
• It examines how the characteristics of the urban
landscape mosaic, and various parts of it, affect human
health and well-being.
• Human consumption and behaviour in one urban area
can affect the health and well-being of people in other,
such as through export of waste and trans-boundary
emissions and pollutant flows.
• Environmental, economic, technological, social and
individual risk factors and impacts affect urban
 populations at four urban ecosystem scales: patches
within the urban mosaic, built-up areas, urban
regions and the global scale.
• Increasing urban built-up area lead to more urban heat
island effects
• Urban people benefit in varied ways by technology, but
urban green-spaces create health benefits which are more
important

References:
1. Misra S.P. and Pandey S.N. Essential Environmental Studies. Ane Books Pvt. Ltd.

2. Botkin and Keller. (2012). ‘Environmental Science’., John Wiley & Sons Inc., Wiley
India (P) Ltd., New Delhi. Eighth Edition.

3. Krishnamoorthy, B. (2009). Environment Management -Text and Practices, New Delhi:

Prentice Hall India. www.prenticehall.india.org second edition

4. Rajgopalan R., (2016). ‘Environmental Studies - from crisis to cure’, Oxford

University press, New Delhi. Third Edition.

5. Santra S.C., (2014). ‘Environmental Science’, New Central Book Agency Pvt.
Ltd, Kolkata. Third Edition.

Note:
The text books made for Environmental Studies – I, for the syllabus of
University of Mumbai (Non-Autonomus Colleges) can be used for the
contents which are same as Autonomus Mithibai college syllabus of EVS.

Unit 1: Fundamentals of Environment By: Dr. Pradip A. Saymote