UNIT 1- Introduction to Environmental Issues and Values

1.1. Introduction to Environment: Definition, Scope, Elements, Types, Functions

I. Definition of Environment
Environment is a topic of discussion in different disciplines eg. geography, natural resource management,
atmospheric science, earth science, ecology, biology etc. The concept Environment is multifaceted.
Hence, it can take on many different meanings, both conceptually and in context.

A few definitions of environment:

Environment means everything that is physically external to the organism; and organism includes
human being.
It is a sum total of external conditions surrounding man in a given inter-relationship which exists
among human beings, other living creatures, plants, micro-organisms and other properties.
It is an aggregate of all those external conditions and effects which regulate life and development
of organisms.
Environment refers to all of the biotic and abiotic factors that act on an organism, population, or
ecological community and influence its survival and development.

Other conceptual definitions:

 Environment connotes the entire range of external influence acting on an organism, both the
physical and biological, and other organism surrounding an individual. (Encyclopedia Britannica)
 The National Conservation Strategy, Proclamation No 9 of 1995 of Ethiopia defined environment
as: "the totality of all resources whether in their natural state or as modified or changed by man
as well as the external conditions and impacts which affect the quality and quantity of said
resources and welfare of human beings."

II. Scope of Environment

The environment consists of four segments:
i. Atmosphere: the protective blanket of gases that surrounds the earth. It is a complex mix of many
gases and particulate. According to NASA, the Earth's atmosphere include Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen
(21%), Argon (0.93%) Carbon dioxide (0.04 %), trace amounts of neon, helium, methane, krypton,
hydrogen & water vapor.
 Importance of atmosphere:
 Sustain life on earth (plant, animal and human being)

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 - All living things need some of the gases for life support; providing the air we breathe. Hence,
the structure and the composition of the atmosphere are responsible for creating conditions
suitable for the healthy existence of the biosphere.
 Protect life on earth by shielding it from UV radiation.
- In the upper atmosphere Ozone (O3) absorbs high-energy Ultraviolet (UV) radiation. UV
radiations are very harmful and can severely damage life on earth if they hit ground.
 Moderate Earth’s Temperature
- The greenhouse gases which are capable of absorbing long wavelength radiation keep earth’s
temperature within an acceptable range through insulation; otherwise no activities could be carried out
due to extreme temperatures.
ii. Hydrosphere- the portion of the earth covered by water bodies.
 Globally water bodies occupy nearly ¾ (71%) of the earth’s surface. Of the global
water resource, nearly 97.5% is found in oceans and seas (salty in nature). Only about
2.5% is fresh water, of which nearly 68.7% is deposited in glaciers/ice mass/, 30.1%
exist as ground water, 0.8% exist in permafrost/permanently frozen land- of polar areas/
and 0.4% in surface waters. (eg. Lakes, rivers, atmosphere, soil and wetlands)
 Surface and ground waters are most abundant and easily available fresh waters.
 Importance of hydrosphere:
 Support and sustain life on earth (surface water, water in the soil)
 Regulate the temperature of the earth (water vapor is one of the greenhouse gases)
 Water is an important medium for biochemical reaction within living organisms.
iii. Lithosphere- the solid portion or the land surface of the earth.
 It consists of rocks (igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic), soils and minerals in the
earth’s crust.
 It also consists of organic matter, air and water.
 Soils are composed of weathered mineral materials (45%), organic matter
(5%), air (20-30%) and water (20-30%).
iv. Biosphere- area of the earth surface inhabited by living things- (plants, animals and human).
 It indicates the realm of living organisms and their interactions with the surrounding
environment (viz. atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere).
 The biotic communities together with the physical environments are interacting in a
system called ecosystem.
 Ecosystem is defined as a unit which includes all the organisms (biological component)
in a given area inter-acting with the physical component of the environment so that the

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 flow of energy leads to a clearly defined nutrient supply, biotic diversity and material
cycles.

III. Elements of Environment

a) Biotic (living) -

The word biotic refers to having to do with living organisms. Biotic elements refer to the biological
components of the ecosystem, consisting of population of flora (plants), fauna (animals),
microorganisms and human) in complex communities. The biotic factors influencing organisms, viruses
and other parasitic organisms cause diseases. The biotic component of the ecosystem consists of 3
distinct groups of organism, the producers, consumers and decomposers. The producers are those
organisms capable of photosynthesis, production of organic material using solar radiation, carbon dioxide
and water. This organic material serves as a source of both energy and mineral nutrients. Both are
required by all living organisms. Examples include both terrestrial and aquatic plants such as
phytoplankton. The consumers are organisms whose very survival depends on the organic material
manufactured by the producers. The consumer represents animals of all sizes ranging from large
predators to small parasites, such as mosquitoes and flies. The nature of the consumers’ dependence on
the producers takes various forms. Some consumers (herbivores such as rabbits) are directly dependent on
primary producers of for energy. Others (carnivores such as tigers) depend indirectly on primary
producers. The last group of living organisms is the decomposers. These include micro-organisms such as
fungi, bacteria, yeast etc. as well as a diversity of worms, insects and many other small animals. They all
rely on dead organisms for their existence and survival. In their efforts to survive and obtain energy they
decompose materials released by plants and consumers to their original elements (C, O, H, N, S and P).
This is what keeps material cycling within the ecosystem.

b) Abiotic - Abiotic factors include the flow of energy necessary to maintain any organism, the physical
factor that affect it and the supply of molecules required for its life functions. Physical factors include
climate, temperature, precipitation, including its types (rain, snow, hill) around and seasonable
distribution, types of soil present (sandy or clay, dry or wet, fertile or infertile). All forms of life require
atoms such as carbon, nitrogen and phosphorous and molecules such as water to construct and maintain
themselves. The organisms constantly obtain these materials from environment by eating food or taking
them through the process of photosynthesis. In the ecosystem, the abiotic (non-living) components
perform 3 important functions: firstly they provide water and oxygen for organisms; secondly, they act
as a reservoir of the 6 most important organic elements for life, carbon(C), hydrogen(H), Oxygen (O),
Nitrogen (N), Sulfur (S) and Phosphorus (P). These elements constitute 95% of all living organisms.

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Thirdly, the Earth contains only a fixed amount of these elements. Thus continual functioning of the
ecosystem requires one thing at least. These elements have to be recycled because they are critical to the
welfare of the ecosystem as a whole. The role of decomposers in the recycling process is great.

Abiotic/ elements: include elements in the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere.

Components of the biotic and abiotic environments are interacting in a system called ecosystem.

Figure: Components of Biotic and Abiotic Environment

c) Cultural - it basically includes all the man-made and artificial characteristics of human society. Man stays in
physical or natural environment but changes or modifies this natural environment to suit his needs and requirements.
In other words man develops a cultural environment.

The cultural environment can further be divided into the following categories:
1) Social aspect - it can be understood in terms of the non-material aspect include the norms, values, ideas
knowledge etc. whereas the material aspects are the manifest forms of the non-material aspects.

2) Economic aspect - it involves the different types of economic activities practiced by man. Each type of
economic activity has its own requirement of resources as well as technology.

3) Political aspect - it includes the type of environment and its ideological principles. For example, various
important factor such as production, consumption, use of resources etc. are determined by the strategies and
policies advocated by the -government. This in turn determines the level of development and progress of the society.
Thus environment is a complex phenomenon.

IV. Types of Environment

We inhabit two worlds: Natural and Built/Social/

1. Natural Environment- commonly referred as the environment
 Comprises all living and non-living things that occur naturally on Earth.

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  A geographical area is regarded as a natural environment if the human impact on it is kept under a
certain limited level.
Natural environment includes two key components:
i. Complete ecological units that occur within their boundaries and functioning as natural systems without
massive human intervention (eg. all vegetation, animals, microorganisms, rocks).
ii. Universal natural resources and physical phenomena that lack clear-cut boundaries (eg. air, water, climate,
energy, radiation).
2. Built (Social) Environment- refers to constructed surroundings that provide the setting for human activity. It
ranges from large-scale civic surroundings to personal places. Unlike natural environment, built environment
comprises the areas and components that are strongly influenced by man. It also refers to:
 the culture that an individual was educated and/or lived in;
 the people and institutions with whom the person interacts
A given social environment is likely to create a feeling of solidarity amongst its members; they are more likely to
keep together, trust and help one another.

Figure: the natural and Built Environment

Functions of Environment

The natural environment plays great roles that are indispensable to economic life. Environmental economists
describe these under the headings of three functions:

1. Resource function: The natural environment provides natural resources that are inputs into human production
processes. These, include such things as mineral ores, crude petroleum, fish and forests. Some of these resources,
such as fish and forests are renewable while others, such as minerals and petroleum are not. The non-renewable

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 resources may be regarded as those resources which are diminished by use. The renewable resources may be
termed as flow resources, with careful use they may last indefinitely. The environment supports the livelihood of
millions who depend upon these environmental resources.

2. Environmental service functions: The natural environment provides the basic habitat of clean air, drinkable water,
and suitable climate that directly support all forms of life on the planet. Water filtration provided by the wet lands
and erosion control provided by tree-covered hill sides are other examples of service function provided by
ecosystems. People enjoy the services of the natural environment directly when they enjoy pleasant scenery or
outdoor recreation.

3. Sink function: The natural environment serves as a “Sink” which absorbs (up to a point) the pollution and wastes
generated by economic activity. Some wastes breakdown relatively quickly into harmless substances; while, others,
are toxic and/or accumulate over time, eventually compromising the quality of the environment. Forests, for
example, provide such functions, by absorbing CO2 thereby regulating climatic. These functions are disrupted when
forests are destroyed or fragmented. Car exhaust dissipating into the atmosphere, domestic wastes and used
packaging that goes into landfills and effluents (liquid wastes) that end up into rivers and oceans are additional
examples of sink functions.

 In general, the environment provides the resources and environmental services that sustain economic activity;
whereas the economic activities generate and put wastes and pollutants to the environmental sink.

The way in which the natural environment provides the resources and environmental services is illustrated by the
arrow on the left in Figure 2.1; showing inflows into economic activity. The way in which economic activity puts
waste product into environmental sinks is illustrated by the arrow on the right in Figure 2.1 showing the economy
generating flows back into the environment.

Figure 2.1. Macroeconomics in Context

An emerging understanding of macroeconomic performance notes that businesses -both foreign

and domestic (Business Sphere), households and communities (the Core Sphere) and institutions

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governments and non-profit organizations (Public Purpose Sphere) are all involved in the
productive activities. Economies are, in turn, embedded in a context of larger social institutions
and the natural (physical) environment.
1.2. Environmental Values
The term value is used in many ways and so could have distinct meaning. According to New Shorter
Oxford English Dictionary value refers to: (a) The worth, usefulness, or importance of a thing; relative
merit or status according to the estimated desirability or utility of a thing; (b) Opinion or estimate of,
regard or liking for, a person or thing. (C) The moral principles or moral standards of a person or social
groups, the generally accepted or personally held judgment of what is valuable and important in life. In our
everyday language we use values in all these three senses: what something is worth, opinions about that
worth, and moral principles.

In the context of environment values can be understood as notions of appropriate or desired relationships between
people and nature. The term value is frequently raised in discussions of environmental problems and how to
develop a more sustainable relationship with the environment. Those concerned about human impact on the
environment have often suggested that changes in values are a route to more sustainable behavior and policy. The
assumptions behind this suggestion are that values influence our individual and collective decisions and that if our
values changed we would make decisions that are pro-environmental (more protective of the biophysical
environment).

Indeed, human values are believed to play an important role in pro-environmental actions. Some values may inhibit
pro-environmental actions, while other values promote such actions. People may refrain from pro-environmental
actions because they value their comfort higher than the environment: for example, many people prefer to travel
using personal car rather than to travel by public transport.

There is no such a great thing as the environment, and so there is a need to value the environment. But in order to
value the environment it is essential to understand and recognize the role that environmental resources have in
providing ecosystem services. According to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment reports (MEA 2005) ecosystem
services encompass both the tangible and the intangible benefits that humans obtain from ecosystems, which are
sometimes separated into “goods” and “services” respectively. So, ecosystem services are the range of benefits that
ecosystems and the species that they contain provide to human for making life on earth both possible and worth
living. Based on functional line classification of MEA (2005), ecosystem services can be categorized in to four: (A)
provisioning, (B) regulating, (C) cultural, and (D) supporting services.

(A) Provisioning Services: these are goods or products obtained from ecosystems, including:
i. Food and fiber: this includes the vast range of food products derived from crops, livestock, fisheries and
microbes, as well as fiber materials such as jute, silk, cotton, rayon, nylon, polyester, fur, leather and many
other products derived from ecosystems.

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 ii.Fuel: including wood, dung and other biological materials which serve as sources of energy. Fuel wood is also
a commercial commodity especially in peri-urban areas. For example, in certain areas of Sub-Saharan Africa
(including Ethiopia), tens of thousands of poor farmers and small traders supplement their incomes by selling
fuel wood.
iii. Genetic resource: this includes the genes and genetic information used for animal and plant breeding and
biotechnology.
iv. Natural medicines and pharmaceuticals: Many medicines, food additives1 and biological materials.
v. Wood/Timber: the wood which serves as an input for building, and production of paper and furniture.
vi. Minerals: Many minerals that are used for farming (eg. phosphorus and nitrogen) or other purposes.
vii.Ornamental resources: Animal products, such as skins and shells, and flowers are used as ornaments,
although the value of these resources is often culturally determined. Such ornamental resources could also be
considered as cultural services.
viii. Fresh water: The well-being of the ecosystems and humans is strongly dependent on this vital ecosystem
service, which provides people with water for domestic use, irrigation, power generation, and
transportation. Fresh water can also provide regulating services.

(B) Regulating Services: These are the benefits obtained from the regulation of ecosystem processes, including:
i. Climate regulation: Ecosystems influence climate both locally and globally. For example, at a local scale,
changes in land cover can affect both temperature and precipitation. At the global scale, ecosystems play an
important role in climate by sequestering greenhouse gases. Carbon sequestration by forests and wetlands
provides valuable economic services in terms of climate regulation. Forests also contribute to climatic
regulation, particularly rainfall and temperature, representing an important ecosystem service especially in
tropical continental regions. Wetlands are also significant carbon sinks with peat lands and forested wetlands
accounting for over 25% of the soil carbon pool. Cutting of trees and conversion of wetlands to agriculture,
therefore, inevitably results in the concentration of large quantities of carbon dioxide.
ii. Water regulation, Flood and Storm Protection: Ecosystems supply, store and retain water in watersheds
and natural reservoirs; they regulate the flow of water required for irrigation and industry, and provide
protection against storms, and floods. Forests, for example, have the ability to soak up moisture in periods
of heavy rainfall and to release it gradually through groundwater discharge, thereby maintaining river flows
even during dry periods. The sponge effect is destroyed following forest clearance, which has been shown to
consistently and significantly increase stream flow. The presence of coastal ecosystems such as mangroves
and coral reefs can dramatically reduce the damage caused by hurricanes, storms or large waves.
iii. Erosion control: Vegetative cover plays an important role in water and soil retention and the prevention
of landslides. Wetland vegetation controls erosion by reducing wave and current energy and by binding and
stabilizing the soil.

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Food additives are substances added to food to preserve flavor or enhance taste, appearance, or other
sensory qualities

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 iv. Water purification and waste treatment: Ecosystems can help to filter out and decompose organic wastes
introduced into inland waters and coastal and marine ecosystems. In this regard wetlands have a great role.
Sediments and nutrients are deposited in and around wetlands, preventing the siltation of downstream
waterways. Wetlands also remove high levels of nitrogen and phosphorous from agricultural runoff,
preventing the eutrophication of streams and rivers and the contamination of groundwater supplies.
Mangroves also act as buffers and catch excess sediment that would otherwise flow into the ocean, thereby
protecting vital coral reefs and sea grass beds from damaging by siltation.
v. Regulation of diseases: Healthy soils and wetlands can trap and detoxify pathogens (bacteria, virus etc) and
regulate disease-carrying organisms. By breaking down human and ecosystem waste, many organisms
reduce the threat of diseases such as cholera. Predatory organisms keep a population of pathogens and its
carriers relatively low. Changes in ecosystems can directly change the abundance of human pathogens, such
as cholera, and can alter the abundance of disease vectors, such as mosquitoes. Therefore, reducing predator
populations, as a result of habitat fragmentation or competition from invasive species, can increase human
diseases, as well as crop and livestock pests and diseases. Recent research has demonstrated that the risk of
Lyme disease decreases when the diversity of vertebrate communities is high.

(C) Cultural Services: ‘Cultural Services’ is the umbrella term used for the non-material benefits people obtain
from ecosystems, including:
i. Cultural diversity: The diversity of ecosystems is one factor influencing the diversity of cultures. A
particular species or community of organisms may have emotional value for a group of people who feel
that their identity is inextricably linked to the natural components of the environment that shaped their
culture. (Eg. Enset is a plant that is culturally attached to people in Southern part of Ethiopia; camel has an
important role in the livelihood system of Afar community)
ii. Spiritual and religious values: different people attach spiritual and religious values to ecosystems or their
components. (Eg. Irrecha celebration of people in Oromia region of Ethiopia).
iii. Educational values/Knowledge systems: Ecosystems and their components and processes provide the
basis for both formal and informal education in many societies. They also influence the types of knowledge
systems developed by different cultures.
iv. Inspirational values: Ecosystems provide a rich source of inspiration for art, folklore, national symbols,
architecture, and advertising.
v. Aesthetic values: Many people find beauty or aesthetic value in various aspects of ecosystems, as reflected
in the support for parks, “scenic drives,” and the selection of housing locations. The wide diversity of
vegetation, bird species, fish and other wildlife found within ecosystems add to the diversity and beauty of
the landscape. (Eg. wide range of birds at Lake Shalla and Abijata).
vi. Recreation and ecotourism: People often choose where to spend their leisure time based in part on the
characteristics of the natural or cultivated landscapes in a particular area. A further source of direct use
value may be derived from ecosystems in terms of recreational opportunities and the provision of amenity.
Healthy ecosystems which offer opportunities for outdoor recreation and nature-based tourism are

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 becoming an increasingly important economic resource. (Eg. Tis-Isat /Blue Nile/ Fall near Bahir
Dar)
vii. Social/Communal relations: Ecosystems influence the types of social relations that are
established in particular cultures. Fishing societies, for example, differ in many respects in their
social relations from nomadic herding or agricultural societies.
 Cultural services are tightly bound to human values and behavior, as well as to human institutions
and patterns of social, economic, and political organization. Thus perceptions of cultural services are
more likely to differ among individuals and communities; i.e. an ecosystem which is considered
culturally valuable in one community may not be valuable in another community.

(D) Supporting Services

Supporting services are those that are necessary for the production of all other ecosystem services.
Supporting services differ from provisioning, regulating, and cultural services in that their impacts on
people are either indirect or occur over a very long time, whereas changes in the other categories have
relatively direct and short-term impacts on people. Supporting services include
i. Nutrient cycling (through nitrogen fixation and the breakdown of soil organic content) by soil
microorganisms
ii. Soil formation processes (the breakdown and release of minerals from rock and the accumulation
of animal and plant organic matter) which are particularly important in maintaining soil
productivity, which provides an important economic input to agriculture. Approximately 20
nutrients essential for life, such as nitrogen, phosphorus and calcium, are absorbed, retained and
recycled by ecosystems. Some services, like erosion control, can be categorized as both a
supporting and a regulating service, depending on the time scale and immediacy of their impact on
people. Similarly, humans do not directly use soil formation services, although changes in this
would indirectly affect people through the impact on the provisioning service of food
production. Similarly, climate regulation is categorized as a regulating service since ecosystem
changes can have an impact on local or global climate over time scales relevant to human decision-
making (decades or centuries), whereas the production of oxygen gas (through photosynthesis) is
categorized as a supporting service since any impacts on the concentration of oxygen in the
atmosphere would only occur over an extremely long time.

MEGISTU MATIWOS
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