Environmental

Science

MODULE 1

Neha Aggarwal
TOPICS TO BE COVERED

– Environment, Ecology and Eco system

– Structure and function of an ecosystem,
– Producers , Consumers and decomposers
– Types of ecosystem,
– Introduction, types, characteristic feature, structure and function of forest ecosystem, desert ecosystem, aquatic
ecosystem
– Food chains- Food webs,
– ecological pyramids,
– energy flow in the ecosystem
– Lithosphere, Biosphere, and Hydrosphere,
– Major issues of Biodiversity, Biosphere reserves, National parks and sanctuaries
ENVIRONMENT-ECOLOGY-ECOSYSTEM

– The word “Environment” is originated from French environ means ‘around’ or ‘to
surround’ or ‘to encompass’.
– This means that environment includes things or objects or events that surround us.
But this definition is not enough. This needs to be enlarged to include that there is
interaction between objects and surrounding. It is the interaction between living
beings (plants and animals) and its environment that includes physical non-living
components like oceans or land or mountains. It also includes interaction among living
beings. It is thus a multidirectional system of interactions and this system is made up
of living organisms and non-living physical components like air, water and land of our
planet earth and its associated features like weather, waves and tides
–The word environment is derived from the French word "environ" which means "surrounding " or to encircle or
surround.
–Our surrounding is the sum total of all biotic factors like human beings, plants , animals, microbes etc. and
abiotic factors like light,air, water,soil etc..and are interrelated. Environment is the sum total of conditions that
surrounds us at a given point of time and space. It is comprised of the interacting systems of physical,
biological and cultural elements which are interlinked both individually and collectively. Environment is the
sum total of conditions in which an organism has to survive or maintain its life process. It influences the
growth and development of living forms.

–The term environment has been derived from a French word “Environia” means to surround. It refers to both
Abiotic (physical or non-living) and Biotic (living) environment.
– The word environment means surroundings, in which organisms live.
– Environment and the organisms are two organized and complex component of nature.
–Environment controls the life of the organisms including human beings. Human beings interact with the
environment more vigorously than other living beings. Ordinarily environment refers to the materials and
forces that surround the living organism.
–In other words environment refers to those surroundings that surrounds living beings from all sides and affect
their lives.
 Components of Environment

– COMPONENTS OF
ENVIRONMENT
– Components of environment-
Environment mainly consists of
atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere
and biosphere. But it can be roughly
divided into two types such as
– (a) Micro environment
– (b) Macro environment
– It can also be divided into two other
types such as (c) Physical environment
(d) biotic environment
Components of Environment:

– Environment mainly consists of atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere. But it can be roughly
divided into two types such as (a) Micro environment and (b) Macro environment. It can also be divided
into two other types such as (c) Physical and (d) Biotic environment.
– (a) Micro environment means the immediate local surrounding of the organism.
– (b) Macro environment means all the physical and biotic conditions that surround the organism externally.
– (c) Physical environment refers to all abiotic factors or conditions like temperature, light, rainfall, soil,
minerals etc. It comprises of atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere.
– (d) Biotic environment includes all biotic factors or living forms like plants, animals, Micro-organisms.
 ECOSYSTEMS
– The living community of plants and animals in any area together with the non-living components of the environment
such as soil, air and water, constitute the ecosystem
– The ecosystem is the structural and functional unit of ecology where the living organisms interact with each
other and the surrounding environment. In other words, an ecosystem is a chain of interaction between
organisms and their environment. The term “Ecosystem” was first coined by A.G.Tansley, an English botanist,
in 1935.
– An ecosystem is a geographic area where plants, animals, and other organisms, as well as weather and
landscape, work together to form a bubble of life. Ecosystems contain biotic or living, parts, as well as abiotic
factors, or nonliving parts. Biotic factors include plants, animals, and other organisms.
– An ecosystem is the basic unit of the field of the scientific study of nature. According to this discipline, an ecosystem is a
physically defined environment, made up of two inseparable components:
• The biotope (abiotic): a particular physical environment with specific physical characteristics such as the climate,
temperature, humidity, concentration of nutrients or pH. (Power of Hydrogen)
• The biocenosis (biotic): a set of living organisms such as animals, plants or micro-organisms, that are in constant
interaction and are, therefore, in a situation of interdependence.
Eco system
 Structure of Ecosystem:

– The structure of an ecosystem is basically a description of the organisms and physical

features of environment including the amount and distribution of nutrients in a particular
habitat. It also provides information regarding the range of climatic conditions prevailing
in the area.
– From the structure point of view, all ecosystems consist of the following basic
components:
– 1. Abiotic components
– 2. Biotic components
 Abiotic Component

– In biology, abiotic components are non-living chemical and physical factors in

the environment.
– Abiotic phenomena underlie all of biology.
– Abiotic factors, while generally downplayed, can have enormous impact on evolution.
– Abiotic components are aspects of geodiversity.
– They can also be recognised as "abiotic pathogens "From the viewpoint of biology, abiotic
influences may be classified as light or more generally radiation, temperature, water, the
chemical surrounding composed of the terrestrial atmospheric gases, as well as soil.
 Biotic Component

– Biotic components are the living things that shape an ecosystem.

– A biotic factor is any living component that affects another organism, including animals that
consume the organism in question, and the living food that the organism consumes.
– Biotic factors include human influence.
– Biotic components are contrasted to abiotic components, which are non- living components
of an organism's environment, such as temperature, light, moisture, air currents, etc.
– Biotic components usually include: Producers, i.e. autotrophs: e.g. plants; they convert the
energy (from the sun, or other sources such as hydrothermal vents) into food. Consumers,
i.e. heterotrophs: e.g. animals; they depend upon producers for food. Decomposers,
i.e. detritivores: e.g. fungi and bacteria; they break down chemicals from producers and
consumers into simpler form which can be reused.
– The living organisms such as plants, animals and micro-organisms (Bacteria and Fungi) that are present in an ecosystem
form the biotic components.
– The biotic components can be further grouped into two basic components from the nutrition point of view:
– (i) Autotrophic components, and
– (ii) Heterotrophic components

– The autotrophic components include all green plants which fix the radiant energy of the sun and manufacture food
from inorganic substances. The heterotrophic components include non-green plants and all animals which take food
from autotrophs.

– Biotic components refer to all life in an ecosystem.  Based on nutrition, biotic components can be categorised into
autotrophs, heterotrophs and saprotrophs (or decomposers).
• Producers include all autotrophs such as plants. They are called autotrophs as they can produce food through the
process of photosynthesis. Consequently, all other organisms higher up on the food chain rely on producers for food.
• Among biotic components, at a basic functional level, ecosystem generally contains primary producers (plants) capable
of harvesting energy from the sun through the process called photosynthesis. This energy then flows through the food
chain.
• Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that depend on other organisms for food. Consumers are
further classified into primary consumers, secondary consumers and tertiary consumers.
• Primary consumers are always herbivores that they rely on producers for food. Consumers of the first
order or primary consumers (herbivores): herbivorous are animals that are purely dependent for their
food on producers or green plants. Insects, rodents, rabbit, deer, cow, buffalo, goat are some of the
common herbivores in the terrestrial ecosystem and small crustaceans, mollusks, etc. in the aquatic
habitat.
• Secondary consumers depend on primary consumers for energy. They can either be a carnivore or an
omnivore. These are carnivores and omnivores. Carnivores are flesh-eating animals, and the omnivores
are the animals that are adapted to consume herbivores as well as plants as their food. Secondary
consumers are sparrow, crow, fox, wolves, dogs, cats, snakes, etc.
• Tertiary consumers are organisms that depend on secondary consumers for food.  Tertiary consumers
can also be an omnivore.
These are the top carnivores that prey upon other carnivores, omnivores and herbivores. Lions, tigers,
hawk, vulture, etc. are considered as tertiary or top consumers.
• Quaternary consumers are present in some food chains. These organisms prey on tertiary
consumers for energy. Furthermore, they are usually at the top of a food chain as they have no natural
predators.
– Decomposers include saprophytes such as fungi and bacteria. They directly thrive on the
dead and decaying organic matter.  Decomposers are essential for the ecosystem as they
help in recycling nutrients to be reused by plants.  Decomposers work at the bottom of the
food chain. Dead tissues and waste products are produced at all levels. Scavengers,
detritivores (animals that live on the detritus of ecosystems) and decomposers not only
feed on this energy but also break organic matter back into its organic constituents. It is the
microbes that finish the job of decomposition and produce organic constituents that can
again be used by producers.
Functions of Ecosystem

– The functions of the ecosystem are as follows:

1. It regulates the essential ecological processes, supports life systems and
renders stability.
2. It is also responsible for the cycling of nutrients between biotic and abiotic
components.
3. It maintains a balance among the various trophic levels in the ecosystem.
4. It cycles the minerals through the biosphere.
5. The abiotic components help in the synthesis of organic components that
involves the exchange of energy.
– Ecosystem Examples
– Ecosystem examples are limitless. An ecosystem does not have to cover a large
region. They exist in small ponds, inside human homes, and even in the human gut.
Alternatively, ecosystems can cover huge areas of the planet.
– Types of Ecosystem
– Ecosystem types abound; however, the most basic categorization involves three
habitats: terrestrial, marine, and aquatic. Naturally, these groups can be split into
thousands of smaller systems, each one offering a different mix of climate, habitat and life
forms.
Types of Eco system

– An ecosystem can be as small as an oasis in a desert, or as big as an

ocean, spanning thousands of miles. There are two types of ecosystem:
– A. Natural Ecosystem:
• Terrestrial Ecosystem
• Aquatic Ecosystem

– B. Artificial Ecosystem
 A. TERRESTIAL ECOSYSTEM

– Terrestrial Ecosystems
– At approximately 57 268 900 square miles, the terrestrial ecosystem covers just 29% of the globe.
As these habitats are varied, terrestrial ecosystems are further broken down into following types.
Terrestrial ecosystems are exclusively land-based ecosystems. There are different types of terrestrial
ecosystems distributed around various geological zones. They are as follows:
1. Forest Ecosystems- Rainforests and Decidous
2. Grassland Ecosystems
3. Tundra Ecosystems (near polar region)
4. Desert Ecosystem
5. Taiga Ecosystem (Pure or untouched- mountains)
– The deciduous forest ecosystem is found in temperate regions and experiences temperature and
precipitation fluctuations according to four seasons. Current conservation goals include reintroducing
apex predators after the culling practices of previous centuries, and providing an environment full with
mature trees to make up for unregulated deforestation.
– Desert ecosystems can be hot and dry, semi-arid, coastal or cold. The feature that links these is a lack of
water and the absence of a soil layer in which larger vegetation such as shrubs and trees can thrive.
While indigenous life has adapted to the absence of water, a desert is still unable to support the
populations of a wetter habitat. Substantially sized herbivores are unable to survive in a desert
environment in large numbers, and this in turn limits the numbers of larger omnivores and carnivores.
– Grasslands are also known as prairies, pampas, savanna or steppe. They can be tropical or temperate, and
are a link between desert and forest. They rarely receive enough rain to support trees, but possess
enough soil nutrients to feed large, grassy expanses. This provides considerable energy for primary
consumers. With a large population of producers, a grassland ecosystem can similarly support large herds
of herbivores, which in turn feed consumers higher up in the food chain hierarchy.
– The taiga is a region of subarctic forest south of the Arctic Circle. It has layers of permafrost or
rock under shallow soil, which make the soil marshy. The taiga supports huge numbers of conifers –
slow growing, cold-resistant trees. Other plant life is small and includes lichen, marshland plants and small
shrubs. The map below shows how this ecosystem is distributed across the globe.
– Tropical rainforests are probably the most quoted ecosystems in the field of environmental
conservation. Located around the Equator, constant rainfall and warmth together with a lack
of seasons provide a stable climate, yet cloud and the tree canopy make the rainforest floor
a dark place. Soil is leached of nutrients through constant precipitation. Plant life has
adapted and is abundant, making the tropical rainforest ecosystem the terrestrial ecosystem
with the most biodiversity.
– Tundra, the last of the six terrestrial biomes, is the treeless environment of the Arctic
Circle. Climate change is rapidly changing this ecosystem, as warmer weather brings non-
indigenous predators in, where they compete for limited prey. Certain shrubs are taking root
as the Artic permafrost layer melts. These compete with lichen – the primary food source of
caribou.
– Forest Ecosystem
– A forest ecosystem consists of several plants, animals and microorganisms that live in coordination with the
abiotic factors of the environment. Forests help in maintaining the temperature of the earth and are the major
carbon sink. There are many different types of forests all over the world, including deciduous forests and
coniferous forests. These can support a lot of life and can have very complex ecosystems.
– Grassland Ecosystem
– In a grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is dominated by grasses and herbs. Temperate grasslands, savanna
grasslands are some of the examples of grassland ecosystems.
– Tundra Ecosystem
– Tundra ecosystems are devoid of trees and are found in cold climates or where rainfall is scarce. These are
covered with snow for most of the year. The ecosystem in the Arctic or mountain tops is tundra type.
 Tundra usually have relatively simple ecosystems because of the limited amount of life that can be supported in
these harsh conditions.
– Desert Ecosystem
– Deserts are found throughout the world. These are regions with very little rainfall. The days are hot and the
nights are cold. Quite the opposite of tundra in many ways, but still harsh, more animals live in the extreme heat
than they live in the extreme cold of Antarctica, for instance.
 1. Forest Ecosystem

– A forest ecosystem is a functional unit or a system which comprises of soil, trees, insects, animals, birds,
and man as its interacting units. A forest is a large and complex ecosystem and hence has greater species
diversity.

– A forest ecosystem is a unique ecology, including a very nice community of flora and fauna.
When we heard “forest,” the primary thing that comes to our mind is trees. An area covered with
trees making various canopy layers is commonly known as a forest ecosystem.
– Describing forest ecosystem – A forest ecosystem is a place that provides natural habitat to
millions of plant and animal species. The forest ecosystems have been divided into different
types based on the climatic conditions of that particular region – for example- tropical rainforest,
temperate, etc.
– The forest ecosystem plays an essential role in the environment. It helps to balance the
climate of the planet. One of the major roles that forests play is that it provides us oxygen to
breathe. Trees help to maintain the balance of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Besides this,
forests also help to prevent soil erosion, rainfall, purifying the air, etc.
 Types of Forest Ecosystem

– Forest ecosystem has been classified into three major types – tropical forest ecosystem, temperate forest
ecosystem and boreal ecosystem. We will also understand savanna ecosystem. The types of forest
ecosystems have been divided based on latitude and different characteristics. The different types of forest
ecosystems are as follows –

– Tropical Forest Ecosystem

• Tropical forests, also known as tropical rainforest, receives almost 100 inches of rain every year. The
tropical forest has a wide variety of species among all other types of forest ecosystems. 
• Tropical forests are usually found in latitude between 23.5 degrees North and 23.5 degrees South. The
temperature recorded in tropical forests is between 68 degrees and 77 degrees Fahrenheit.
• Heavy rainfall in the tropical forest leads to poor quality of soil due to a lack of nutrients. High-level rainfall
throughout the year causes leaching of soil nutrients.   
• The vegetation of the tropical rainforest mostly includes broad-leafed trees that are very tall about 82-115
feet height. Due to dense canopy, the sun finds it quite tough to reach the forest floor.
• The tropical forest is a home for millions of animals that includes a massive variety of birds, mammals,
amphibians, reptiles, etc. Here you can find almost half the species of animals that lived on Earth.
 Temperate Forest Ecosystem

• Temperate forests are usually found in North America, Eurasia, Japan, etc. Temperate forest receives less rainfall as
compared to tropical forests approximately 30-60 inches every year. 
• Unlike tropical forests, temperate forests experience all the four seasons with variation in temperature. The winters in the
temperate forest quite often experience temperature below freezing point, and in summers, the temperature becomes very
high with a high level of humidity.
• The soil of temperate forest is rich in organic matter that allows a huge variety of vegetation to grow in the temperate forest.
• The temperate forest provides natural habitat to many animals such as squirrels, deer, black bears, raccoons, coyotes,
various birds like warblers, owls, woodpeckers, hawks, etc.

– The temperate forest ecosystem is further divided into two parts – Temperate Deciduous Forest and Temperate Coniferous
Forest.
– Temperate Deciduous Forest
• Temperate Deciduous forests experience four specific seasons. It receives annual rainfall between 30-60 inches.
In winter, the temperate deciduous forest experience snowfall. 
• The soil of this forest is quite fertile. As a result, you will find a wide variety of vegetation in the temperate
deciduous forest, such as ferns, wildflowers, mosses, oak, birch, maple, etc.
• As far as the animal of temperate deciduous forests is concerned, you can find various animal species like the red
fox, woodpecker, cardinals, hawks, etc.
– Temperate Coniferous Forest
• The temperate coniferous forest ecosystem is usually found in coastal areas. Coniferous forests receive heavy
rainfall throughout the year, approximately 50-200 inches. 
• The floor of coniferous forests is mostly covered with a thick layer of decomposed matter. Temperate coniferous
forest is covered with evergreen tall conifers. 
• The most common plant species found in coniferous forests include cedar, Douglas fir, spruce, maple, cypress,
pine, redwood, ferns, mosses, etc. 
• The typical animal species found in this forest include deer, black bear, marbled murrelet, elk, marmot, spotted
owl, etc.  
Characteristics of Forest Ecosystem

– A forest ecosystem is quite diverse in characteristics. Some of these characteristics may sound very interesting to
you. Here are some of the major characteristics of a forest ecosystem –

– Seasonal variation
– The forest ecosystem of a particular region depends on the seasonal variation of the country in which the forest
falls. For example- tropical rainforests receive heavy rainfall every year, whereas temperate forests experience
four seasonal variations. 
– Deciduous or evergreen in nature
– A forest ecosystem may be deciduous or evergreen, or it may be a mix of both. The trees of a deciduous forest
shed the leaves during the winter season, whereas evergreen trees always remain green. 
– Canopy layer structure
– The canopy layer is one of the most distinguishing characteristics of a forest ecosystem. The dense canopy layers
act as a barrier against wind, rain, snow, etc. to protect various species.
– Some forest ecosystems, such as rainforests, are characterized by distinct layers of the canopy like treetops,
upper canopy layer, lower canopy layer, and forest floor.
– Attract bird species to take shelter
– The forest ecosystem provides the most favorable conditions to various species of birds. As a
result, these species get attracted by the forest ecosystem and take shelter on trees.
– Attract insects & provide habitat
– The forest ecosystem is home to a huge variety of insects. These insects found thousands of
options as their shelter in the forest ecosystem. Hence, these insects get attracted to the natural
habitats provided by the forest ecosystem.
– Soil fertility
– The soil of forest ecosystems varies in terms of fertility. For example- the soil of temperate and
tropical deciduous forests is very fertile enriched with nutrients.
– On the other hand, the soil of boreal forests is mostly acidic due to the falling of conifer needles
on the forest floor. In the case of tropical rainforests, the soil is impoverished in terms of fertility
due to continuous leaching on nutrients caused by heavy rainfall.
 Importance of Forest Ecosystem

– Forests are of great importance to mankind. Following are some points illustrating the importance of forests:
• Forests help in maintaining the water cycle on earth. Plants absorb water from the soil through their roots. The
process of releasing excess water by plants into the atmosphere in the form of water vapour is known as
transpiration. The process in which water vapour from oceans rises and condenses to form clouds is known as
condensation and the process of moving clouds to land due to sea breeze is known as precipitation and this
eventually leads to rainfall. All these processes together form the water cycle and hence forests play a significant
role in continuing water cycle.
• Forests help in maintaining the temperature and oxygen level of the atmosphere. Plants release oxygen during
photosynthesis and consume carbon dioxide. Forests being a huge reserve of plants and trees, they play a
significant role in balancing oxygen level in the atmosphere.
• Forests help in preventing global warming. The increased amount of carbon dioxide (greenhouse gas) in the
atmosphere results in the greenhouse effect and thus causes global warming.
• Forests prevent soil erosion. Trees present in the forests hold the soil particles strongly with the roots and prevent
them from erosion.
Grassland Ecosystem
 Grassland Ecosystem

– What is Grassland Ecosystem?

– The Grassland Ecosystem is also called transitional landscape because grassland
ecosystems are dominated by the grass with few or no trees in the area where there is not
enough for a forest and too much of a forest. These are known by different names in
different region of the world like steppes in Europe and Asia, pampas in South America, Veldt
in South Africa and Downs in Australia.
– The Grassland Ecosystem covers about 10 percent of the Earth's surface. It is found where
rainfall is about 15-75 cm per year not enough to support a forest, but more than that of true
desert. Typical grasslands are vegetation formations that are generally found in temperate
climates
– Components of Grassland Ecosystem
– The components of the Grassland Ecosystem are discussed below:
– 1. Abiotic Components: These are non-living thing components consist of carbon, hydrogen, sulphur, nitrogen
and phosphorous etc.
– 2. Biotic Components: These are living components and its sub-components are discussed below-
– (I) Producers: The primary producers of food are the grasses such as Aristida, Cynodon, Digitaria, Desmodium,
Setaria etc. If herbs and shrubs are present, they also contribute to the primary production of food.
– (II) Consumers: The consumers in a grassland ecosystem are of three levels.
– (a) Primary consumers: These feed directly from the grasses (grazing) and include herbivores such as Cows,
Buffaloes, Goats, Rabbits, Mouse etc. and also insects, termites, centipede, millipedes etc.
– (b) Secondary consumers: These consumers are the carnivorous animals such as snakes, lizard, jackal, foxes,
frogs etc. which feed on the primary consumers.
– (c) Tertiary consumers: Hawk, Eagles and vultures constitute the tertiary consumer in the grassland ecosystem
which preys upon the secondary and primary consumer.
– (III) Decomposers: The organic matter of the grassland is decomposed by the microbes like actinomycetes,
fungi (Mucor, Aspergillus, Rhizopus, Penincillium, and Cladosporium), aerobic and anaerobic soil bacteria etc.
They release the minerals back into the soil thus making the soil fertile.
 Functions of the Grassland Ecosystem

– The primary function of an ecosystem is productivity. The producers fix the solar energy and produce the complex
organic matter with the help of minerals. It provides forage for livestock, protection and conservation of soil and water
resources, furnishing a habitat for wildlife, both flora and fauna and (contribution to the attractiveness of the landscape.
The functional aspects of the Grassland can be studied by two means:
– 1. Food Chain in an ecosystem: There is an important feature of the ecosystem that one level of an organism serves as
food for another level of the organism. A series is formed which is known as Food Chain. In an ecosystem, the food
chain does not follow the linear pattern, but an organism may feed upon more than one organism in the same food chain
or upon organisms of different food chains. Thus interconnected food chain system is formed known as a food web.
– 2. Nutrient cycle in an ecosystem: For any ecosystem to be successful, it is important that the constituent materials
move in a cyclic manner. The producers (green plant) takes up the mineral elements from the soil and air, convert them
into organic form and after passing through the different trophic levels, are again returned to the soil and air.
 Importance of grassland Ecosystem

– Economic importance of Grassland Ecosystem

– Grass lands biomes are important to maintain the crop of many domesticated and
wild herbivores such as horse, mule, ass, cow, pig, sheep, goat, buffalo, camel, deer,
zebra etc. which provides food, milk, wool and transportation to man.
– Hence, we can say that the Grassland Ecosystem is a mixture of grass, clover and
other leguminous species, dicotyledonous, herbs and shrubs which contribute to a
high degree of the preservation.
Desert Ecosystem
 Desert Ecosystem

– When we hear the word ‘desert’ the very first thing that strikes our minds is a big barren, abandoned
and dry land without plants covered with sand. A desert can be hot and cold both.
– Desert is one of the most dried land areas on this planet that receives very little precipitation annually. It
is a land with very less rainfall throughout the year measured less than 50 cm a year.
– Desert ecosystem is the driest ecosystem of the earth and this is the reason it has less vegetation and
less diversity of life. It is one of the parts of the terrestrial ecosystem. The plants and animals of the
desert ecosystem have mastered the art of survival in harsh conditions. A desert ecosystem is basically
devoid of any rainfall or precipitation.
– In short desert ecosystem is the community of living and non-living organisms living together and
interacting in an environment which seems to be abandoned. A Desert ecosystem is the interaction
between both the Biotic and Abiotic components of the environment.
 TYPES OF DESERT ECOSYSTEM

– Desert ecosystems do not exist only in hot and dry areas of the earth. You can a find a desert
ecosystem in a tropical, arid, and even in extremely cold locations.
– Here we have shared information about all the types of Desert Ecosystem that exist on this
earth.
• Hot and dry

• semi-arid

• coastal

• cold desert
1. Hot and Dry Desert Ecosystem-
– These kinds of the desert ecosystem have hot and dry climatic conditions through the air and have very low annual rainfall.
The hot desert ecosystem is basically found in Central America, South Asia, North America, Africa, Australia etc. There are
extreme variations in temperature and soil is rough and harsh.
2. Semi-arid desert ecosystem-
– This desert ecosystem is quite similar to the Hot and Dry desert ecosystem. This kind of ecosystem has hard rocks, stable
ground, less sand dunes. Temperature is not as extreme as a hot and dry desert ecosystem. Great Basin is an example of
Semi-arid desert ecosystem. It receives a lot of rain as compared to the normal desert’s ecosystem.
3. Coastal desert ecosystem-
– The Atacama Desert in Chile and Namib in Africa are a good example of Coastal desert ecosystem. Such desert ecosystems
are found near the coastal lines of big water bodies like oceans and seas and are generally affected by the ocean currents.
Winter fogs are common here. They are more hospitable than other desert ecosystem and therefore they have a more flora
and fauna than others.
4. Cold desert ecosystem-
– This desert ecosystem comprises of abundant rainfall throughout the winters and less in summers and generally has chilling
winters with snowfall. The summers are short, moderately hot and moist here. These are usually covered with snow dunes.
Such desert ecosystem can be found in Greenland, Antarctica.
 DESERT ECOSYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS

• Aridity
– It is the common characteristic of all the deserts on the earth. Aridity simply implies the deficiency of moisture’s or
dryness. Desert experience very less rainfall and thus result in aridity.
• Less rainfall/ precipitation
– Less precipitation is one of the major features of deserts and also the reason behind the dryness. The rainfall in
deserts is seasonal and occurs only for a limited duration. The annual rainfall that a desert receives every year is
just 25-30 centimeters.
• Extreme temperature
– Desert ecosystems experience extreme temperatures during day and night. The days are very hot and the nights
can be extremely cold. It is the sole characteristic of all the desert ecosystems either hot or cold all lacks moisture.
• Velocity of wind
– It tends to be very high in a desert ecosystem. This is the reason deserts experience sandstorms/ dust storms of
high intensity resulting in the formation of huge sand dunes.
• Scarcity of water
– Due to less rainfall, there is a shortage of water in a desert ecosystem. Due to the scarcity of water
deserts have to face the situation of drought half of the year.
• Humidity-
– The humidity level in a desert ecosystem is very low in the daytime and relatively high at night.
• The quality of the soil
– In deserts is very low to grow vegetation. It is dry, rocky, thin, sandy, mainly grey in colour and has
no organic contents like nitrogen, phosphorus etc which are essential for the growth of plants.
• Biodiversity in a desert ecosystem –
– However, the survival in a desert ecosystem is very hard but despite the fact, deserts are home to
various plants and animals. The plants and animals have adapted to survive in the harsh and
extreme conditions of the desert.
• The population density
– Density Is very low in deserts and nearby areas as there is there a scarcity of water, food and
climatic conditioner are too harsh.
 WHY DESERT ECOSYSTEM IS IMPORTANT
FOR EARTH?

• Desert ecosystem is habitat to various species of plants and animals. These plants have adapted to survive in
an extreme environment.
• It is also important as they act as carbon sink which means the bacteria in the sand helps to store the carbon
dioxide and prevent it from entering into the atmosphere.
• This ecosystem is a big source of minerals and natural gas and oil. Also, check ways to save natural
resources to protect the ecosystem.
• Desert ecosystem is usually for the production of salt.
• This kind of ecosystem is ideal for the preservation of historical remains artefacts. Thus, deserts have great
significance in archaeological discoveries.
• Deserts have unusual landscape and oasis and people around the world get attracted to the scenic beauty of
such natural formation. Therefore, deserts are important tourist locations.
• Desert sands also act as a carbon sink. Scientists found that bacteria which are living in Kalahari desert of
Africa helps in storing carbon dioxide from the air.
TUNDRA VS TAIGA
TAIGA
Mangrove Trees
 B. AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM

– Aquatic Ecosystem
– Marine Ecosystems – Biodiversity in Oceans, Seas and Glaciers

– Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems present in a body of water. These can be further divided into
two types, namely:
1. Freshwater Ecosystem
2. Marine Ecosystem
The largest ecosystem in the world is the aquatic ecosystem. It comprises freshwater and marine
ecosystem. It constitutes 70% of the surface of the earth.
– Freshwater Ecosystem
– The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that includes lakes, ponds, rivers, streams
and wetlands. These have no salt content in contrast with the marine ecosystem.
– Pond Ecosystems :
– Pond ecosystems are comparatively small and mostly include many kinds of amphibians and insects. At
times one can also find fishes here but they aren’t capable of moving as easily as the amphibians.
– River Ecosystems:
– This ecosystem consists of fishes along with plants, amphibians, and insects. One may also find birds that
hunt in and around the water for its food (small fishes).
– Marine Ecosystem
– The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These have a more substantial salt content
and greater biodiversity in comparison to the freshwater ecosystem.
 Freshwater Aquatic Ecosystem
– They cover only a small portion of earth nearly 0.8 per cent. Freshwater involves lakes, ponds, rivers and streams, wetlands,
swamp, bog and temporary pools. Freshwater habitats are classified into lotic and lentic habitats. Water bodies such as lakes,
ponds, pools, bogs, and other reservoirs are standing water and known as lentic habitats. Whereas lotic habitats represent
flowing water bodies such as rivers, streams.
• Lotic Ecosystems
– They mainly refer to the rapidly flowing waters that move in a unidirectional way including the rivers and streams. These
environments harbor numerous species of insects such as beetles, mayflies, stoneflies and several species of fishes including
trout, eel, minnow, etc. Apart from these aquatic species, these ecosystems also include various mammals such as beavers,
river dolphins and otters.
• Lentic Ecosystems
– They include all standing water habitats. Lakes and ponds are the main examples of Lentic Ecosystem. The word lentic mainly
refers to stationary or relatively still water. These ecosystems are home to algae, crabs, shrimps, amphibians such as frogs and
salamanders, for both rooted and floating-leaved plants and reptiles including alligators and other water snakes are also found
here.
• Wetlands
– Wetlands are marshy areas and are sometimes covered in water which has a wide diversity of plants and animals. Swamps,
marshes, bogs, black spruce and water lilies are some examples in the plant species found in the wetlands. The animal life of
this ecosystem consists of dragonflies and damselflies, birds such as Green Heron and fishes such as Northern Pike.
 Marine Aquatic Ecosystem

– Marine ecosystem covers the largest surface area of the earth. Two third of earth is covered by water and
they constitute of oceans, seas, intertidal zone, reefs, seabed, estuaries. Each life form is unique and native
to its habitat. This is because they have adaptations according to their habitat. In the case of aquatic
animals, they can’t survive outside of water. The marine ecosystem is more concentrated with salts which
make it difficult for freshwater organisms to live in. Also, marine animals cannot survive in freshwater. Their
body is adapted to live in saltwater; if they are placed in less salty water, their body will swell (osmosis).
• Ocean Ecosystems
– Our planet earth is gifted with the five major oceans, namely Pacific, Indian, Arctic, and the Atlantic Ocean.
Among all these five oceans, the Pacific and the Atlantic are the largest and deepest ocean. These oceans
serve as a home to more than five lakh aquatic species. Few creatures of these ecosystems include
shellfish, shark, tube worms, crab small and large ocean fishes, turtles, crustaceans, blue whale, reptiles,
marine mammals, seabirds, plankton, corals and other ocean plants.
• lp them to survive in water. Some may have submerged roots; some have emergent roots or maybe floating
plants
• Coastal Systems
– They are the open systems of land and water which are joined together to form the coastal
ecosystems. The coastal ecosystems have a different structure, and diversity. A wide variety of
species of aquatic plants and algae are found at the bottom of the coastal ecosystem. The fauna is
diverse and it mainly consists of crabs, fish, insects, lobsters snails, shrimp, etc.
– Plants and animals in an aquatic ecosystem show a wide variety of adaptations which may involve life
cycle, physiological, structural and behavioural adaptations. Majority of aquatic animals are
streamlined which helps them to reduce friction and thus save energy. Fins and gills are the
locomotors and respiratory organs respectively. Special features in freshwater organisms help them to
drain excess water from the body. Aquatic plants have different types of roots which he
Food Chain

– 1. Food Chain
– The sun is the ultimate source of energy on earth. It provides the energy required for
all plant life. The plants utilise this energy for the process of photosynthesis, which is
used to synthesise their food.
– During this biological process, light energy is converted into chemical energy and is
passed on through successive levels. The flow of energy from a producer, to a
consumer and eventually, to an apex predator or a detritivore is called the food chain.
– Dead and decaying matter, along with organic debris, is broken down into its
constituents by scavengers. The reducers then absorb these constituents. After
gaining the energy, the reducers liberate molecules to the environment, which can be
utilised again by the producers.
– The food chains are of two types, i.e.,
– Grazing food chain and Detritus food chain.
– The interlocking patterns of food chains in an ecosystem constitute the food webs. These are briefly
described as follows:
– Grazing food chain: The food chain that starts from green plants constitutes the grazing pathway
– Green plants → herbivores → first order carnivores → second order carnivores
– Some examples of grazing food chain in an ecosystem would be:
– Grass → Rabbit → Fox
– Phytoplankton → Zooplanktons → Fish → Man
– DETRITUS FOOD CHAIN: - In many cases, the principal energy input is not green plants but dead organic
matter. These are called detritus food chains. Examples of detritus food chains include the forest floor, a
salt marsh, and the ocean floor in very deep areas.
– Dead leaves → Fungi → Collembola → Predatory mite
FOOD CHAIN
– Food Web
– Food web is a network of interconnected food chains. It comprises all the
food chains within a single ecosystem. It helps in understanding that
plants lay the foundation of all the food chains. In a marine environment,
phytoplankton forms the primary producer.
 Ecological Pyramid

– Ecological Pyramids
– An ecological pyramid is the graphical representation of the number, energy, and biomass of the successive trophic levels
of an ecosystem. Charles Elton was the first ecologist to describe the ecological pyramid and its principals in 1927.

– An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation of the relationship between the different living organisms at different
trophic levels. It can be observed that these pyramids are in the shape of actual pyramids with the base being the
broadest, which is covered by the lowest trophic level, i.e., producers. The next level is occupied by the next trophic level,
i.e., the primary consumers and so on.
– All the calculations for construction of these types of ecological pyramids must take into account all the organisms in a
particular trophic level because a sample space of a few numbers or a few species will end up giving a huge level of
errors.
– The biomass, number, and energy of organisms ranging from the producer level to the
consumer level are represented in the form of a pyramid; hence, it is known as the ecological
pyramid.
– The base of the ecological pyramid comprises the producers, followed by primary and
secondary consumers. The tertiary consumers hold the apex. In some food chains, the
quaternary consumers are at the very apex of the food chain.
– The producers generally outnumber the primary consumers and similarly, the primary
consumers outnumber the secondary consumers. And lastly, apex predators also follow the
same trend as the other consumers; wherein, their numbers are considerably lower than the
secondary consumers.
– For example, Grasshoppers feed on crops such as cotton and wheat, which are plentiful. These
grasshoppers are then preyed upon by common mice, which are comparatively less in number.
The mice are preyed upon by snakes such as cobras. Snakes are ultimately preyed on by apex
predators such as the brown snake eagle.
 Types of Ecological Pyramids

– The three types of ecological pyramids include:

• Pyramid of Number
• Pyramid of Biomass
• Pyramid of Energy
 Pyramid of Numbers

– In this type of ecological pyramid,

the number of organisms in each
trophic level is considered as a
level in the pyramid. The pyramid of
numbers is usually upright except
for some situations like that of the
detritus food chain, where many
organisms feed on one dead plant
or animal.
 Pyramid of Biomass

– In this particular type of ecological

pyramid, each level takes into
account the amount
of biomass produced by each
trophic level. The pyramid of
biomass is also upright except for
that observed in oceans where
large numbers of zooplanktons
depend on a relatively smaller
number of phytoplankton's.
 Pyramid of Energy

–
Pyramid of energy is the only
type of ecological pyramid,
which is always upright as
the energy flow in a food
chain is always
unidirectional. Also, with
every increasing trophic
level, some energy is lost
into the environment.
 Energy Flow

– The 10% law was given by Raymond Lindeman.

This law states that when energy is transferred
from one trophic level to the other, only 10%
energy from the organic matter is passed on.

– Pyramid of energy is a type of ecological

pyramid that is always upright. This is due to the
fact that during the flow of energy from one
trophic level to the other, some energy is always
lost as heat in each step.
 Environment

– The environment is the fundamental system which supports all life forms on earth. All the regions across the globe have
different animals, vegetation and climatic conditions. The environment comes from a French word; ‘environ’ which means
around. The environment can be classified in three types i.e. natural, human and human-made environment.

Natural environment comprises activities and interactions among human beings with the natural surroundings. Human-made
environment, is a built environment and includes components of the environment which are strongly influenced by the
humans.

The natural environment consists of two components i.e. biotic and abiotic. Biotic components refer to livings beings like
plants and animals while abiotic components refer to the non-living things. 175 countries celebrate the earth day on 22 April,
to create awareness and appreciation of the earth’s natural environment. 

There are four domains of the environment i.e. the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere and the biosphere. 
The environment consists of four segments as
under:
– 1. Atmosphere: The atmosphere implies the protective blanket of gases, surrounding the earth
– It sustains life on the earth.
– It saves it from the hostile environment of outer space.
– It absorbs most of the cosmic rays from outer space and a major portion of the electromagnetic radiation from the sun.
– The atmosphere is composed of nitrogen and oxygen, besides, argon, carbon dioxide, and trace gases.
– It transmits only here ultraviolet, visible, near infrared radiation (300 to 2500 nm) and radio waves. (0.14 to 40 m) while filtering
out tissue-damaging ultraviolet waves below about 300 nm.
–  The thin layer of air that surrounds the earth is called atmosphere. The atmosphere forms a protective layer and
shields the earth from the strong sunrays. Primarily containing gases, the atmosphere sticks to the earth owing to
earth’s gravitational force. The atmosphere consists of stratosphere and troposphere.
– Hydrosphere: The Hydrosphere comprises all types of water resources oceans, seas, lakes, rivers,
streams, reservoir, polar icecaps, glaciers, and ground water.
– Nature 97% of the earth’s water supply is in the oceans,
– About 2% of the water resources are locked in the polar icecaps and glaciers. 
– Only about 1% is available as fresh surface water-rivers, lakes streams, and ground water fit to be used
for human consumption and other uses.
– Hydrosphere forms the next layer and covers three-fourth of the earth in form of water bodies.
– Lithosphere: Lithosphere is the outer mantle of the solid earth. It consists of minerals occurring in the
earth’s crusts and the soil e.g. minerals, organic matter, air and water
– Lithosphere forms the solid part of the earth and contains landforms like plateaus, mountains,
plains and valleys. It is made up of rocks and minerals and is covered by a thin layer of soil. 
Lithosphere hence comprises the crust, core and mantle.

– Biosphere: Biosphere indicates the realm of living organisms and their interactions with environment
that is atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere.
– Biosphere is the last domain of the earth and is made up of all the plants and animals and all
non-living things. It can extend up till any part of the earth where life can exist. 
 Biodiversity

– Biodiversity describes the richness and variety of life on earth. It is the most complex and important feature
of our planet. Without biodiversity, life would not sustain.
– The term biodiversity was coined in 1985. It is important in natural as well as artificial ecosystems. It deals
with nature’s variety, the biosphere. It refers to variabilities among plants, animals and microorganism
species.
– Biodiversity includes the number of different organisms and their relative frequencies in an ecosystem. It
also reflects the organization of organisms at different levels.
– Biodiversity holds ecological and economic significance. It provides us with nourishment, housing, fuel,
clothing and several other resources. It also extracts monetary benefits through tourism. Therefore, it is
very important to have a good knowledge of biodiversity for a sustainable livelihood.
– Types of Biodiversity
– There are the following three different types of biodiversity:
• Genetic Biodiversity
• Species Biodiversity
• Ecological Biodiversity
– Species diversity 
– Species diversity refers to the variety of different types of species found in a particular area. It is the biodiversity
at the most basic level. It includes all the species ranging from plants to different microorganisms.
– No two individuals of the same species are exactly similar. For example, humans show a lot of diversity among
themselves. 
– Genetic diversity
– It refers to the variations among the genetic resources of the organisms. Every individual of a particular species
differs from each other in their genetic constitution. That is why every human looks different from each other.
Similarly, there are different varieties in the same species of rice, wheat, maize, barley, etc.
– Ecological diversity 
– An ecosystem is a collection of living and non-living organisms and their interaction with each other. Ecological
biodiversity refers to the variations in the plant and animal species living together and connected by food
chains and food webs.
– It is the diversity observed among the different ecosystems in a region. Diversity in different ecosystems like
deserts, rainforests, mangroves, etc., include ecological diversity.
 Major Issue in Biodiversity

– 1. Habitat Loss and Fragmentation:

– A habitat is the place where a plant or animal naturally lives. Habitat loss is identified as main threat to 85% of all species
described as threatened or endangered. Factors responsible for this are deforestation, fire and over-use and urbanization.
– 2. Over-exploitation for Commercialization:
– Over-exploitation of resources has coasted more environmental degradation than earning. For example; shrimp farming in
India, Thailand, Ecuador and Indonesia results in Wetland destruction, pollution of coastal waters and degradation of
coastal fisheries. Scientific studies have concluded that cost of environmental degradation resulting from shrimp farming
was costing more than the earning through shrimp exports.
– 3. Invasive Species:
– Invasive species are ‘alien’ or ‘exotic’ species which are introduced accidentally or intentionally by human. These species
become established in their new environment and spread unchecked, threatening the local biodiversity. These invasive alien
species have been identified as the second greatest threat to biodiversity after habitat loss.
– 4. Pollution:
– Pollution is a major threat to biodiversity, and one of the most difficult problems to overcome;
Pollutants do not recognize international boundaries. For example, agricultural run-off, which
contains a variety of fertilizers and pesticides, may seep into ground water and rivers before
ending up in the ocean. Atmospheric pollutants drift with prevailing air currents and are
deposited far from their original source.
– 5. Global Climate Change:
– Many climatologists believe that the greenhouse effect is likely to raise world temperatures by
about 2°C by 2030, meaning that sea levels will rise by around 30-50 cm by this time. Global
warming, coupled with human population growth and accelerating rates of resource use will
bring further losses in biological diversity. Vast areas of the world will be inundated causing loss
of human life as well as ecosystems.
– 7. Illegal Wildlife Trade:
– The international trade in wild plants and animals is enormous. Live animals are taken for
the pet trade, or their parts exported for medicines or food. Plants are also taken from the
wild for their horticultural or medicinal value.
– 8. Species extinction:
– Extinction is a natural process. The geological record indicates that many hundreds of
thousands of plant and animal species have disappeared over the eras as they have failed to
adapt to changing conditions. Recent findings however indicate that the current rate of
species extinction is at least a hundred to a thousand times higher than the natural rate.
– Which ecosystem do we live in?
– We live in a terrestrial ecosystem. This is the ecosystem where
organisms interact on landforms. Examples of terrestrial ecosystems
include tundra, taigas, and tropical rainforests. Deserts, grasslands and
temperate deciduous forests also constitute terrestrial ecosystems.
– Which is the largest ecosystem in the world?
– The largest ecosystem in the world is the aquatic ecosystem. It
comprises freshwater and marine ecosystem. It constitutes 70% of the
surface of the earth.