ENVIRONMENTAL

SCIENCE

MODULE -4
 Topics to be covered
– Pollution and Public policy (air, water, solid and waste):
– Water pollution,
– water resources of India,
– Hydrological cycle,
– method of water conservation and Management,
– ground and surface water pollution,
– recycling and Management of water and waste water (domestic and industrial ),
– water borne diseases and health related issues,
– air pollution and air pollutants,
– Sources of air pollution,
– Its effect on human health and vegetation,
– Greenhouse effect, global warming and climate change,
– Ambient air quality standards,
– steps taken by government to control air pollution,
– its impact on human health,
– Municipal solid waste management, segregation , disposal methods, composting, land fill sites etc.,
– Hazardous waste Management and bio medical waste management;
Water Pollution
 WATER POLLUTION

– Water pollution occurs when harmful substances—often chemicals or microorganisms—contaminate a

stream, river, lake, ocean, aquifer, or other body of water, degrading water quality and rendering it toxic to
humans or the environment.
– The World Health Organisation (WHO) says that polluted water is water whose composition has been
changed to the extent that it is unusable. In other words, it is toxic water that cannot be drunk or used for
essential purposes like agriculture, and which also causes diseases like diarrhea, cholera, dysentery, typhoid
and poliomyelitis that kill more than 500,000 people worldwide every year.
– The main water pollutants include bacteria, viruses, parasites, fertilizers, pesticides, pharmaceutical
products, nitrates, phosphates, plastics, faecal waste and even radioactive substances. These substances
do not always change the colour of the water, meaning that they are often invisible pollutants. That's
why small amounts of water and aquatic organisms are tested to determine water quality.
POINT VS NON-POINT SOURCES
– Water pollution happens when toxic substances enter water bodies such as lakes,
rivers, oceans and so on, getting dissolved in them, lying suspended in the water or
depositing on the bed. This degrades the quality of water.

Not only does this spell disaster for aquatic ecosystems, the pollutants also seep
through and reach the groundwater, which might end up in our households as
contaminated water we use in our daily activities, including drinking.
– Sources and effects of water pollution

Water pollution can be caused in a number of ways, one of the most polluting being
city sewage and industrial waste discharge. Indirect sources of water pollution include
contaminants that enter the water supply from soils or groundwater systems and from
the atmosphere via rain.
Soils and groundwaters contain the residue of human agricultural practices and also
improperly disposed of industrial wastes.
 water resources of India

– Water Resources of India

– India accounts for about 2.45 per cent of world’s surface area, 4 per cent of the world’s water
resources and about 16 per cent of world’s population.
– Surface Water Resources There are four major sources of surface water. These are rivers, lakes, ponds,
and tanks. In the country, there are about 10,360 rivers and their tributaries longer than 1.6 km each.\
– Groundwater Resources
– Lagoons and Backwaters
– India has a vast coastline and the coast is very indented in some states. Due to this, a number of
lagoons and lakes have formed. The States like Kerala, Odisha and West Bengal have vast surface water
resources in these lagoons and lakes. Although, water is generally brackish in these water-bodies, it is
used for fishing and irrigating certain varieties of paddy crops, coconut, etc.
– Water is generally classified into two groups: surface water and groundwater.
– In general: Groundwater is located underground in large aquifers and must be pumped out of the ground after drilling a deep well.
Surface water is found in lakes, rivers and streams and is drawn into the public water supply by an intake.
– Surface water is just what the name implies; it is water found in a river, lake or other surface cavity. This water is usually not very
high in mineral content, and is often called “soft water” even though it is probably not. Surface water is exposed to many different
contaminants, such as animal wastes, pesticides, insecticides, industrial wastes, algae and many other organic materials. Even surface
water found in what seems like pristine mountain streams can be contaminated by wild animal waste, dead animals upstream or other
decay.
– Groundwater is water contained in or by a subsurface layer of soil or rock. There are many sources recharging the supply of
groundwater, including rain that soaks into the ground, rivers that disappear underground and melting snow. Because of the many
sources of recharge, groundwater may contain any or all of the contaminants found in surface water as well as the dissolved minerals
it picks up underground.

– However, groundwater commonly contains less contamination than surface water because the rock tends to act as a filter to remove
some contaminants. Imagine that rain falls and the rainwater soaks into the ground. The plants use as many nutrients as they can and
then the water continues to filter down through clay, sand and porous rock filtering the water much like a charcoal filter might clean
your drinking water at home. Eventually this groundwater finds a home in an aquifer or trapped between levels of rock creating a
water table. This is the water you most often drink from your well. Due to the minerals picked up while filtering through the rocks,
groundwater is typically considered to be “hard” water.
 SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION
–Sewage (Waste Water)
–Sewage is another name for waste water from domestic and industrial processes. Despite strict regulatory control, the
Environment Agency data shows that the water and sewage industry accounted for almost a quarter of the serious water
incidents in England and Wales in 2006.
–Agricultural Pollution

–The agriculture industry covers 76% of the land area of England and Wales. Agricultural processes such as uncontrolled
spreading of slurries and manure, disposal of sheep dip, tillage, ploughing of the land, use of pesticides and fertilisers can cause
water pollution. Accidental spills from milk dairies can also affect the quality of water.
–Oil Pollution

–Every year there are about 3,000 pollution incidents involving oil and fuels in England and Wales. Oil spillages affect water
quality in a number of ways. Oil can make drinking water unsafe to drink. A substantial amount of oil released into oceans and
seas will destroy wildlife and the ecosystems that sustain them. Oil spills also reduce oxygen supplies within the water
environment. The main causes of oil related water pollution are:
• loss from storage facilities
• spillage during delivery and;
• deliberate disposal of waste oil to drainage systems
– Radioactive Substances
– Radioactive waste is another source of water pollution. Radioactive substances are used in
nuclear power plants, industrial, medical and other scientific processes. They can be found
in watches, luminous clocks, television sets and x-ray machinery. There are also naturally
occurring radioisotopes from organisms and within the environment. If not properly
disposed of, radioactive waste can result in serious water pollution incidents.
– River dumping
– Lots of people dump supermarket trolleys, bicycles, garden cuttings and electronic waste
into rivers or river banks. This is illegal and offenders may be charged for fly-tipping if
caught. River dumping not only causes water pollution; it also harms wildlife and increases
the risk of flooding. Fly-tipping (this includes river dumping) is a criminal offence.
– Marine Dumping
– The Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF) estimates that a staggering amount of waste enters
into the sea every year. Part of this is due to deliberate dumping of waste into coastal
waters. Other sources of waste at sea include plastics and other materials blown or washed
from land. 
 Hydrological cycle
Water cycle, also called hydrologic cycle, cycle that
involves the continuous circulation of water in the Earth-
atmosphere system. Of the many processes involved in the
water cycle, the most important
are evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation,
and runoff. Although the total amount of water within the cycle
remains essentially constant, its distribution among the
various processes is continually changing.

The Hydrologic Cycle (also called the Water Cycle) is the continuous
movement of water in the air, on the surface of and below the Earth.
This cycle is the exchange of energy which influences climate. When
water condenses, it releases energy and warms the environment.
When water evaporates it takes energy from the surrounding
environment, dropping temperatures.
– This diagram shows how, in
the hydrologic cycle, water
is transferred between the
land surface, the ocean, and
the atmosphere.
– Process Definitions:
– Condensation
– The transformation of water vapor to liquid water droplets in the air, creating clouds and fog.
– Deposition
– Also known as desublimation, is a thermodynamic process, a phase transition in which gas (vapor) transforms into solid (ice).
– Evaporation
– The transformation of water from liquid to gas phases as it moves from the ground or bodies of water into the overlying atmosphere.
– Percolation
– Water flows horizontally through the soil and rocks under the influence of gravity.
– Precipitation
– Condensed water vapor that falls to the Earth's surface. Most precipitation occurs as rain, but also includes snow, hail, fog drip, graupel, and
sleet.
– Sublimation
– The state change directly from solid water (snow or ice) to water vapor.
– Transpiration
– The release of water vapor from plants and soil into the air. Water vapor is a gas that cannot be seen.
– Drought Impact
– Hotter temperatures would cause more evaporation from both open water and the soil. As a result, river and lake levels would drop, and soils
would dry out. Plants would transpire more in the heat, drawing even more water from the ground. There would be less water on and in the
ground just when hot weather was increasing water demand.
Method of water conservation and
Management
– Use rainwater effectively. In many climates, rainfall is distributed unevenly in intense downpours that cannot be
readily used by a crop. Storage techniques (such as external catchments or roof top collection) increase the
availability of water in the drier seasons. They also harvest water from a wider area making more water available
to the crop. Measures can also be taken to avoid the rainwater running off the surface during intense rainfall.
– Make effective use of soil water reserves. The soil stores water from rainfall providing a reserve that is available
to the crop. How much water is available depends on the soil type and the rooting system of the crop. Sandy
soils hold much less water than clay or silt soils, so crops will require watering more often. Deeper rooting crops,
such as grasses or cereals will exploit soil water reserves more effectively than shallower rooting crops such as
vegetable crops and therefore can be grown in drier periods. Good cultivation practices (e.g. not ploughing too
deep or when the soil is wet) that result in a soft, friable soil will also promote deep rooting and efficient use of
soil water reserves.
– Take measures to avoid run off Run off is where water is not absorbed by the soil but runs across the surface
away from where the crop can use it. Structures such as contour schemes, terracing, pits and bunds can reduce
run-off. Run off is more likely to occur on silty or clay soils where the surface has been subjected to intense
rainfall then baked in the sun to form a crust or cap. Adding mulch to break up the intensity of rainfall, or adding
manure, compost or incorporating green manure residues will reduce the tendency of the soil to form a crust.
– Avoid wasting water through evaporation Water that evaporates directly from bare soil is wasteful as it is not
being used for productive plant growth. It is desirable to maintain full ground cover for as much of the time as
practically possible. Applying mulch to the soil will also reduce evaporation considerably. Use of drip irrigation
and irrigating in the evening will also reduce the amount of water lost through evaporation.
– Reduce water losses through drainage When water drains out of the soil, not only is it wasted but essential
mobile nutrients such as nitrogen are also washed out. This is more of a problem on light sandy soils. Adding
organic matter in the form of compost, manures or plant residues will eventually increase the amount of water a
soil can retain, but this will only have an effect if it is added over a longer period of years. Most drainage occurs
during the heavy rains, especially if the soil is left bare. Growing a cash or cover crop during this period reduces
these losses, as the roots lift water and nutrients back from deeper to shallower soil profiles.
– Plan your irrigation- Irrigation is one way of supplementing water from rainfall and soil reserves, but
can waste large amounts of water if not used carefully. A key way of making the most of the water
supply is to only irrigate when necessary. Many people irrigate on a regular basis whether the crop
needs it or not. If water is scarce, irrigation should be restricted to the most critical periods such as
germination and fruit set. Drip irrigation makes much better use of water than overhead systems as it
is targeted to the roots rather than sprayed up into the air.
 WASTE WATER MANAGEMENT

– Cleaning of water is a process of removing pollutants before it enters a water body or is reused. This
process of wastewater treatment is commonly known as “Sewage Treatment”. It takes place in several
stages.
– WHAT IS SEWAGE? Sewage is wastewater released by homes, industries, hospitals, offices and other
users. It also includes rainwater that has run down the street during a storm or heavy rain. The water
that washes off roads and rooftops carries harmful substances with it. Sewage is a liquid waste. Most of
it is water, which has dissolved and suspended impurities.
– In a home or a public building generally one set of pipes brings clean water and another set of pipes
takes away wastewater called sewers, forming the sewerage. It is like a transport system that carries
sewage from the point of being produced to the point of disposal, i.e. treatment plant.
– There are three types of wastewater, or sewage: domestic sewage, industrial sewage, and storm
sewage.
– Domestic sewage carries used water from houses and apartments; it is also called sanitary
sewage.
– Industrial sewage is used water from manufacturing or chemical processes.
– Storm sewage, or storm water, is runoff from precipitation that is collected in a system of pipes
or open channels.
 Recycling and Management of water and waste water (domestic and
industrial

– Wastewater treatment is a process used to

remove contaminants from wastewater or sewage and convert it into an effluent that can be
returned to the water cycle. Once returned to the water cycle, the effluent creates an acceptable
impact on the environment or is reused for various purposes (called water reclamation).
– The treatment process takes place in a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP).
– There are two kinds of wastewater:
– domestic and industrial;
– both types of wastewater are treated at the appropriate wastewater treatment plant.
– For domestic wastewater (also called municipal wastewater), the treatment plant may be called
a Water Resource Recovery Facility (WRRF) or a Sewage Treatment Plant (STP).
– For industrial wastewater, treatment either takes place in a separate industrial wastewater
treatment plant, or in a sewage treatment plant (usually after some form of pre-treatment).
WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT (WWTP)

– Treatment of wastewater involves physical, chemical, and biological processes, which remove physical, chemical and biological matter
that contaminates the wastewater.
– 1. Wastewater is passed through bar screens. Large objects like rags, sticks, cans, plastic packets, napkins are removed.
– 2. Water then goes to a grit and sand removal tank. The speed of the incoming wastewater is decreased to allow sand, grit and
pebbles to settle down.
– 3. The water is then allowed to settle in a large tank which is sloped towards the middle. Solids like faeces settle at the bottom and are
removed with a scraper. This is the sludge. A skimmer removes the floatable solids like oil and grease. Water so cleared is called
clarified water.
– The sludge is transferred to a separate tank where it is decomposed by the anaerobic bacteria. The biogas produced in the process
can be used as fuel or can be used to produce electricity. 4. Air is pumped into the clarified water to help aerobic bacteria to grow.
Bacteria consume human waste, food waste, soaps and other unwanted matter still remaining in clarified water.
– After several hours, the suspended microbes settle at the bottom of the tank as activated sludge. The water is then removed from the
top. The activated sludge is about 97% water. The water is removed by sand drying beds or machines. Dried sludge is used as manure,
returning organic matter and nutrients to the soil. The treated water has a very low level of organic material and suspended matter. It
is discharged into a sea, a river or into the ground. Nature cleans it up further. Sometimes it may be necessary to disinfect water with
chemicals like chlorine and ozone before releasing it into the distribution system.
– Some organisations offer hygienic on-site
human waste disposal technology. These
toilets do not require scavenging. Excreta
from the toilet seats flow through covered
drains into a biogas plant. The biogas
produced is used as a source of energy
 WATER BORNE DISEASES
– Typhoid
– Typhoid fever caused due to food washed with contaminated water and can turn out to be
life-threatening for the person suffering from it. Some of its symptoms include prolonged
headache, high fever, loss of appetite, nausea, constipation, joint pain and in most cases
diarrhoea. This fever is caused by Salmonella Typhi virus found in contaminated water and
once this virus enters your bloodstream, it tends to multiply quickly leading to high fever. In
its severest form, typhoid fever may leave the person with rashes that appear like tiny red
dots near the abdomen region. These red dots are also called rose spots.
– 2Cholera
– This disease is usually caused by an infection in your intestine. So how does a person get
affected with cholera? Well, this water-borne disease is caused due to ice made from
contaminated water, street sold food, uncooked seafood etc. If a person consumes
contaminated food or water, the bacteria will release toxins in your intestine that will result
in diarrhoea. In its severest form, cholera may lead to dehydration, watery diarrhoea
including death in few hours.
– 3Hepatitis A (Inflammation in liver)
– Hepatitis A is a disease that affects your liver that spreads from contaminated
food, water or even when you get in contact with another person who is infected.
A person suffering from Hepatitis A will face symptoms such as nausea, severe
abdominal pain, fatigue and low-grade fever that will leave the person bedridden
for a minimum of 2 months. Hepatitis A also causes jaundice, yellow skin, dark
urine and severe vomiting. In order to treat this, you will have to take adequate
rest and keep yourself hydrated. Mostly in children.
– 4Dysentery
– This disease causes inflammation in your intestine that can lead to severe
abdominal pain, diarrhoea, high fever and a feeling of incomplete bowel
movements. Contaminated water can cause dysentery and you may have blood
diarrhoea if the disease is in its extreme form. You don’t want to get into such a
situation because treating blood diarrhoea can be time-consuming and painful at
times. You will be put on IV fluids, liquid diet and antibiotics.
Air Pollution

“Air Pollution is the release of

pollutants such as gases,
particles, biological molecules,
etc. into the air that is harmful
to human health and the
environment.”
– What is Air Pollution?
– Air pollution refers to any physical, chemical or biological change in the air. It is the
contamination of air by harmful gases, dust and smoke which affects plants, animals and
humans drastically.
– There is a certain percentage of gases present in the atmosphere. An increase or decrease in
the composition of these gases is harmful to survival. This imbalance in the gaseous
composition has resulted in an increase in earth’s temperature, which is known as global
warming.
– Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials that cause harm
or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or cause damage to the natural environment or built
environment, into the atmosphere.
– The global pollution is the result of cumulative effects of various sources, located on the entire surface of
the globe, manifested by global effects: the stratospheric ozone depletion; greenhouse effect - emission
of greenhouse gases (CO2, methane, CFCs, etc.); formation of aerosols (pollutant clouds which
suspended particles and chemical compounds).
– Types of Air Pollutants
– There are two types of air pollutants:
– Primary Pollutants
– The pollutants that directly cause air pollution are known as primary pollutants. Sulphur-dioxide
emitted from factories is a primary pollutant.
– Primary pollutants are usually produced by processes such as ash from a volcanic eruption. Other
examples include carbon monoxide gas from motor vehicle exhausts or sulfur dioxide released from
factories. 
– Secondary Pollutants
– The pollutants formed by the intermingling and reaction of primary pollutants are known as
secondary pollutants. Smog, formed by the intermingling of smoke and fog, is a secondary pollutant.
Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. Rather, they form in the air when primary pollutants
react or interact.
– Natural processes that affect air quality include volcanoes, which produce sulfur, chlorine, and ash
particulates. Wildfires produce smoke and carbon monoxide. Cattle and other animals emit methane
as part of their digestive process. Even pine trees emit volatile organic compounds (VOCs).

– Anthropogenic Pollutants
– The major anthropic sources of air pollution are:
• industry and conventional energies (the mining industry, the energy industry based on fossil fuels -
coal, oil, natural gas, central heating, chemical and metallurgical industry, engineering internal
combustion machinery industry, industrial waste, noises, etc);
• agriculture (the vegetation fire, denitrification in soils excessively fertilized, paddy field, intensive
husbandry, deforestation, etc)
• transportation (motor vehicle pollution, noises, etc)
• and urbanization (sewage plans, authorized landfill site, etc) 
– Causes of Air Pollution
– Following are the important causes of air pollution:
– Burning of Fossil Fuels
– The combustion of fossil fuels emits a large amount of sulphur dioxide. Carbon monoxide released by incomplete combustion of
fossil fuels also results in air pollution.
– Automobiles
– The gases emitted from vehicles such as jeeps, trucks, cars, buses, etc. pollute the environment. These are the major sources of
greenhouse gases and also result in diseases among individuals.
– Agricultural Activities
– Ammonia is one of the most hazardous gases emitted during agricultural activities. The insecticides, pesticides and fertilizers emit
harmful chemicals in the atmosphere and contaminate it.
– Factories and Industries
– Factories and industries are the main source of carbon monoxide, organic compounds, hydrocarbons and chemicals. These are
released into the air, degrading its quality.
– Mining Activities
– In the mining process, the minerals below the earth are extracted using large pieces of equipment. The dust and chemicals released
during the process not only pollute the air, but also deteriorate the health of the workers and people living in the nearby areas.
– Domestic Sources
– The household cleaning products and paints contain toxic chemicals that are released in the air. The smell from the newly painted
walls is the smell of the chemicals present in the paints. It not only pollutes the air but also affects breathing.
 Effects of Air Pollution

– The hazardous effects of air pollution on the environment include:

– Diseases
– Air pollution has resulted in several respiratory disorders and heart diseases among humans. The cases of lung cancer have increased in the last
few decades. Children living near polluted areas are more prone to pneumonia and asthma. Many people die every year due to the direct or indirect
effects of air pollution.
– Global Warming
– Due to the emission of greenhouse gases, there is an imbalance in the gaseous composition of the air. This has led to an increase in the
temperature of the earth. This increase in earth’s temperature is known as global warming. This has resulted in the melting of glaciers and an
increase in sea levels. Many areas are submerged underwater.
– Acid Rain
– The burning of fossil fuels releases harmful gases such as nitrogen oxides and sulphur oxides in the air. The water droplets combine with these
pollutants, become acidic and fall as acid rain which damages human, animal and plant life.
– Ozone Layer Depletion
– The release of chlorofluorocarbons, halons, and hydro chlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere is the major cause of depletion of the ozone layer.
The depleting ozone layer does not prevent the harmful ultraviolet rays coming from the sun and causes skin diseases and eye problems among
individuals.
– Effect on Animals
– The air pollutants suspend on the water bodies and affect the aquatic life. Pollution also compels the animals to leave their habitat and shift to a
new place. This renders them stray and has also led to the extinction of a large number of animal species.
– Air Pollution Control
– Following are the measures one should adopt, to control air
pollution:
– Avoid Using Vehicles
– People should avoid using vehicles for shorter distances.
Rather, they should prefer public modes of transport to
travel from one place to another. This not only prevents
pollution, but also conserves energy.
– Energy Conservation
– A large number of fossil fuels are burnt to generate
electricity. Therefore, do not forget to switch off the
electrical appliances when not in use. Thus, you can save
the environment at the individual level. Use of energy-
efficient devices such CFLs also controls pollution to a
greater level.
– Use of Clean Energy Resources
– The use of solar, wind and geothermal energies reduce air pollution at a larger level. Various countries, including India, have implemented
the use of these resources as a step towards a cleaner environment.
– Other air pollution control measures include:
1. By minimizing and reducing the use of fire and fire products.
2. Since industrial emissions are one of the major causes of air pollution, the pollutants can be controlled or treated at the source itself to
reduce its effects. For example, if the reactions of a certain raw material yield a pollutant, then the raw materials can be substituted with
other less polluting materials.
3. Fuel substitution is another way of controlling air pollution. In many parts of India, petrol and diesel are being replaced by CNG –
Compressed Natural Gas fueled vehicles. These are mostly adopted by vehicles that aren’t fully operating with ideal emission engines.
4. Although there are many practices in India, which focus on repairing the quality of air, most of them are either forgotten or not being
enforced properly. There are still a lot of vehicles on roads which haven’t been tested for vehicle emissions.
5. Another way of controlling air pollution caused by industries is to modify and maintain existing pieces of equipment so that the emission of
pollutants is minimized.
6. Sometimes controlling pollutants at the source is not possible. In that case, we can have process control equipment to control the
pollution.
7. A very effective way of controlling air pollution is by diluting the air pollutants.
8. The last and the best way of reducing the ill effects of air pollution is tree plantation. Plants and trees reduce a large number of pollutants
in the air. Ideally, planting trees in areas of high pollution levels will be extremely effective.
– The main air pollutants are represented by gases forms, particles in suspension, different ionizing radiation.
– The gases forms are: oxidized and reduced forms of carbon (CO 2, CO, CH4), of nitrogen (NO2, NO, N2O4, NH3,
NH4+), SO2, O3, C6H6 vapours, Cl2, etc.
– The particulate forms are: PM10 and PM2.5 particulate matter, heavy metals with toxic effect (Pb, Ni, Cd, As),
– IMPACT OF AIR POLLUTION ON VEGETATION

– Atmospheric pollutants have a negative effect on the plants; they can have direct toxic effects, or indirectly by
changing soil pH followed by solubilization of toxic salts of metals like aluminum. The particulate matters have a
negative mechanical effect. They cover the leaf blade reducing light penetration and blocking the opening of
stomata. These impediments influence strongly the process of photosynthesis which rate declines sharply.
– Also the leaves of the trees have an important role in retention of the particulate matters; they are mostly affected
when the wet and dry atmospheric deposition increase.
– The vegetation plays an important positive role in atmospheric purification and air pollutants reduction.
– The primary producers represented by plants are an important component in biogeochemical cycles. The vegetation
made exchanges with a part of the atmospheric gases by photosynthesis, respiration processes, and the final stage of
litter decomposition which mineralization.
– The plants play an important role in reducing atmospheric CO2 content, by photosynthesis. This
reduction of atmospheric CO2 content has an important role in reducing of greenhouse gases,
participating in reducing greenhouse effect and its consequences on climatic changes. The carbon stored
in plants is the result of balance between carbon fixed by photosynthesis and carbon released in the
atmosphere by respiration.
– As the structure of vegetation is more complex, the carbon stock in plants biomass is higher and the
period of storage is longer. The most efficient type of vegetation in storing carbon in terms of carbon
stored in plants alive is the temperate-continental forest.
– Trees have also been planted to reduce the intensity of ionizing radiation and noise in different urban
and industrial areas. The existence of vegetation in an area creates a microclimate where the temperature
differentials between day and night are buffered.
– This prevents the occurrence of warmer temperatures which stimulate the production of volatile
pollutants into the atmosphere.
Name of pollutants Origin Effects
Natural sources

- acid rain,
sulphur, chlorine, and ash - smog,
particulates, smoke and carbon - respiratory irritant
monoxide methane volatile organic Volcanoes, wildfires, cattle and - increased respiratory
compounds (VOCs) Aerosol from other animals, pine trees - diseases
deforestation and burning: CO, CO2, - damage cell membranes of plants
NO, NO2, N2O, NH4 The effects are high only for
volcanoes.
Anthropic sources

- respiratory irritant,
- acid rain,
Industry: - smog,
the mining industry, oil and natural gas - increased respiratory
Carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, extraction, the energy industry based on - formation of secondary pollutants (PAN,
sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, fluorides fossil fuels - coal, oil, natural gas, the O3)
and substances with fluorine,chlorine production of brick, tile, enamel frit,
ceramics, and glass; the manufacture of - effect on soil fertilizer
(Cl2), bromine (Br2) and iodine (I2), small
aluminium and steel; and the production - Respiratory diseases
dust particles, VOC, methane, ammonia of hydrofluoric acid, phosphate chemicals - toxic effects on living cells
and radioactive radiation. and fertilizers. central heating,chemical - greenhouse gas effect
and metallurgical industry, engineering - toxic effects
internal combustion machinery industry, - carcinogenic proprieties
industrial waste, noises - accumulation in tissues
- blocking of different processes
- stratospheric ozone depletion

CO, CO2, NO, NO2, NH3, CH4, SO2, oxides of
heavy metals, H2SO4, SPM, HC, VOC,
background aerosols: sea salt oxidation of
sulphur containing gases, same organics,
nitrous oxide (N2O) pesticides
Aerosols from transport and constructions
NOx, CO, HCl, Lead and other heavy metals ,
SPM
Domestic aerosols CFC, HC, FC, H2S, CH4 CO2
- formation of secondary pollutants (PAN, O3)
Agriculture: - effect on soil fertilizer
the vegetation fire, the denitrification process, in - respiratory diseases
soils excessively fertilized and excessive use the - greenhouse gas effect
pesticides , paddy field, intensive husbandry, - toxic effects
deforestation - acid rain,
- stratospheric ozone depletion
- smog
- increased respiratory diseases
- damage cell membranes of plants
The motor vehicle pollution, noises - carcinogenic proprieties
- accumulation in tissues
- blocking of different processes
- stratospheric ozone depletion
- carcinogenic proprieties
sewage plans, authorized landfill site - accumulation in tissues
- blocking of different processes
- stratospheric ozone depletion
 Steps Being Taken To Control The Major Rise In Pollution

–1. Smog Guns

–There has been an installation of anti-smog guns for controlling pollution at all major construction sites in the city, 
–An anti-smog gun is a portable air pollution control equipment that sprays atomized water into the atmosphere to
make it dust-free. It is connected to a water tank and mounted on either a wheeler, trolley, or truck.
–2. Red Light On, Gaadi Off Campaign
–Under this very recent campaign, you will find volunteers holding placards requesting commuters to switch off their
car engines when the signal is red. This has been one of the most interesting air-pollution management initiatives
started by the city government.
–3. Pusa Decomposer
–Scientists working at PUSA's Indian Agricultural Research Institute have managed to figure out a cost-effective,
efficient and simple way of dealing with the issue of straw and stubble burning. A solution has been created for
spraying in fields for decomposing crop residue. It also ultimately converts the residue into manure, reported Arvind
Kejriwal, Delhi CM.
SMOG GUNS
PUSA DECOMPOSER (FUNGI
CAPSULES)
– 4. Banning Of Diesel Generators
– Delhi, Haryana and UP governments have been directed by the Environment Pollution Authority to ban diesel
generators, The only exception to this rule is emergency and essential services.
– 5. Potential Banning of Construction.
– This hasn't happened yet, however it has been made clear by the authorities that it is a possibility of pollution
levels in the national capital continue to rise. It would mean shutting down of all thermal energy plants and
industries utilizing non-PNG fuels.

– Steps taken by government of India to control air pollution include

– (a) compulsory PUC (pollution under control) certificate of petrol driven vehicles which test for
carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon 
– (b) permission to use only pure diesel as fuel for vehicles 
– (c) use of non polluting compressed natural gas CNG only as fuel by buses and trucks 
– (d) compulsory mixing of 20% ethyl alcohol with petrol and 20% biodiesel with diesel 
 National Ambient Air Quality Standards 

– The U.S.  NAAQS, pronounced are limits on atmospheric concentration of six pollutants that cause smog, acid rain,
and other health hazards.

– The six criteria air pollutants (CAP), or criteria pollutants, for which limits are set in the NAAQS
are ozone (O3), atmospheric particulate matter, lead, carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur oxides (SOx), and nitrogen
oxides (NOx).
– Ambient air quality refers to the condition or quality of air surrounding us in the outdoors. National Ambient Air Quality
Standards are the standards for ambient air quality set by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) that is
applicable nationwide. The CPCB has been conferred this power by the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,
1981.
–  
https://aqicn.org/map/india/
– Air Quality Index (AQI) is a tool to showcase air quality status. It transforms complex air quality data of various pollutants into a single number
and colour. AQI has six categories of air quality. These are: Good, Satisfactory, Moderately Polluted, Poor, Very Poor and Severe. Each of these
categories is decided based on ambient concentration values of air pollutants and their likely health impacts. As the AQI increases, an
increasingly large percentage of the population is likely to experience health effects.
– The measurement of air quality is based on eight pollutants, namely
– Particulate Matter (size less than 10 µm) or (PM10)
– Particulate Matter (size less than 2.5 µm) or (PM2.5)
– Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)
– Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)
– Carbon Monoxide (CO)
– Ozone (O3)
– Ammonia (NH3)
– Lead (Pb)

An air quality index (AQI) is used by government agencies[1] to communicate to the public how polluted the air currently is or how polluted it is
forecast to become.Public health risks increase as the AQI rises. Different countries have their own air quality indices, corresponding to different
national air quality standards. Some of these are the Air Quality Health Index (Canada), the Air Pollution Index (Malaysia), and the Pollutant Standards
Index (Singapore).
– the AQI reports the most common ambient air pollutants that are regulated under the Clean Air Act, including ozone and particle pollution (PM 10 and PM2.5). 
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
 MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE
MANAGEMENT
– Solid Waste Management may be defined as the discipline associated with the control of generation, collection,
storage, transfer and transport, processing and disposal of solid wastes in a manner that is in accord with the
best principles of public health, economics, engineering, conservation, aesthetics and other environmental
considerations.
– Solid waste has grown into a relatively difficult problem to solve for those responsible for its management; these
responsibilities include the collection, transport, treatment, and disposal of solid wastes, particularly wastes
generated in medium and large urban centers. This problem is even more intense in economically developing
countries, where the financial, human, and other critical resources are scarce in general.
– Municipal Solid Wastes
– Municipal solid waste includes commercial and domestic wastes generated in municipal or notified areas in
either solid or semi-solid form excluding industrial hazardous wastes but including treated bio-medical wastes.
– The term municipal solid waste (MSW) is generally used to describe most of the non-
hazardous solid waste from a city, town or village that requires routine collection and
transport to a processing or disposal site, Sources of MSW include private homes,
commercial establishments and institutions, as well as industrial facilities.
– However, MSW does not include wastes from industrial processes, construction and
demolition debris, sewage sludge, mining waste or agricultural wastes. MSW is also called
as trash or garbage. In general, domestic waste and MSW are used as synonyms.
– Municipal solid waste contains a wide variety of materials. It can contain food waste (like
vegetable and meat material, leftover food, eggshells etc, which is classified as wet garbage
as well as paper, plastic, tetra-pack, plastic cans, newspaper, glass bottles, cardboard boxes,
aluminium foil, meta items, wood pieces, etc., which is classified as dry garbage.
 WASTE

Two main waste categories can

be established based on the
distinct legislation and policy
instruments usually in place:
non-hazardous or solid waste;
and hazardous waste. Such a
classification is also used in the
Basel Convention. Hazardous
waste is usually regulated at the
national level, while non-
hazardous is regulated at the
regional or local (municipal) level.
– Non-hazardous/solid waste is all
waste which has not been classified
as hazardous: paper, plastics, glass,
metal and beverage cans, organic
waste etc. While not hazardous, solid
waste can have serious
environmental and health impact if
left uncollected and untreated While
a significant proportion of solid waste
could theoretically be reused or
recycled, collection by type of waste
(selective waste collection) – a
prerequisite for reuse and recycling –
is one of the biggest waste
management challenges.
– Hazardous waste is waste that has been identified as potentially causing harm to the environment and
human health and therefore needs special, separate treatment and handling (refer also to 1.3.). Chemical and
physical characteristics determine the exact collection and recycling process. Flammability, corrosiveness,
toxicity, ecotoxicity and explosiveness are the main characteristics of hazardous waste. Liquid, gaseous and
powder waste need special treatment by default to avoid the dispersal of the waste. Generally, separate
collection and handling are established to avoid contact with non-hazardous waste. Chemical treatment,
incineration or high-temperature treatment, safe storage, recovery and recycling are possible modes of
treatment for hazardous waste. Most hazardous waste originates from industrial production. Special kinds of
hazardous waste include:
• E-waste is waste from electric and electronic equipment such as end-of-life computers, phones and home
appliances. E-waste is generally classified as hazardous because it contains toxic components
• Medical waste originates from the human and animal healthcare systems and usually consists of medicines,
chemicals, pharmaceuticals, bandages, used medical equipment, bodily fluids and body parts. Medical waste
can be infectious, toxic or radioactive or contain bacteria and harmful microorganisms (including those that are
drug-resistant).
• Radioactive waste contains radioactive materials. The management of radioactive waste differs significantly
from that of other waste.
– Categories of Waste
1. Organic waste: Kitchen waste, waste from food preparation, vegetables, flowers, leaves, fruits, and market places.
2. Combustibles: Paper, wood, dried leaves, packaging for relief items etc. that are highly organic and having low
moisture content.
3. Non-combustibles: Metal, Tins, Cans, bottles, stones, etc.
4. Toxic waste: Old medicines, paints, chemicals, bulbs, spray cans, fertilizer and pesticide containers, batteries, shoe
polish.
5. Recyclables: Paper, glass, metals, plastics.
6. Ashes or Dust: Residue from fires that are used for cooking.
7. Construction waste: Rubble, roofing, broken concrete etc.
8. Hazardous waste: Oil, battery acid, medical waste, industrial waste, hospital waste.
9. Dead animals: Carcasses of dead livestock or other animals.
10.Bulky waste: Tree branches, tires etc.
11.Soiled waste: Hospital waste such as cloth soiled with blood and other body fluids.
Sources of waste
– 1. Residential
– Residences and homes where people live are some of the major sources of solid waste. The garbage from these
places includes food wastes, plastics, paper, glass, leather, cardboard, metals, yard wastes, ashes and special
wastes like bulky household items such as electronics, tires, batteries, old mattresses and used oil.
– Most homes have garbage bins where they can throw away their solid wastes in and later, the bin is emptied by
a garbage collecting firm or person for treatment.
– 2. Industrial
– Industries are known to be one of the biggest contributors to solid waste. They include light and heavy
manufacturing industries, construction sites, fabrication plants, canning plants, power and chemical plants.
– These industries produce solid waste in the form of housekeeping wastes, food wastes, packaging wastes,
ashes, construction and demolition materials, special wastes, medical wastes as well as other hazardous wastes.
– 3. Commercial
– Commercial facilities and buildings are yet another source of solid waste today. Commercial buildings and
facilities, in this case, refer to hotels, markets, restaurants, godowns, stores and office buildings.
– Some of the solid wastes generated from these places include plastics, food wastes, metals, paper, glass, wood,
cardboard materials, special wastes and other hazardous wastes.
– 4. Institutional
– The institutional centers like schools, colleges, prisons, military barracks and other government centers also
produce solid waste. Some of the common solid wastes obtained from these places include glass, rubber waste,
plastics, food wastes, wood, paper, metals, cardboard materials, electronics as well as various hazardous wastes.
– 5. Construction and Demolition Areas
– Construction and demolition sites also contribute to the solid waste problem. Construction sites include new
construction sites for buildings and roads, road repair sites, building renovation sites and building demolition sites.
– Some of the solid wastes produced in these places include steel materials, concrete, wood, plastics, rubber, copper
wires, dirt and glass.
6. Municipal Services
– The urban centers also contribute immensely to the solid waste crisis in most countries today. Some of the solid
waste brought about by the municipal services include street cleaning, wastes from parks and beaches, wastewater
treatment plants, landscaping wastes and wastes from recreational areas, including sludge.
– 7. Treatment Plants and Sites
– Heavy and light manufacturing plants also produce solid waste. They include refineries, power plants, processing
plants, mineral extraction plants and chemical plants.
– Among the wastes produced by these plants, there are industrial process wastes, unwanted specification products,
plastics, metal parts, just to mention a few.
– 8. Agriculture
– Crop farms, orchards, dairies, vineyards and feedlots are also sources of solid wastes. Among the wastes they
produce are agricultural wastes, spoiled food, pesticide containers and other hazardous materials.
– 9. Biomedical
– This refers to hospitals and biomedical equipment and chemical manufacturing firms. In hospitals, there are
different types of solid wastes produced.
– Some of these solid wastes include syringes, bandages, used gloves, drugs, paper, plastics, food wastes and
chemicals. All these require proper disposal or else they will cause a huge problem for the environment and the
people in these facilities.
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
 Methods of Solid Waste Management

– There are different methods of solid waste management. The following are some of the recognized
methods:
– This is the most popular solid waste disposal method used today. Garbage is basically spread out in thin
layers, compressed and covered with soil or plastic foam. 
– Modern landfills are designed in such a way that the bottom of the landfill is covered with an
impervious liner, which is usually made of several layers of thick plastic and sand. This liner protects
the groundwater from being contaminated because of leaching or percolation.
– When the landfill is full, it is covered with layers of sand, clay, topsoil and gravel to prevent seepage of
water.
– Advantage: If landfills are managed efficiently, it is an ensured sanitary waste disposal method.
– Constraint: It requires a reasonably large area.
– 2. Incineration
– This method involves the burning of solid wastes at high temperatures until the wastes are turned into
ashes. Incinerators are made in such a way that they do not give off extreme amounts of heat when
burning solid wastes. 
– Incinerators that recycle heat energy through furnace and boiler are called waste-to-energy plants.
– These waste-to-energy systems are more expensive to set up and operate compared to plain incinerators
because they require special equipment and controls, highly skilled technical personnel, and auxiliary
fuel systems.
– This method of solid waste management can be done by individuals, municipalities and even
institutions. The good thing about this method is the fact that it reduces the volume of waste up to 20 or
30% of the original volume.
– Advantage: The volume of combustible waste is reduced considerably by burning waste. In the case of
off-site pits, it is an appropriate method to minimize scavenging.
– Constraint: It can cause smoke or fire hazard and also emits gaseous pollutants.
– . Recovery and Recycling
– Recycling or recovery of resources is the process of taking useful but discarded items for the next use.
Plastic bags, tins, glass and containers are often recycled automatically since, in many situations, they
are likely to be scarce commodities.
– Traditionally, these items are processed and cleaned before they are recycled. The process aims at
reducing energy loss, consumption of new material and reduction of landfills. The most developed
countries follow a strong tradition of recycling to lower volumes of waste.
– Advantage: Recycling is environmentally friendly.
– Constraint: It is expensive to set up, and in most emergencies, there is limited potential.
– 4. Composting
– Due to a lack of adequate space for landfills, biodegradable yard waste is allowed to decompose in a
medium designed for the purpose. Only biodegradable waste materials are used in composting. 
– It is a biological process in which micro-organisms, specifically fungi and bacteria, convert degradable
organic waste into substances like humus. This finished product, which looks like soil, is high in carbon
and nitrogen. Good quality environmentally friendly manure is formed from the compost that is an
excellent medium for growing plants and can be used for agricultural purposes.
– Advantage: Composting is environmentally friendly as well as beneficial for crops.
– Constraint: It requires intensive management and experienced personnel for large scale operation.
– 5. Pyrolysis
– This is a method of solid waste management whereby solid wastes are chemically decomposed by heat
without the presence of oxygen. It usually occurs under pressure and at temperatures of up to 430
degrees Celsius. The solid wastes are changed into gasses, solid residue of carbon and ash and small
quantities of liquid.
– Advantage: This will keep the environment clean and reduce health and settlement problems.
– Constraint: The systems that destroy chlorinated organic molecules by heat may create incomplete
combustion products, including dioxins and furans. These compounds are highly toxic in the parts per
trillion ranges. The residue it generates may be hazardous wastes, requiring proper treatment, storage,
and disposal.
 Bio-Medical Wastes:

– Bio-medical waste means any waste, which is generated during the diagnosis, treatment or
immunization of human beings or animals or in research activities pertaining thereto or in the
production or testing of biological.
– Segregation, Packaging, Transportation and Storage:
– 1. Bio-medical waste shall not be mixed with other wastes.
– 2. Bio-medical waste shall be segregated into containers/bags at the point of generation prior to its
storage, transportation, treatment and disposal. The containers shall be properly labelled.
– 3. Notwithstanding anything contained in the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988, or rules there under,
untreated biomedical waste shall be transported only in such vehicle as may be authorized for the
purpose by the competent authority as specified by the government.
– 4. No untreated bio-medical waste shall be kept stored beyond a period of 48 hours. Provided that if
for any reason it becomes necessary to store the waste beyond such period, the authorized person
must take permission of the prescribed authority and take measures to ensure that the waste does not
adversely affect human health and the environment.
What is the greenhouse effect?

– The greenhouse effect is the way in which heat is trapped close to the surface of
the Earth by “greenhouse gases.” These heat-trapping gases can be thought of
as a blanket wrapped around the Earth, which keeps it toastier than it would be
without them. Greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous
oxides.
– Greenhouse gases arise naturally, and are part of the make-up of our
atmosphere. Earth is sometimes called the “Goldilocks” planet – it’s not too hot,
not too cold, and the conditions are just right to allow life, including us, to
flourish. Part of what makes Earth so amenable is the naturally-arising
greenhouse effect, which keeps the planet at a friendly 15 °C (59 °F) on
average. But in the last century or so, humans have been interfering with the
energy balance of the planet, mainly through the burning of fossil fuels that give
off additional carbon dioxide into the air. The level of carbon dioxide in Earth’s
atmosphere has been rising consistently for decades and traps extra heat near
the surface of the Earth, causing temperatures to rise.
– How does the greenhouse effect work?
– As you might expect from the name, the greenhouse effect works … like
a greenhouse! A greenhouse is a building with glass walls and a glass
roof. Greenhouses are used to grow plants, such as tomatoes and
tropical flowers.
– A greenhouse stays warm inside, even during the winter. In the daytime,
sunlight shines into the greenhouse and warms the plants and air inside.
At nighttime, it's colder outside, but the greenhouse stays pretty warm
inside. That's because the glass walls of the greenhouse trap the Sun's
heat.
– The greenhouse effect works much the same way on Earth. Gases in the
atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide, trap heat similar to the glass roof of
a greenhouse. These heat-trapping gases are called greenhouse gases.
– During the day, the Sun shines through the atmosphere. Earth's surface
warms up in the sunlight. At night, Earth's surface cools, releasing heat
back into the air. But some of the heat is trapped by the greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere. That's what keeps our Earth a warm and cozy
58 degrees Fahrenheit (14 degrees Celsius), on average.
How are humans impacting the greenhouse effect?
Human activities are changing Earth's natural greenhouse effect.
Burning fossil fuels like coal and oil puts more carbon dioxide into
our atmosphere.
NASA has observed increases in the amount of carbon dioxide and
some other greenhouse gases in our atmosphere. Too much of
these greenhouse gases can cause Earth's atmosphere to trap
more and more heat. This causes Earth to warm up.
What reduces the greenhouse effect on Earth?
Just like a glass greenhouse, Earth's greenhouse is also full of
plants! Plants can help to balance the greenhouse effect on Earth.
All plants — from giant trees to tiny phytoplankton in the ocean —
take in carbon dioxide and give off oxygen.
The ocean also absorbs a lot of excess carbon dioxide in the air.
Unfortunately, the increased carbon dioxide in the ocean changes
the water, making it more acidic. This is called ocean acidification.
More acidic water can be harmful to many ocean creatures, such
as certain shellfish and coral. Warming oceans — from too many
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere — can also be harmful to
these organisms.
– What are greenhouse gases?
• Greenhouse gases are gases in Earth’s atmosphere that trap heat. They let sunlight pass
through the atmosphere, but they prevent the heat that the sunlight brings from leaving the
atmosphere. The main greenhouse gases are:Water vapor
• Carbon dioxide
• Methane
• Ozone
• Nitrous oxide
• Chlorofluorocarbons
– https://climatekids.nasa.gov/greenhouse-cards/
 What is Global Warming?

– “Global warming” refers to the long-term warming of the planet. Global warming, a recent
warming of the Earth’s surface and lower atmosphere, is believed to be the result of a
strengthening of the greenhouse effect mostly due to human-produced increases in
atmospheric greenhouse gases.

– “Climate change” encompasses global warming, but refers to the broader range of changes
that are happening to our planet. These include rising sea levels; shrinking mountain
glaciers; accelerating ice melt in Greenland, Antarctica and the Arctic; and shifts in
flower/plant blooming times. These are all consequences of the warming, which is caused
mainly by people burning fossil fuels and putting out heat-trapping gases into the air. The
terms “global warming” and “climate change” are sometimes used interchangeably, but
strictly they refer to slightly different things.
– The global warming has the following effects:
– 1. Risk of lower Agricultural Growth:
– 2. Rise in Sea Level
– 3. Risk of Extreme Events
– 4. Climate Change and Economic Growth
 What is Climate Change?

– Climate change is a long-term change in the average weather patterns that have come to define Earth’s local,
regional and global climates. These changes have a broad range of observed effects that are synonymous with the
term.
– This increasing level of emissions of greenhouse gases has caused a rise in the amount of heat from the sun trapped in
the earth’s atmosphere, heat that would normally be radiated back into space. This has led to the greenhouse effect,
resulting in climate change.
– The major characteristics of climate change are rise in average global temperature, ice cap melting, changes in
precipitation, and increase in ocean temperature. The efforts needed to address the climate change problem include
greenhouse gas emissions on the one hand and building of capacities to cope with the adverse impacts of climate
change on various sectors of the society and economy on the other.
– Scientists who have been working on the subject for a long time point out that greenhouse gases (GHGs) such as
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere trap the incoming heat from the sun and thereby leads to the increase in earth’s
temperature which is often referred to as global warming. Besides carbon dioxide, other greenhouse gases are
methane, nitrous oxide and water vapors.
– This climate change is likely to cause adverse change in weather patterns and extreme events such as cyclones,
hurricanes, floods, and rise in sea level. How to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases and also to adapt to the
changes in climate are the issues that confront the humanity.