Module IV

Water Resource; Water Pollution: Definition, Classification, Sources of Contamination,

Pollutants & their Detrimental Effects; Water Quality: Portability limit – WHO and PHED
Specification; Water Quality Monitoring, Municipal Water Treatment: Slow and Rapid Sand
Filter, Disinfection – Methods, Advantages & Disadvantages, Sterilization

The scientific name for water is Dihydrogen monoxide. 70.9% of the Earth's surface is covered
by water. Of which 97% is found in oceans, rest 3% is distributed in other water bodies,
groundwater, glaciers and the ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland, and in the air as vapor,
clouds. Only 2.5% of the Earth's water is freshwater, and 98.8% of that water is in ice and
groundwater. Less than 0.3% of all freshwater is in rivers, lakes, and the atmosphere. Water on
earth moves continuously through the hydrological cycle.

Figure: Hydrological cycle.

The different processes involved in hydrological cycle are evaporation, transpiration,

condensation, precipitation, infiltration (to ground water) and runoff, reaching to water bodies.

Unusual properties of Water

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In water molecule two hydrogen atoms are covalently bonded to a single oxygen atom. Water is
a liquid at standard temperature and pressure. Water molecule is not linear and the oxygen atom
has a higher electronegativity than hydrogen atoms, it carries a slight negative charge, whereas
the hydrogen atoms are slightly positive. As a result, water is a polar molecule with an electrical
dipole moment. Water also can form an unusually large number of intermolecular hydrogen
bond. These factors lead to strong attractive forces between molecules of water, giving rise to
water's high surface tension and capillary forces. The capillary action refers to the tendency of
water to move up a narrow tube against the force of gravity (vascular system of plants utilize).
Factors discussed above also gives water its unique ability as a solvent and are often referred to
as the universal solvent. Substances that can be dissolved in water are salts, sugars, acids, alkalis,
and gases – especially oxygen, carbon dioxide. All the major components in cells (proteins,
DNA and polysaccharides) are also dissolved in water.
Renewable Water, Consumptive and Non-Consumptive Water

Renewable and non-renewable water: Water can be considered a renewable material

when carefully controlled usage, treatment, and release are followed. If not, it would become a
non-renewable resource at that location. For example, groundwater is usually taken out thorough
pumps at a rate much greater than its very slow natural recharge, and so groundwater is
considered non-renewable.
Consumptive and Non consumptive water: When water taken out from the source (e. g.
stream, river etc.) without return (e.g., water used in manufacturing, agriculture, and food
preparation that is not returned back) is known as consumptive water or consumptive water use.
Non-consumptive water use includes water withdrawn for use that is not consumed, for example,
water withdrawn for purposes such as hydropower generation. This also includes uses such as
boating or fishing where the water is still available for other uses at the same site. The terms
Consumptive Use and Non-consumptive Use are associated with water rights and water use
studies, but they are not completely definitive. No typical consumptive use is entirely
consumptive; there is always some return flow associated with such use (e. g. infiltration during
precipitation replenishes some portion of consumptive ground water). Nor are typically non-
consumptive uses of water entirely non-consumptive. For example, there are evaporation losses,

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associated with a reservoir to support recreation (boating, fishing etc.).
Source of Water
There are two major sources of water;
1. Surface water (Ocean, sea, lake, river etc.)
2. Ground water
Water Pollution
Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans and groundwater
etc.). Water pollution occurs when pollutants are discharged directly or indirectly into water
bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds. Water pollution can cause
chemical, physical or biological change in the quality of water and has a harmful effect on any
living thing that drinks or uses or lives in it. Sources of surface water pollution are generally
grouped into two categories based on their origin.
1. Point sources
Point source water pollution refers to contaminants that enter a waterway from a single,
identifiable source, such as a pipe or ditch. Examples of sources in this category include
discharges from a sewage treatment plant, a factory, or a city drain etc.
2. Non–point sources
Non–point source (NPS) pollution refers to cumulative source of small amounts of contaminants
gathered from a large area.
The washed off from parking lots, roads and highways is called urban runoff. If this runoff is
typically channeled into drain systems and discharged through pipes to local surface waters it
becomes a point source. However where such water is not channeled and drains directly to
ground it is a non-point source.
Water Pollution can be classified into following categories:
1. Physical Pollution of water
It brings about changes in water with regard to its color, odor, density, taste, turbidity etc.
2. Chemical Pollution of water
The chemical pollution of water causes changes in acidity, alkalinity dissolved oxygen etc.
3. Biological Pollution of water
Biological pollution of water is also brought about by bacteria, viruses, algae, etc.

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Thermal pollution (physical pollution)
Thermal pollution is the rise or fall in the temperature of a natural body of water caused by
human influence those results in a change in the physical properties of water. A common cause
of thermal pollution is the use of water as a coolant by power plants and industrial
manufacturers. Elevated water temperatures decreases oxygen levels and affect ecosystem
composition, such as invasion by new thermophilic species. Urban runoff may also elevate
temperature in surface waters.
Thermal pollution can also be caused by the release of very cold water from the base of
reservoirs into warmer rivers.

Chemical
Include organic and inorganic substances.
Organic water pollutants include:
 Detergents
 Disinfection by-products found in chemically disinfected drinking water, such as
chloroform
 Food processing waste, which can include oxygen-demanding substances, fats and grease
 Insecticides and herbicides, a huge range of organohalides (DDT) and other chemical
compounds
 Petroleum hydrocarbons and lubricants and their byproducts
 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), such as industrial solvents, from improper storage.
Chlorinated solvents, such as Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs), Trichloroethylenen etc.
Inorganic water pollutants include:
 Industrial discharges (especially sulfur dioxide from power plants)
 Ammonia from food processing waste
 Fertilizers (source of nitrates and phosphates) which are found in runoff from agriculture.
 Heavy metals from motor vehicles (via urban stormwater runoff) and acid mine drainage
 Sediment in runoff from construction sites, or land clearing sites.

Macroscopic pollution: Large visible items polluting the water, often termed as
"floatables" can include such items as:
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 Trash or garbage (e.g. paper, plastic, or food waste) discarded by people on the ground,
along with accidental or intentional dumping of rubbish, that are washed by rainfall into
storm drains and eventually discharged into surface waters

Pathogens
Microorganisms sometimes found in surface waters which can cause human health problems
include:
 Burkholderia pseudomallei
 Cryptosporidium parvum
 Giardia lamblia
 Salmonella
 Novovirus
 Parasitic worms (helminths).
High levels of pathogens may result from inadequately treated sewage discharges. This can be
caused by a sewage plant designed with less than secondary treatment (more typical in less-
developed countries). In developed countries, older cities with aging infrastructure may have
leaky sewage collection systems (pipes, pumps, valves), which can cause sanitary sewer
overflows. Some cities also have combined sewers, which may discharge untreated sewage
during rain storms. Pathogen discharges may also be caused by poorly managed livestock
operations.
Pollution as per source
Ground Water
The extent of ground water pollution depends on the following factors:
1. Rain fall pattern
2. Depth of water table
3. Distance from the source of contamination
4. Soil properties such as texture and filtration rate
Sources of contamination in ground water
1. Domestic wastes
2. Industry effluents
3. Agricultural discharges
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 4. Soluble effluents
5. Mine spills etc.
Effects of Ground water contamination
Mercury contamination
• Can cause serious neurological damage, particularly to developing fetuses, infants and
children.
• Mental retardation, vision loss, GI disturbances etc and death in extreme case.
Fluoride contamination
• Fluoride is essential element for human life but is toxic at higher at concentrations causes
fluorosis (discoloration of teeth), mental disorder and failure of reproductive system.
Nitrate ion contamination
• The high level of nitrate in the drinking water may lead to methaemoglobinemia (blue
baby syndrome) in infants.
• Signs and symptoms include shortness of breath, dizziness and loss of consciousness.
Severe condition includes seizures, coma and death.
Arsenic contamination
• Causes melanosis, hyperkeratosis, bronchitis, nausea, diarrhea etc.
Protecting Ground water from Pollution
• The contaminant sources should be carefully surveyed.
• Location of industrial and municipal disposal sites should be decided keeping in view the
ground water level pattern in the area.
• Surrounding contaminants sources and flow directions should be considered.
• In case of toxic industrial effluents, steps should be taken for predisposal treatment by the
industry itself.
Factors affecting Surface water pollution
1. Vegetation, soil type and degree of weathering rocks.
2. Hygienic and health situation of the communities residing near surface water.
• Waste water disposal system and techniques for treatment of domestic and urban
sewage.
• Physical, chemical and biological characteristics of waste water entering the
surface water.
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 3. Types of Industries nearby.
• Chemical, Power plants, Nuclear Plants etc.
Types and Sources of Pollutants
Various types of water pollutants are
 Organic Pollutants:
• Decayed leaves, dead animal (natural)
• Sewage and industrial waste water
• Pesticides, herbicides, toxic solvents
• Oil
 Inorganic Pollutants
• Geological formation with which water body is in contact
• Inorganic salts, mineral acid, metals/metal compound, organo-metallic compounds
 Radioactive Pollutants
• From power plants, nuclear weapons, use of radioactive isotopes in medical, ,
industrial and research application.
 Suspended solids and sediments
• Soil, sand and other solids washed into water bodies due to soil erosion, mining,
disposal of sewage etc.
 Heat
• Dissipation of waste heat from power plant
Effect of water Pollution
Lake water Pollution (Example - Eutrophication)
During early stages of formation, lakes are deficient to support life. Such young and nutrient
poor lakes are called Oligotrophic. With passage of time organic matter begins to accumulate
and biological activity also increases. These lakes are called Mesotrophic. Finally they may
become over rich with nutrients which leads to significant amount of increase in biological
activity. This results in higher biological oxygen demand (BOD) and now they are called
Eutrophic (Derived from the greek word eutrophos meaning well nourished or enriched).
Eutrophication thus signifies change in biological productivity and nutrient cycling and increase
in primary productivity of the lake.

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In a natural situation (change in climate, vegetation and watershed condition) Eutrophication is
very slow but human activities change the rate of sedimentation and nutrient loading forming an
oligotrophic/mesotrophic water body to become eutrophic within short period of time.

Effects of Eutrophication
• Algal bloom release toxic chemicals which kill fish, birds and other aquatic animals.
• These eventually die and decompose inhancing BOD and decrease in DO level. Thus in a
poor oxygen supply aquatic organisms begin to die and the clean water turns into a
stinking drain.
• Many pathogenic microbes, viruses, protozoa and bacteria etc. grow on sewage products
under anaerobic condition. It results into spread of fatal water-borne diseases such as
polio, dysentery, typhoid etc.
A lake may be regarded as consisting of several layers differentiated on the basis of temperature,
CO2, O2 and presence of organisms.

• A warm surface layer (EPILIMNION)

• An underlying layer where temperature drops fast with depth (THERMOCLINE)
• A bottom layer of cool water of higher density (HYPOLIMNION)
This density difference between surface water and the water nearer to the bottom inhibit vertical
mixing which is known as thermal stratification.

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Summer stratification: In summer a lake warmed by the sun will have a layer of warm
water floating on the top of the denser, colder water below creating two separate lakes, a warm
lake (epilimnion) floating on top of a cold lake (hypolimnion). The separation is stable and
increases as summer progresses.
As winter approaches, the temperature of the epiliminion begins to drop and
marked stratification of summer disappears. The temperature becomes uniform with depth and
complete mixing of lake occurs. This is called fall overturn.
Winter Stratification: In winter a layer of cold water floats on the top of the more dense
water below.
As summer approaches epiliminion warms up and stratification of winter disappears and
complete mixing of lake occurs. This is called spring overturn.
Effects on DO of Eutrophic stratified lake
• The O2 poor hypolimnion layer is cut off from O2 rich epilimnion layer due to
thermal stratification.
• In summer the extent of thermal stratification is in its peak. Algal blooms die and sinks to
the bottom and increases the BOD at hypolimnion layer.
• Effects of winter stratification is less severe in comparison to summer stratification
because in winter demand for oxygen decreases as metabolic rate decreases.
• In winter, the ability of water to hold oxygen increases.
Control of Eutrophication
• The waste water must be treated before its discharge into water streams.
• Physico-chemical methods can be adopted to remove dissolved nutrients. Ex,
Phosphorous can be removed by precipitation and nitrogen by denitrification,
electrodialysis and ion-exchange methods.
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 • Algal blooms should be removed upon their death and decomposition.
• Water should be treated with Copper sulphate and sodium arsenite so as to control the
growth of algae.
Sea Water Pollution
The oceans are deemed to be our last and endless dustbin. The major pollution of sea occurs
from oil pollutants. The sources of oil pollutants are:
• Cargo tanker washing at sea
• Collision of Import oil tankers at port.
• Oil leakage from pipelines
• Oily waste from oil refinery etc.
Oil is mainly transported by wind currents, waves, and tides in marine ecosystem. The dispersal
and its persistence in sea water depends on kind of oil, chemical composition, specific gravity,
temperature. The dispersed oil undergoes evaporatiobn, dissolution, emulsification, oxidation,
sedimentation, and uptake by marine animals.
Effects
 Thin film on water surface prevents exchange of O2 from atmosphere and decreases DO.
Reduces light intensity up to 90 % and hamper photosynthesis.

 In marine birds the coating of oil spill on their fur abnormally decrease their body
temperature because the coating of spilled oil breakdown their natural insulating oils and
waxes.

Counter measure against Oil spill

 Skim off the surface with a suction device.

 Absorption by polyurethane foam

 Spreading a high density powder over oil so that oil will sink to bottom

 By using dispersant containing a surfactant, a solvent and a stabilizer. The solvent

enables the surface active agents to mix with it and penetrate into the oil slick
forming emulsion. The stabilizer fixes the emulsion and helps dispersion. Microbes
can be used to decompose them.
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Water Pollutants and their Detrimental Effects:
1. Organic – O2 demanding waste, Disease causing Agent, Plant Nutrients, Sewage, Synthetic
organic compound, Oil, Pesticides (Insecticides, Herbicides, Fungicides – Give example of
each with chemical formula)
2. Inorganic – Inorganic Salts, mineral Acids, Acid Mine Drainage (Discuss in detail), Fertilisers
(chemical composition and effects), Metal compounds, Trace Elements, Heavy Metals (As, Pb,
Hg, Cd, Fe, Al), Organometallics

Potable water: Water pure enough to be consumed or used with low risk of immediate or
long term harm is called potable water or Drinking water.

Potability limits

Parameters Standard
Color, Odor, Taste Colorless, Odorless, Tasteless
pH 6.0 – 9.0
DO 3.0 – 6.0 ppm
Total dissolved solid (TDS) < 500 ppm
Fluorides < 1.5 ppm
Iron < 0.3 ppm
Lead < 0.05 ppm
Mercury < 0.001 ppm
Pesticides < 0.005 ppm
Total bacteria count Up to 106

Purification of Water for Domestic Use

Disinfection Processeses
Screening: Water is passed through screens, having large number of holes, where floating
matters are retained.
Sedimentation: Water is allowed to stand for 2-6 hours undisturbed in big tanks where most of
the suspended particles settle down at the bottom, due to force of gravity.
Sedimentation with coagulation: Coagulants are added to water before sedimentation. It forms
an insoluble gelatinous flocculant precipitate that adsorbs very fine suspended impurities
forming bigger flocs, which settles down. Ex : Alum[K2SO4. Al2(SO4)3.24H2O], sodium
aluminate [NaAlO2 ] etc.
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Filtration : It is the process of removing colloidal matter and most of the bacteria , micro-
organisms etc. by passing water through a bed of fine sand and other proper–sized granular
particles.
Disinfection
The process that destroys pathogens and make water safe for use is called disinfection. It can be
carried out by
Boiling water for 10-15 minutes kills all kinds of bacteria present and water becomes safe for
use. This process does not provide any protection against future contamination.
Adding bleaching powder (CaOCl2)
CaOCl2 + H2O ------------> Ca(OH)2 + Cl2
Cl2 + H2O --------------> HCl + HOCl (hypochlorous acid)
HOCl is responsible for killing pathogens
Advantages and Disadvantages of Bleaching Powder Treatment
Advantages
• In chlorination, a chlorine residual is created that can protect the treated water after
leaving the treatment plant.
Disadvantages
• Bleaching powder introduces calcium in water thereby making it more hard.
• Whenever CaOCl2 is added it should be analyzed for its effective Cl2 content.
Disinfection by Chlorination
Chlorine (either in gaseous or in conc. solution form) produces hypochlorous acid, which is
powerful germicide due to its oxidizing power.
Cl2 + H2O --------------à HOCl + HCl
At acidic pH HOCl prevails, but at basic pH (>7.5), OCl - (hypochlorate ions) prevails.
HOCl penetrates the cell wall but OCl - is not so effective. HOCl & OCl - are called free available
chlorine.
Breakpoint Chlorination
Cl2 is added until all the organic matter present in water is completely oxidized, and there
remains a small quantity of “free” chlorine. The “point” at which free chlorine begins to appear
is known as the break point.

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 Oxidation of Formation of Destruction Free residual
Chlorine Chloro-organic of chloro- chlorine
compounds & organic &
chloramines Chloramin
es
d
b

Break - point
a c
Applied dose
Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages
• It oxidizes completely organic compounds.
• It removes both odor & taste from the water.
• It destroys completely all the disease producing bacteria.
Disadvantages
Over chlorination after break point produces unpleasant taste & odor in water due to
excess free chlorine. These objectionable qualities can be removed by filtering the over-
chlorinated water through a bed of molecular carbon.
OR
It can also be removed by addition of small amount of sulphur dioxide or sodium
sulphite.
Disinfection by Chlorine oxide

Chlorine dioxide (ClO2) is a yellowish-green gas and is a potent and useful oxidizing agent used
in water treatment and in bleaching. As an oxidizer chlorine dioxide is very selective. Chlorine
dioxide is not as reactive as ozone or chlorine and it only reacts with sulphuric substances,
amines and some other reactive organic substances. In comparison to chlorine and ozone, less
chlorine dioxide is required to obtain an active residual disinfectant. It can also be used when a

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large amount of organic matter is present.
Table 2: the oxidation potentials of various oxidants.

oxidant oxidation strength oxidation capacity

ozone (O3) 2,07 2 e-

hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) 1,78 2 e-

hypochlorous acid (HOCl) 1,49 2 e-

hypobromous acid (HOBr) 1,33 2 e-

chlorine dioxide (ClO2) 0,95 5 e-

Contrary to chlorine, chlorine dioxide does not react with ammonia nitrogen (NH 3) and hardly
reacts with elementary amines. It does oxidize nitrite (NO2) to nitrate (NO3). It does not react by
breaking carbon connections. No mineralization of organic substances takes place. At neutral pH
or at high pH values, sulphuric acid (H 2SO3) reduces chlorine dioxide to chlorite ions (ClO 2-).
Under alkalic circumstances chlorine dioxide is broken down to chlorite and chlorate (ClO 3-) :
2ClO2 + 2OH- = H2O + ClO3- + ClO2-

This reaction is catalyzed by hydrogen (H+) ions.

Pure chlorine dioxide gas that is applied to water produces less disinfection byproducts than
oxidators, such as chlorine. Contrary to ozone (O3), pure chlorine dioxide does not produce
bromide (Br-) ions into bromate ions (BrO3-), unless it undergoes photolysis. Additionally
chlorine dioxide does not produce large amounts of aldehydes, ketons, keton acids or other
disinfection byproducts that originate from the ozonisation of organic substances.

Disinfection by Chloramines

Drinking water odor and flavor have improved by the application of chloramines from the
beginning of the twenty-first century. Eventually chloramines were also used for disinfection.
Chloramines are formed during a reaction between chlorine (Cl2) and ammonia (NH3).
Chloramines are amines which contain at least one chlorine atom, which is directly bond to
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nitrogen atoms (N). Inorganic chloramines are formed when dissolved chlorine and ammonia
react. During this reaction three different inorganic chloramines are formed; monochloramine
(NH2Cl), dichloramine (NHCl2) and trichloramine (NCl3). Inorganic chloramines are not
persistent, however, these compounds are more persistent than freely available chlorine
compounds.
Table 1: various types of chloramines and their properties

molecular preferred pH
appearance name biocidating effect
weight value

NH2Cl monochloramine 52 >7 good

NHCl2 dichloramine 85 4-7 tolerable

NCl3 trichloramine 119 1-3 average

RNHCl organic chloramines varies unknown bad

Chloramines can be used as bleach, disinfectants and oxidators. Organic disinfectants slowly
give off chlorine, causing a slower and less aggressive disinfection than with hypochlorite
(OCl-). Chloramines can be used to improve odor and flavor of the water when chlorine is used
as a disinfectant. Chloramines are also used for the disinfection of drinking water and wastewater
and to resist biofouling in cooling water systems.

Chloramines are as effective as chlorine for the deactivation of bacteria and other
microorganisms, however the reaction mechanism is slower. Chloramines, like chlorine, are
oxidators. Chloramines can kill bacteria by penetration of the cell wall and blockage of the
metabolism.

Disinfection by Hydrogen peroxide

Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)has the advantage that it decomposes to form oxygen and water thus
leaving no long term residues, but hydrogen peroxide as with most other strong oxidants is
hazardous, and solutions are a primary irritant. 35% Hydrogen Peroxide is used world wide in

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municipal water supplies instead of chlorine to disinfect and stop the growth of unwanted
organisms. Peroxide is a chemical compound that contains the peroxide ion (O22-).
The peroxide ion consists of a single bond between two oxygen atoms: (O-O)2-. It is a strong
oxidiser. Hydrogen peroxide has the chemical formula H2O2 and the following structural
formula: H-O-O-H

The hydrogen peroxide molecule contains one extra oxygen atom, compared to the more stable
water molecule. The bond between the two oxygen atoms, the so-called peroxide bond, is broken
while two H-O radicals are formed. These radicals quickly react with other substances, while
new radicals are formed and a chain reaction takes place

Hydrogen peroxide is a strong oxidiser. It is more powerful than chlorine (Cl2), chlorine dioxide
(ClO2) and potassium permanganate (KMnO4). Through catalysis, hydrogen peroxide can be
converted into hydroxyradicals (OH). The oxidation potential of hydrogen peroxide is just below
that of ozone.

Most hydrogen peroxide applications consist of hydrogen peroxide injection into flowing water.
No other chemicals or equipment are required. This application is used to control biological
growth, to add oxygen, to remove chlorine residues and to oxidize sulphides, sulphites, metals
and other easily oxidized materials. The suitability of hydrogen peroxide for these applications is
influenced by pH, temperature and reaction time.

The disinfection mechanism of hydrogen peroxide is based on the release of free oxygen
radicals:
H2O2 → H2O + O2

Pollutions are decomposed by free oxygen radicals, and only water remains. Free radicals have
both oxidising and disinfecting abilities. Hydrogen peroxide eliminates proteins through
oxidation.
Peroxides such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), perborate, peroxiphosphate and persulphate, are
good disinfectants and oxidisers. In general these can adequately remove micro-organisms.
However, these peroxides are very unstable.

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Perborates are very toxic. Peracetic acid (PAA) is a strong acid. It can be very agressive in its
pure form. Stabilised persulphates can be used to replace chlorine for waste water treatment.

Advantages: Contrary to other chemical substances, hydrogen peroxide does not produce
residues or gasses. Safety depends on the applied concentration, because hydrogen peroxide is
completely water soluble.

Disadvantages: Hydrogen peroxide is a powerful oxidizer. It reacts with a variety of

substances. It is therefore diluted during transport, as a safety measure. However, for hydrogen
peroxide disinfection, high concentrations are required.

Disinfection by Ultraviolet (UV) light

Ultraviolet (UV) disinfection uses a UV light source, which is enclosed in a transparent

protective sleeve. It is mounted so that water can pass through a flow chamber, and UV rays
are admitted and absorbed into the stream. When ultraviolet energy is absorbed by the
reproductive mechanisms of bacteria and viruses, the genetic material (DNA/RNA) is
rearranged and they can no longer reproduce. They are therefore considered dead and the risk
of disease has been eliminated.

UV-rays are energy-rich electromagnetic rays that are found in the natural spectrum of the
sunlight. They are in the range of the invisible short wave light having a wavelength ranging
from 100 to 400 nm (1 nanometre = 10-9m).

Disinfection by Ozone

Ozone is an excellent disinfectant, which is produced by electric discharge passing through cold
and dry oxygen.

3O2 ----> 2O3

Ozone is highly unstable and breaks down producing nascent oxygen.

O3 ----> O2 + [O] (nascent oxygen)

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 Nascent oxygen is very powerful oxidizing agent and kills all the bacteria and oxidizes
the organic matter present in the water.

Municipal Water Treatment: Surface Water Treatment & Ground Water Treatment

Groundwater: The water emerging from some deep ground water may have fallen as rain many
tens, hundreds, or thousands of years ago. Soil and rock layers naturally filter the ground water
to a high degree of clarity and often it does not require additional treatment other than adding
chlorine as a preservative. Such water may emerge as springs, artesian springs, or may be
extracted from boreholes or wells. Deep ground water is generally of very high bacteriological
quality (i.e., pathogenic bacteria or the pathogenic protozoa are typically absent), but the water
may be rich in dissolved solids, especially carbonates and sulfates of calcium and magnesium.
Depending on the strata through which the water has flowed, other ions may also be present
including chloride, and bicarbonate. There may be a requirement to reduce the iron or manganese
content of this water to make it pleasant for drinking, cooking, and laundry use. Disinfection may
also be required. Where groundwater recharge is practised (a process in which river water is
injected into an aquifer to store the water in times of plenty so that it is available in times of
drought), the groundwater is equivalent to lowland surface waters for treatment purposes.

The processes below are the ones commonly used in water purification plants for both ground
water and surface water. Some or most may not be used depending on the scale of the plant and
quality of the water.

Pre-treatment

1. Pumping and containment – The majority of water must be pumped from its source or
directed into pipes or holding tanks. To avoid adding contaminants to the water, this
physical infrastructure must be made from appropriate materials and constructed so that
accidental contamination does not occur.
2. Screening – The first step in purifying surface water is to remove large debris such as
sticks, leaves, rubbish and other large particles which may interfere with subsequent
purification steps. Most deep groundwater does not need screening before other
purification steps.
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 3. Storage – Water from rivers may also be stored in bankside reservoirs for periods
between a few days and many months to allow natural biological purification to take
place. This is especially important if treatment is by slow sand filters. Storage reservoirs
also provide a buffer against short periods of drought or to allow water supply to be
maintained during transitory pollution incidents in the source river.

4. Pre-conditioning – Water rich in hardness salts is treated with soda-ash (sodium

carbonate) to precipitate calcium carbonate out utilizing the common-ion effect.

5. Pre-chlorination – In many plants the incoming water was chlorinated to minimize the
growth of fouling organisms on the pipe-work and tanks. Because of the potential adverse
quality effects, this has largely been discontinued.

pH adjustment

Distilled water has a pH of 7 (neither alkaline nor acidic) and sea water has an average pH of 8.3
(slightly alkaline). If the water is acidic (lower than 7), lime, soda ash, or sodium hydroxide is
added to raise the pH. For somewhat acidic waters (lower than 6.5), forced draft degasifiers are
the cheapest way to raise the pH, as the process raises the pH by stripping dissolved carbon
dioxide (carbonic acid) from the water. Lime is commonly used for pH adjustment for municipal
water, or at the start of a treatment plant for process water, as it is cheap, but it also increases the
ionic load by raising the water hardness. Making the water slightly alkaline ensures that
coagulation and flocculation processes work effectively and also helps to minimize the risk of
lead being dissolved from lead pipes and lead solder in pipe fittings. Acid (HCl or H 2SO4) may
be added to alkaline waters in some circumstances to lower the pH. Having alkaline water does
not necessarily mean that lead or copper from the plumbing system will not be dissolved into the
water but as a generality, water with a pH above 7 is much less likely to dissolve heavy metals
than water with a pH below 7.

Flocculation

Flocculation is a process which clarifies the water. Clarifying means removing any turbidity or
colour so that the water is clear and colourless. Clarification is done by causing a precipitate to

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form in the water which can be removed using simple physical methods. Initially the precipitate
forms as very small particles but as the water is gently stirred, these particles stick together to
form bigger particles. Many of the small particles that were originally present in the raw water
adsorb onto the surface of these small precipitate particles and so get incorporated into the larger
particles that coagulation produces. In this way the coagulated precipitate takes most of the
suspended matter out of the water and is then filtered off, generally by passing the mixture
through a coarse sand filter or sometimes through a mixture of sand and granulated anthracite
(high carbon and low volatiles coal). Coagulants / flocculating agents that may be used include:

1. Iron(III) hydroxide. This is formed by adding a solution of an iron (III) compound such
as iron(III) chloride to pre-treated water with a pH of 7 or greater. Iron (III) hydroxide is
extremely insoluble and forms even at a pH as low as 7. Commercial formulations of iron
salts were traditionally marketed in the UK under the name Cuprus.
2. Aluminium hydroxide is also widely used as the flocculating precipitate although there
have been concerns about possible health impacts and mis-handling led to a severe
poisoning incident in 1988 at Camelford in south-west UK when the coagulant was
introduced directly into the holding reservoir of final treated water.

3. PolyDADMAC is an artificially produced polymer and is one of a class of synthetic

polymers that are now widely used. These polymers have a high molecular weight and
form very stable and readily removed flocs, but tend to be more expensive in use
compared to inorganic materials. The materials can also be biodegradable.

Sedimentation

Waters exiting the flocculation basin may enter the sedimentation basin, also called a clarifier or
settling basin. It is a large tank with slow flow, allowing floc to settle to the bottom. The
sedimentation basin is best located close to the flocculation basin so the transit between does not
permit settlement or floc break up. Sedimentation basins may be rectangular, where water flows
from end to end, or circular where flow is from the centre outward. Sedimentation basin outflow
is typically over a weir so only a thin top layer—that furthest from the sediment—exits. The
amount of floc that settles out of the water is dependent on basin retention time and on basin

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depth. The retention time of the water must therefore be balanced against the cost of a larger
basin. The minimum clarifier retention time is normally 4 hours. A deep basin will allow more
floc to settle out than a shallow basin. This is because large particles settle faster than smaller
ones, so large particles collide with and integrate smaller particles as they settle. In effect, large
particles sweep vertically through the basin and clean out smaller particles on their way to the
bottom.

As particles settle to the bottom of the basin, a layer of sludge is formed on the floor of the tank.
This layer of sludge must be removed and treated. The amount of sludge that is generated is
significant, often 3 to 5 percent of the total volume of water that is treated. The cost of treating
and disposing of the sludge can be a significant part of the operating cost of a water treatment
plant. The tank may be equipped with mechanical cleaning devices that continually clean the
bottom of the tank or the tank can be taken out of service when the bottom needs to be cleaned.

Filtration

After separating most floc, the water is filtered as the final step to remove remaining suspended
particles and unsettled floc.

Rapid sand filters

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Cutaway view of a typical rapid sand filter

The most common type of filter is a rapid sand filter. Water moves vertically through sand which
often has a layer of activated carbon or anthracite coal above the sand. The top layer removes
organic compounds, which contribute to taste and odour. The space between sand particles is
larger than the smallest suspended particles, so simple filtration is not enough. Most particles
pass through surface layers but are trapped in pore spaces or adhere to sand particles. Effective
filtration extends into the depth of the filter. This property of the filter is key to its operation: if
the top layer of sand were to block all the particles, the filter would quickly clog.

To clean the filter, water is passed quickly upward through the filter, opposite the normal
direction (called backflushing or backwashing) to remove embedded particles. Prior to this,
compressed air may be blown up through the bottom of the filter to break up the compacted filter
media to aid the backwashing process; this is known as air scouring. This contaminated water
can be disposed of, along with the sludge from the sedimentation basin, or it can be recycled by
mixing with the raw water entering the plant although this is often considered poor practice since
it re-introduces an elevated concentration of bacteria into the raw water

Advantages:

 Filters out much smaller particles than paper and sand filters can.
 Filters out virtually all particles larger than their specified pore sizes.

 They are quite thin and so liquids flow through them fairly rapidly.

 They are reasonably strong and so can withstand pressure differences across them of
typically 2–5 atmospheres.

 They can be cleaned (back flushed) and reused.

Membrane filtration

Membrane filters are widely used for filtering both drinking water and sewage. For drinking
water, membrane filters can remove virtually all particles larger than 0.2 um—including giardia

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and cryptosporidium. Membrane filters are an effective form of tertiary treatment when it is
desired to reuse the water for industry, for limited domestic purposes, or before discharging the
water into a river that is used by towns further downstream. They are widely used in industry,
particularly for beverage preparation (including bottled water). However no filtration can remove
substances that are actually dissolved in the water such as phosphorus, nitrates and heavy metal
ions.

Slow sand filters

Slow sand filters may be used where there is sufficient land and space as the water must be
passed very slowly through the filters. These filters rely on biological treatment processes for
their action rather than physical filtration. The filters are carefully constructed using graded
layers of sand with the coarsest sand, along with some gravel, at the bottom and finest sand at the
top. Drains at the base convey treated water away for disinfection. Filtration depends on the
development of a thin biological layer, called the zoogleal layer or Schmutzdecke, on the surface
of the filter. An effective slow sand filter may remain in service for many weeks or even months
if the pre-treatment is well designed and produces water with a very low available nutrient level
which physical methods of treatment rarely achieve. Very low nutrient levels allow water to be
safely sent through distribution system with very low disinfectant levels thereby reducing
consumer irritation over offensive levels of chlorine and chlorine by-products. Slow sand filters
are not backwashed; they are maintained by having the top layer of sand scraped off when flow
is eventually obstructed by biological growth

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Removal of ions and other dissolved substances

Ultrafiltration membranes use polymer membranes with chemically formed microscopic pores
that can be used to filter out dissolved substances avoiding the use of coagulants. The type of
membrane media determines how much pressure is needed to drive the water through and what
sizes of micro-organisms can be filtered out.

Ion exchange: Ion exchange systems use ion exchange resin- or zeolite-packed columns to
replace unwanted ions. The most common case is water softening consisting of removal of Ca2+
and Mg2+ ions replacing them with benign (soap friendly) Na+ or K+ ions. Ion exchange resins are
also used to remove toxic ions such as nitrate, nitrite, lead, mercury, arsenic and many others.

Electrodeionization: Water is passed between a positive electrode and a negative electrode. Ion
exchange membranes allow only positive ions to migrate from the treated water toward the
negative electrode and only negative ions toward the positive electrode. High purity deionized
water is produced with a little worse degree of purification in comparison with ion exchange
treatment. Complete removal of ions from water is regarded as electrodialysis. The water is often
pre-treated with a reverse osmosis unit to remove non-ionic organic contaminants.

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