WATER POLLUTION

Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans and groundwater).
Water pollution occurs when pollutants are discharged directly or indirectly into water bodies
without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds. Water pollution affects plants and
organisms living in these bodies of water; and, in almost all cases the effect is damaging not only
to individual species and populations, but also to the natural biological communities.
Pollutants get into water mainly by human causes or factors. Water pollution is the second most
imperative environmental concern along with air pollution. Any change or modification in the
physical, chemical and biological properties of water that will have a detrimental consequence on
living things is water pollution.

Sources of Water Pollution:

There are various classifications of water pollution. The two chief sources of water pollution can
be seen as Point and Non-Point.

1. Point source pollution

Point source pollution refers to contaminants that enter a waterway through a discrete conveyance,
such as a pipe or ditch.
Examples-
• discharges from a sewage treatment plant, a factory

• A city storm drain.

• Pollution flowing from a single and identifiable source such as discharge pipe from a
factory, roadway, or leaking underground storage tank.

• Hazardous and toxic materials from manufacturing and industry discharged directly into
the water - usually through a pipe or a leaky underground tank

• Oil and gasoline

• Solvents (toxic liquids)
• Toxins and poisons
• Heavy metals (arsenic, lead, mercury, etc.)
• Thermal pollution - heated water causes the dissolved oxygen (DO) content in a body of
water to decrease - can result in fish kills

2. Non-point source pollution

Non-point source (NPS) pollution refers to diffuse contamination that does not originate from a
single discrete source. NPS pollution is often accumulative effect of small amounts of
contaminants gathered from a large area
Example-
• The leaching out of nitrogen compounds from agricultural land which has been fertilized

Downloaded From www.ktunotes.in

 • Pollution collected by rain falling over a larger watershed which is then carried by runoff
to a nearby lake or stream, or by infiltration into the groundwater.
• Sediment, nutrients, microorganisms and toxics. Sediment can degrade water quality by
contaminating drinking water supplies or silting in spawning grounds for fish

• Nonpoint sources of pollution in urban areas may include parking lots, streets, and roads
where storm water picks up oils, grease, metals, dirt, salts, and other toxic materials.
• In areas where crops are grown or in areas with landscaping (including grassy areas of
residential lawns and city parks), irrigation, and rainfall can carry soil, pesticides,
fertilizers, herbicides, and insecticides to surface water and groundwater.

• Bacteria, microorganisms, and nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) are common nonpoint-
source pollutants from agricultural livestock areas and residential pet wastes. These
pollutants are also found in areas where there is a high density of septic systems or where
the septic systems are faulty or not maintained properly.
• Other pollutants from nonpoint sources include salt from irrigation practices or road de-
icing, and acid drainage from abandoned mines.

Non point-source pollution is usually found spread out throughout a large area. It is difficult to
trace the exact origin of these pollutants because they result from a wide variety of human activities
on the land as well as natural characteristics of the soil, climate, and topography.

MAJOR POLLUTANTS OF WATER

The various types of water pollutants can be classified in to following major categories:
(1) Organic pollutants
(2) Pathogens
(3) Nutrients and agriculture runoff
(4) Suspended solids and sediments (organic and inorganic)
(5) Inorganic pollutants (salts and metals)
(6) Thermal Pollution
(7) Radioactive pollutants

ORGANIC POLLUTANTS
Organic pollutants can be further divided into following categories:

a) Oxygen Demanding wastes: The wastewaters such as, domestic and municipal sewage,
wastewater from food processing industries, canning industries, slaughter houses, paper and pulp
mills, tanneries, breweries, distilleries, etc. have considerable concentration of biodegradable
organic compounds either in suspended, colloidal or dissolved form. These wastes undergo
degradation and decomposition by bacterial activity.
The dissolved oxygen available in the water body will be consumed for aerobic oxidation of
organic matter present in the wastewater. Hence, depletion of the DO will be a serious problem
adversely affecting aquatic life, if the DO falls below 4.0 mg/L. This decrease of DO is an index
of pollution.

Downloaded From www.ktunotes.in

b) Synthetic Organic Compounds: Synthetic organic compounds are also likely to enter the
ecosystem through various manmade activities such as production of these compounds, spillage
during transportation, and their uses in different applications. These include synthetic pesticides,
synthetic detergents, food additives, pharmaceuticals, insecticides, paints, synthetic fibers,
plastics, solvents and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Most of these compounds are toxic and
bio refractory organics i.e., they are resistant to microbial degradation.
Even concentration of some of these in traces may make water unfit for different uses. The
detergents can form foams and volatile substances may cause explosion in sewers. Polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs) are used in the industries since 1930s which are complex mixtures of
chlorobiphenyls. Being a fat soluble they move readily through the environment and within the
tissues or cells. Once introduced into environment, these compounds are exceedingly persistent
and their stability to chemical reagents is also high.

c) Oil: Oil is a natural product which results from the plant remains fossilized over millions of
years, under marine conditions. It is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons and degradable under
bacterial action, the biodegradation rate is different for different oils, tars being one of the slowest.
Oil enters in to water through oil spills, leak from oil pipes, and wastewater from production and
refineries.
Being lighter than water it spreads over the surface of water, separating the contact of water with
air, hence resulting in reduction of DO. This pollutant is also responsible for endangering water
birds and coastal plants due to coating of oils and adversely affecting the normal activities. It also
results in reduction of light transmission through surface waters, thereby reducing the
photosynthetic activity of the aquatic plants. Oil includes polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAH), some of which are known to be carcinogenic.

PATHOGENS
The pathogenic microorganisms enter in to water body through sewage discharge as a major source
or through the wastewater from industries like slaughterhouses. Viruses and bacteria can cause
water borne diseases, such as cholera, typhoid, dysentery, polio and infectious hepatitis in human.

NUTRIENTS
The agriculture run-off, wastewater from fertilizer industry and sewage contains substantial
concentration of nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorous. These waters supply nutrients to the
plants and may stimulate the growth of algae and other aquatic weeds in receiving waters. Thus,
the value of the water body is degraded. In long run, water body reduces DO, leads to
eutrophication and ends up as a dead pool of water. People swimming in eutrophic waters
containing blue-green algae can have skin and eye irritation, gastroenteritis and vomiting. High
nitrogen levels in the water supply, causes a potential risk, especially to infants under six months.
This is when the methemoglobin results in a decrease in the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood
(blue baby disease) as nitrate ions in the blood readily oxidize ferrous ions in the hemoglobin.
In freshwater systems, eutrophication is a process whereby water bodies receive excess inorganic
nutrients, especially N and P, which stimulate excessive growth of plants and algae. Eutrophication
can happen naturally in the normal succession of some freshwater ecosystems. However, when the
nutrient enrichment is due to the activities of humans, sometimes referred to as “cultural
eutrophication”, the rate of this natural process is greatly intensified. Two major nutrients, nitrogen

Downloaded From www.ktunotes.in

(N) and phosphorus (P), occur in streams in various forms as ions or dissolved in solution. Aquatic
plants convert dissolved inorganic forms of nitrogen (nitrate, nitrite, and ammonium) and
phosphorus (orthophosphate) into organic or particulate forms for use in higher trophic production.
The maineffects caused by eutrophication can be summarized as follows:
1. Species diversity decreases and the dominant biota changes
2. Plant and animal biomass increase
3. Turbidity increases
4. Rate of sedimentation increases, shortening the lifespan of the lake, and
5. Anoxic conditions may develop.

SUSPENDED SOLIDS AND SEDIMENTS

These comprise of silt, sand and minerals eroded from land. These appear in the water through the
surface runoff during rainy season and through municipal sewers. This can lead to the siltation,
reduces storage capacities of reservoirs. Presence of suspended solids can block the sunlight
penetration in the water, which is required for the photosynthesis by bottom vegetation. Deposition
of the solids in the quiescent stretches of the stream or ocean bottom can impair the normal aquatic
life and affect the diversity of the aquatic ecosystem. If the deposited solids are organic in nature,
they will undergo decomposition leading to development of anaerobic conditions. Finer suspended
solids such as silt and coal dust may injure the gills of fishes and cause asphyxiation.

INORGANIC POLLUTANTS
Apart from the organic matter discharged in the water body through sewage and industrial wastes,
high concentration of heavy metals and other inorganic pollutants contaminate the water. These
compounds are non-biodegradable and persist in the environment. These pollutants include
mineral acids, inorganic salts, trace elements, metals, metals compounds, complexes of metals
with organic compounds, cyanides, sulphates, etc.

• The accumulation of heavy metals may have adverse effect on aquatic flora and fauna and
may constitute a public health problem where contaminated organisms are used for food.
• Algal growth due to nitrogen and phosphorous compounds can be observed.

• Metals in high concentration can be toxic to biota e.g. Hg, Cu, Cd, Pb, As, and Se. Copper
greater than 0.1 mg/L is toxic to microbes.

THERMAL POLLUTION
Considerable thermal pollution results due to discharge of hot water from thermal power plants,
nuclear power plants, and industries where water is used as coolant. As a result of hot water
discharge, the temperature of water body increases. Rise in temperature reduces the DO content of
the water, affecting adversely the aquatic life. This alters the spectrum of organisms, which can
adopt to live at that temperature and DO level. When organic matter is also present, the bacterial
action increases due to rise in temperature; hence, resulting in rapid decrease of DO. The discharge
of hot water leads to the thermal stratification in the water body, where hot water will remain on
the top.

RADIOACTIVE POLLUTANTS

Downloaded From www.ktunotes.in

Radioactive materials originate from the following:
• Mining and processing of ores,
• Use in research, agriculture, medical and industrial activities, such as I131, P32, Co60, Ca45, S35,
C14, etc.
• Radioactive discharge from nuclear power plants and nuclear reactors, e.g., Sr 90, Cesium Cs137,
Plutonium Pu248, Uranium-238, Uranium-235,
• Uses and testing of nuclear weapons.
These isotopes are toxic to the life forms; they accumulate in the bones, teeth and can cause serious
disorders. The safe concentration for lifetime consumption is 1 x 10 -7micro curies per ml.

Various pollutants and their adverse effect:

Sl. No. Pollutants Impact

1 Organic pollutants
i)Oxygen Demanding
wastes:
ii)Synthetic organic
pollutants:
iii) oil
2 Pathogens
3 Nutrients
4 Thermal pollutants
5 Radioactive
pollutants
6 Suspended solids and
sediments
Depletion of the DO will be a serious problem
adversely affecting aquatic life, if the DO falls
below 4.0 mg/L.
Most of these compounds are toxic and
biorefractory organics. It also makes water unfit for
different uses.
This pollutant is also responsible for endangering
water birds and coastal plants due to coating of oils
and adversely affecting the normal activities which
cause reduction of light transmission and
photosynthesis.
Number of diseases transmitted by pathogens
available in wastewater
When these are disposed in aquatic environment, it
can lead to growth of undesirable aquatic life. When
it discharged on land it causes groundwater
pollution
When organic matter is also present, the bacterial
action increases due to rise in temperature; hence,
resulting in rapid decrease of DO. It also results in
thermal stratification which alters spectrum of
organisms
These isotopes are toxic to the life forms; they
accumulate in the bones, teeth and can cause serious
disorders
Presence of suspended solids can block the sunlight
penetration in the water, which is required for the

Downloaded From www.ktunotes.in


7 Inorganic pollutants
photosynthesis by bottom vegetation. Finer
suspended solids such as silt and coal dust may
injure the gills of fishes and cause asphyxiation
These pollutants include mineral acids, inorganic
salts, trace elements, metals, metals compounds,
complexes of metals with organic compounds,
cyanides, sulphates, etc. They have adverse effect
on aquatic flora and fauna and may constitute a
public health problem.

WATER POLLUTION

Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans and groundwater).
Water pollution affects plants and organisms living in these bodies of water and in almost all cases
the effect is damaging not only to individual species and populations, but also to the natural
communities.

TYPES OF WATER POLLUTION:

There are two types of water pollution:

Ground water pollution

Surface water pollution

i. Groundwater Pollution:

Groundwater refers to water collected under the Earth’s surface. The sources of groundwater are
rain, snow, hail, sleet, etc. Groundwater is connected to surface water such as rivers, streams and
lakes. In fact, there is continuous exchange of water between surface water and groundwater.
Groundwater pollution is a change in the properties of groundwater due to contamination by
microbes, chemicals, hazardous substances and other foreign particles. It is a major type of water
pollution. The sources of groundwater pollution are either natural (mineral deposits in rocks) or
man-made.

Natural sources are less harmful compared to hazardous chemicals generated by human activities.
Any chemical present on the surface can travel underground and cause groundwater pollution. One
of the major sources of groundwater pollution is industries. Manufacturing and other chemical
industries require water for processing and cleaning purposes. This used water is recycled back to
water sources without proper treatment, which in turn, results in groundwater pollution. It is also
to be noted that solid industrial wastes that are dumped in certain areas also contribute to
groundwater pollution. When rainwater seeps downwards, it dissolves some of these harmful

Downloaded From www.ktunotes.in

substances and contaminates groundwater. Another source of groundwater pollution is agriculture;
the fertilizers, pesticide and other chemicals used in growing plants contaminate groundwater.
Residential areas also generate pollutants (microorganisms and organic compounds) for
groundwater contamination.

Groundwater pollutant can be divided into point source and non-point source based on the nature
of disposal. The former refers to contaminants originating from a particular source such as sewage
pipe or tank; whereas non-point source is spread over large areas (for example, pesticides and
fertilizers).

Groundwater pollution cannot be prevented completely. As there are varied sources, it is not
always practical to prevent the contamination of groundwater. However, there is no doubt that
individuals can contribute in many ways to reduce groundwater pollution. Some of the basic tips
are proper disposal of waste, waterproof storage of household chemicals (paints, medicines and
detergents) and agricultural chemicals to avoid leaching, etc. Proper installation of septic systems
along with regular cleaning will reduce groundwater contamination.It is very difficult and costly
to treat contaminated groundwater. Hence, it is better to minimize the risk of groundwater
pollution. Public awareness programs about the importance of groundwater and ways to minimize
its contamination should be implemented.

ii. Surface Water Pollution:

These are the natural water resources of the Earth. These are found on the exterior of the Earth’s
crust, oceans, rivers and lakes. Pollution of such water resources are called surface water pollution.

Pollution of water can be caused by “point sources” or “non- point sources”. Point sources are
specific sites near water which directly discharge effluents into them. Major point sources of water
pollution are industries, power plants, underground coal mines, offshore oil wells etc.The
discharge from non-point sources is not at any particular site, rather, these sources are scattered,
which individually or collectively pollute water. Surface run-off from agricultural fields,
overflowing small drains, rain water sweeping roads and fields, atmospheric deposition etc., are
the non-point sources of water pollution.

SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION

The sources of water pollution are categorized as being a point source or a non-point source of
pollution.

Point source pollution refers to contaminants that enter a waterway through a discrete conveyance,
such as a pipe or ditch. Examples of sources in this category include discharges from a sewage
treatment plant, a factory, or a city storm drain. Point sources of pollution occur when the polluting
substance is emitted directly into the waterway or its source can be easily identified. A pipe
spewing toxic chemicals directly into a river is an example.

Downloaded From www.ktunotes.in

A point source pollutant is one that reaches the water from a pipe, channel or any other confined
and localized source. The most common example of a point source of pollutants is a pipe that
discharges sewage into a stream or river. Most of these discharges are treatment plant effluents

Non-point source pollution: Non-point source (NPS) pollution refers to diffuse contamination that
does not originate from a single discrete source. NPS pollution is often the cumulative effect of
small amounts of contaminants gathered from a large area. The leaching out of nitrogen
compounds from agricultural land which has been fertilized is a typical example. Nutrient runoff
in storm water from “sheet flow” over an agricultural field or a forest are also cited as examples
of NPS pollution. Contaminated storm water washed off of parking lots, roads and highways,
called urban runoff, is sometimes included under the category of NPS pollution. However, this
runoff is typically channelled into storm drain systems and discharged through pipes to local
surface waters, and is a point source. However where such water is not channelled and drains
directly to ground it is a non-point source.

A dispersed or non point source is a broad, unconfined area from which pollutants enter a body
of water. Surface runoff from agricultural areas carries silt, fertilizers, pesticides, and animal
wastes into streams, but not at only one particular point. These materials can enter the water all
along a stream as it flows through the area. Acidic runoff from mining areas is a dispersed
pollutant. Storm water drainage systems in towns and cities are also considered to be dispersed
sources of many pollutants, because, even though the pollutants are often conveyed into streams
or lakes in drainage pipes or storm sewers, there are usually many of these discharges scattered
over a large area. A non-point source occurs when there is runoff of pollutants into a waterway,
for instance when fertilizer from a field is carried into a stream by surface runoff. Non-point source
pollution may derive from many different sources with no specific solution may change to rectify
the problem, making it difficult to regulate. Non-point source water pollution is difficult to control
because it comes from the everyday activities of many different people, such as fertilizing a lawn,
using a pesticide, or constructing a road or building.

TYPES OF WATER POLLUTANTS AND ITS IMPACT:

PATHOGENS:
Disease-causing microorganisms are referred to as pathogens.The pathogenic microorganisms
enter in to water body through sewage discharge as a majorsource or through the wastewater from
industries like slaughterhouses. Viruses and bacteria can cause water borne diseases, such as
cholera, typhoid, dysentery, polio and infectious hepatitis in human. Pathogens can
produce waterborne diseases in either human or animal hosts.Coliform bacteria which are not an
actual case of diseases are a commonly used bacterial indicator of water pollution, although not an
actual cause of disease. Other microorganisms sometimes found in surface waters which have
caused human health problems include:
i. Salmonella.
ii. Novovirus and other viruses.
iii. Parasitic worms (helminths).

Downloaded From www.ktunotes.in

High levels of pathogens may result from inadequately treated sewage discharges. This can be
caused by a sewage plant designed with less than secondary treatment (more typical in less-
developed countries. In developed countries, older cities with aging infrastructure may have leaky
sewage collection systems (pipes, pumps, valves), which can cause sanitary sewer overflows.
Some cities also have combined sewers, which may discharge untreated sewage during rain storms.
Pathogen discharges may also be caused by poorly managed livestock operations.

Besides the chemical substances, a few wastes like sewage, also contain several pathogenic and
nonpathogenic microorganism and viruses.many water borne diseases like cholera, typhoid,
paratyphoid, colitis, and infective hepatitis (jaundice) are spread by consumption of sewage
contaminated waters.The factors causing most harm to human health through contaminated water
are pathogenic microbes. Based on these, diseases generated by contaminated water are divided
into the following main categories:
By virus– Jaundice (Yellow Fever), polio, gastroenteritis, common cold, infectious liver Sod, and
smallpox.
By bacteria – Diarrhoea, loose motions, paratyphoid, high fever, cholera, whooping cough,
gonorrhoea, syphilis, gastroenteritis, dysentery, and tuberculosis.
By protozoa– Pyorrhoea, dysentery, narcolepsy (epidemic encephalitis), malaria
By worm – Filariasis, hydatid cyst and a variety of worm disease (various types of stomach
worms).

Chemical and other contaminants: Contaminants may include organic and inorganic substances.

ORGANIC WATER POLLUTANTSinclude:

i. Detergents.
ii. Disinfection by-products found in chemically disinfected drinking water, such as chloroform.
iii. Food processing waste, which can include oxygen-demanding substances, fats and grease.
iv. Insecticides and herbicides and other chemical compounds.
v. Petroleum hydrocarbons, including fuels (gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuels, and fuel oil) and
lubricants (motor oil), and fuel combustion by-products, from storm water runoff.
vi. Tree and bush debris from logging operations.
vii. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), such as industrial solvents.
viii. Various chemical compounds found in personal hygiene and cosmetic products.

Organic pollutants can be further divided into following categories:

a) Oxygen Demanding wastes: The wastewaters such as, domestic and municipal sewage,
wastewater from food processing industries, canning industries, slaughter houses, paper and
pulp mills, tanneries, breweries, distilleries, etc. have considerable concentration
ofbiodegradable organic compounds either in suspended, colloidal or dissolved form. These

Downloaded From www.ktunotes.in

wastes undergo degradation and decomposition by bacterial activity. The dissolved oxygen
available in the water body will be consumed for aerobic oxidation of organic matter present in
the wastewater. Hence, depletion of the DO will be a serious problem adversely affecting aquatic
life, if the DO falls below 4.0 mg/L. This decrease of DO is an index of pollution.

b) Synthetic Organic Compounds

Synthetic organic compounds are also likely to enter the ecosystem through various manmade
activities such as production of these compounds, spillage during transportation, and their
uses in different applications. These include synthetic pesticides, synthetic detergents, food
additives, pharmaceuticals, insecticides, paints, synthetic fibers, plastics, solvents and volatile
organic compounds (VOCs). Most of these compounds are toxic and biorefractory organics
i.e., they are resistant to microbial degradation.
Even concentration of some of these in traces may make water unfit for different uses. The
detergents can form foams and volatile substances may cause explosion in sewers.
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are used in the industries since 1930s which are complex
mixtures of chlorobiphenyls. Being a fat soluble they move readily through the environment
and within the tissues or cells. Once introduced into environment, these compounds
areexceedingly persistent and their stability to chemical reagents is also high.

c) Oil
Oil is a natural product which results from the plant remains fossilized over millions of years,
under marine conditions. It is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons and degradable under
bacterial action, the biodegradation rate is different for different oils, tars being one of the
slowest. Oil enters in to water through oil spills, leak from oil pipes, and wastewater from
production and refineries.
Being lighter than water it spreads over the surface of water, separating the contact of water
with air, hence resulting in reduction of DO. This pollutant is also responsible for
endangering water birds and coastal plants due to coating of oils and adversely affecting the
normal activities. It also results in reduction of light transmission through surface waters,
thereby reducing the photosynthetic activity of the aquatic plants. Oil includes polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), some of which are known to be carcinogenic.
Oil does not dissolve in water; instead it forms a thick layer on the water surface. This can stop
marine plants receiving enough light for photosynthesis. It is also harmful for fish and marine birds

INORGANIC WATER POLLUTANTSare:

i. Heavy metals including acid mine drainage, chemical waste as industrial by-products.
ii. Acidity due to industrial discharges like sulphur dioxide.

iii. Silt in surface runoff due to logging, slash and burn practices, construction sites or land clearing
sites.

Downloaded From www.ktunotes.in

iv. Ammonia from food processing waste
v. Fertilizers containing nutrients--nitrates and phosphates—which are found in storm water
runoff from agriculture, as well as commercial and residential use

vi. Silt (sediment) in runoff from construction sites, logging, slash and burn practices or land
clearing sites.
Apart from the organic matter discharged in the water body through sewage and industrial
wastes, high concentration of heavy metals and other inorganic pollutants contaminate the
water. These compounds are non-biodegradable and persist in the environment. These
pollutants include mineral acids, inorganic salts, trace elements, metals, metals compounds,
complexes of metals with organic compounds, cyanides, sulphates, etc.
• The accumulation of heavy metals may have adverse effect on aquatic flora and fauna
andmay constitute a public health problem where contaminated organisms are used for
food.
• Algal growth due to nitrogen and phosphorous compounds can be observed.
• Metals in high concentration can be toxic to biota e.g. Hg, Cu, Cd, Pb, As, and Se.
• Fluoride content:
Fluoride pollution causes defects in teeth and bones, a disease called fluorosis while arsenic
can cause significant damage to the liver and the nervous system. In addition to all these,
organic compounds present in the polluted water facilitate the growth of algae and other weeds,
which in turn use more oxygen dissolved in the water. This reduces the amount of oxygen
dissolved in the water and the consequent shortage of oxygen for other aquatic life.

• Mercury:
This is a metallic element and can cause health and environmental problems. It is a non-
biodegradable substance so is hard to clean up once the environment is contaminated. Mercury
is also harmful to animal health as it can cause illness through mercury poisoning. Excess level
of mercury in fish is dangerous especially for small children and pregnant women or nursing
women. It interferes with the central nervous system development in the foetuses and young
children

• Phosphates:
The increased use of fertilizers means that phosphates are more often being washed from the
soil and into rivers and lakes. This can cause eutrophication, which can be very problematic to
marine environments.

• Lead
Lead in water may be released from water pipes as lead is used in plumbing. Lead poisoning
affects kidneys reproductive system, liver, brain and central nervous system. It also causes
anaemia and mental retardation in children.

• Nitrate ions present in the water are harmful to human health. From nitrogen fertilizers,
nitrate ions seep into water bodies from where these may bioaccumulate in the bodies of the

Downloaded From www.ktunotes.in

 consumers. In the stomach nitrate is reduced to nitrite and is responsible for blue baby
syndrome and stomach cancer.

• Toxic effects

These are caused by pollutants such as heavy metals, biocides, cyanide and other organic and
inorganic compounds which are detrimental to the other organisms. These substances usually
have very low permissible limits in water and their presence beyond limits can render the water
unfit for aquatic biota and even for human use .These chemicals are toxic to aquatic organisms,
and many of them especially those non-biodegradable, accumulate in the body of the
organisms and biomagnify along the tropic levels causing long term effects.
DDT is toxic material which can cause chromosomal changes. Some of these substances like
pesticides, methyl mercury etc., move into the bodies of organisms from the medium in which
these organisms live. These substances tend to accumulate in the organism’s body from the
medium food. This process is called bioaccumulation or bio concentration. The concentration
of these toxic substances builds up at successive levels of food chain. This process is called
bio magnifications.

RADIOACTIVE POLLUTANTS
Radioactive materials originate from the following:
• Mining and processing of ores,
• Use in research, agriculture, medical and industrial activities, such as I131, P32, Co60,
Ca45,S35, C14, etc.
• Radioactive discharge from nuclear power plants and nuclear reactors, e.g., Sr90,
CesiumCs137, Plutonium Pu248, Uranium-238, Uranium-235,
• Uses and testing of nuclear weapons.
These isotopes are toxic to the life forms; they accumulate in the bones, teeth and can cause
serious disorders. The safe concentration for lifetime consumption is 1 x 10-7 microcuries per ml.

NUTRIENTS
The agriculture run-off, wastewater from fertilizer industry and sewage contains substantial
concentration of nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorous. These waters supply nutrients to the
plants and may stimulate the growth of algae and other aquatic weeds in receiving waters.
Thus, the value of the water body is degraded. In long run, water body reduces DO, leads to
eutrophication and ends up as a dead pool of water. People swimming in eutrophic waters
containing blue-green algae can have skin and eye irritation, gastroenteritis and vomiting.
High nitrogen levels in the water supply, causes a potential risk, especially to infants under
six months. This is when the methemoglobin results in a decrease in the oxygen carrying
capacity of the blood (blue baby disease) as nitrate ions in the blood readily oxidize ferrous
ions in the hemoglobin.
One of the most severe and commonest water pollution problems is due to enrichment of waters
by plant nutrients that increases the biological growth and renders the water bodies unfit for diverse

Downloaded From www.ktunotes.in

uses. The process of increase in the nutrients of waters and resultant spurt in algal productivity is
called eutrophication. Water bodies enriched with nitrates and phosphates induce the growth of
microscopic plant life which can lead to algal bloom popularly known as eutrophication.
In freshwater systems, eutrophication is a process whereby water bodies receive excess
inorganic nutrients, especially N and P, which stimulate excessive growth of plants and algae.
Eutrophication can happen naturally in the normal succession of some freshwater ecosystems.
However, when the nutrient enrichment is due to the activities of humans, sometimes referred
to as “cultural eutrophication”, the rate of this natural process is greatly intensified. Two
major nutrients, nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), occur in streams in various forms as ions or
dissolved in solution. Aquatic plants convert dissolved inorganic forms of nitrogen (nitrate,
nitrite, and ammonium) and phosphorus (orthophosphate) into organic or particulate forms
for use in higher trophic production. The main effects caused by eutrophication can be
summarized as follows:
1. Species diversity decreases and the dominant biota changes
2. Plant and animal biomass increase
3. Turbidity increases
4. Rate of sedimentation increases, shortening the lifespan of the lake, and
5. Anoxic conditions may develop.

SUSPENDED SOLIDS AND SEDIMENTS

These comprise of silt, sand and minerals eroded from land. These appear in the water through the
surface runoff during rainy season and through municipal sewers. This can lead to the siltation,
reduces storage capacities of reservoirs. Presence of suspended solids can block the sunlight
penetration in the water, which is required for the photosynthesis by bottom vegetation. Deposition
of the solids in the quiescent stretches of the stream or ocean bottom can impair the normal aquatic
life and affect the diversity of the aquatic ecosystem. If the deposited solids are organic in nature,
they will undergo decomposition leading to development of anaerobic conditions. Finer suspended
solids such as silt and coal dust may injure the gills of fishes and cause asphyxiation.

THERMAL POLLUTION
Considerable thermal pollution results due to discharge of hot water from thermal power plants,
nuclear power plants, and industries where water is used as coolant. As a result of hot water
discharge, the temperature of water body increases. Rise in temperature reduces the DO content of
the water, affecting adversely the aquatic life. This alters the spectrum of organisms, which can
adopt to live at that temperature and DO level. When organic matter is also present, the bacterial
action increases due to rise in temperature; hence, resulting in rapid decrease of DO. The discharge
of hot water leads to the thermal stratification in the water body, where hot water will remain on
the top. The safe concentration for lifetime consumption is 1 x 10-7 microcuries per ml.
Thermal pollution is the rise or fall in the temperature of a natural body of water caused by human
influence. Thermal pollution, unlike chemical pollution, results in a change in the physical
properties of water. A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a coolant by power

Downloaded From www.ktunotes.in

 plants and industrial manufacturers. Elevated water temperatures decrease oxygen levels, which
can kill fish and alter food chain composition, reduce species biodiversity, and foster invasion by
new thermophilic species. Urban runoff may also elevate temperature in surface waters.Thermal
pollution can also be caused by the release of very cold water from the base of reservoirs into
warmer rivers

Other agents:
i. The combustion of coal leads to the release of mercury in the atmosphere. This enters the rivers,
lakes and groundwater. This is very hazardous for pregnant women and infants.
ii. Cattle and pig rearing causes a significant amount of nutrient-filled waste.

iii. Fertilizers having a large quantity of nitrogen and phosphorus cause a high biological oxygen
demand in the water. The high amount of BOD is responsible for oxygen depletion in water bodies.

iv. Human settlement along the banks of rivers causes human, animal and industrial waste to be
discharged into it.

• Physicochemical effects
A large number of pollutants can impart colour, tastes and odours to the receiving waters, thus
making them unaesthetic and even unfit for domestic consumption. The changes in oxygen,
temperature and pH affect the chemistry of waters often triggers chemical reactions resulting in
the formation of unwanted products. The addition of organic matter results in depletion of oxygen
with concomitant increase in carbon dioxide owing to bacterial degradation. When pH of water
goes below 5 fish populations begin to disappear.

• Spoiling Natural beauty

Contaminated water is not only unsuitable for drinking but also for agriculture purposes. It is also
responsible for destroying the beauty of the lakes and rivers.

The summary of various pollutants and their adverse effect on the environment is presented
in Table 10.1. The major impacts have been described, however there are additional adverse
effects of release of these pollutants in the environment.

Downloaded From www.ktunotes.in

CHAPTER 2

WATER QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS

2.1 Introduction

Water quality is determined by physical, chemical and microbiological properties of water. These
water quality characteristics throughout the world are characterized with wide variability.
Therefore the quality of natural water sources used for different purposes should be established in
terms of the specific water-quality parameters that most affect the possible use of water. That is
why the aim of this chapter is to provide an overview of water quality characteristics - Physical,
Chemical, Microbiological, and Biological characteristics.

Downloaded From www.ktunotes.in

2.2 Physical Characteristics of Water

Physical characteristics of water (temperature, colour, taste, odour and etc.) are determined by
senses of touch, sight, smell and taste. For example temperature by touch, colour, floating debris,
turbidity and suspended solids by sight, and taste and odour by smell.

2.2.1 Temperature

The temperature of water affects some of the important physical properties and characteristics of
water: thermal capacity, density, specific weight, viscosity, surface tension, specific conductivity,
salinity and solubility of dissolved gases and etc. Chemical and biological reaction rates increase
with increasing temperature. Reaction rates usually assumed to double for an increase in
temperature of 10 °C. The temperature of water in streams and rivers throughout the world varies
from 0 to 35 °C.

2.2.2 Colour

Colour in water is primarily a concern of water quality for aesthetic reason. Coloured water give
the appearance of being unfit to drink, even though the water may be perfectly safe for public use.
On the other hand, colour can indicate the presence of organic substances, such as algae or humic
compounds. More recently, colour has been used as a quantitative assessment of the presence of
potentially hazardous or toxic organic materials in water.

2.2.3 Taste and Odour

Taste and odour are human perceptions of water quality. Human perception of taste includes sour
(hydrochloric acid), salty (sodium chloride), sweet (sucrose) and bitter (caffeine). Relatively
simple compounds produce sour and salty tastes. However sweet and bitter tastes are produced by
more complex organic compounds. Human detect many more tips of odour than tastes. Organic
materials discharged directly to water, such as falling leaves, runoff, etc., are sources of tastes and
odour-producing compounds released during biodegradation.

2.2.4 Turbidity

Turbidity is a measure of the light-transmitting properties of water and is comprised of suspended

and colloidal material. It is important for health and aesthetic reasons.

2.2.5. Solids

The total solids content of water is defined as the residue remaining after evaporation of the water
and drying the residue to a constant weight at 103 °C to 105 °C. The organic fraction (or volatile
solids content) is considered to be related to the loss of weight of the residue remaining after

Downloaded From www.ktunotes.in

evaporation of the water and after ignition of the residue at a temperature of 500 °C. The volatile
solids will oxidize at this temperature and will be driven off as gas. The inorganic (or fixed solids)
remind as inert ash. Solids are classified as settleable solids, suspended solids and filterable solids.
Settleable solids (silt and heavy organic solids) are the one that settle under the influence of gravity.
Suspended solids and filterable solids are classified based on particle size and the retention of
suspended solids on standard glass-fibre filters.

2.3 Chemical Characteristics of Water

The chemical characteristics of natural water are a reflection of the soils and rocks with which the
water has been in contact. In addition, agricultural and urban runoff and municipal and industrial
treated wastewater impact the water quality. Microbial and chemical transformations also affect
the chemical characteristics of water

2.3.1 Inorganic Minerals

Runoff causes erosion and weathering of geological formation, rocks and soils as the runoff travels
to the surface-water bodies. During this period of contact with rocks and soils the water dissolves
inorganic minerals, which enter the natural waters. Inorganic compounds may dissociate to varying
degrees, to cations and anions.

2.3.1.1 Major Cations

Major cations found in natural water include calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), sodium (Na+)
and potassium (K+). Calcium (Ca2+), is the most prevalent cation in water and second inorganic
ion to bicarbonate in most surface water.

The principal concern about calcium is related to the fact that calcium is the primary constituent
of water hardness. Calcium precipitates as CaCO3 in iron and steel pipes. A thin layer of
CaCO3 can help inhibit corrosion of the metal. However, excessive accumulation of CaCO 3 in
boilers, hot water heaters, heat exchangers, and associated piping affects heat transfer and could
lead to plugging of the piping. Calcium concentration of up to 300 mg/L or higher have been
reported. However, calcium concentrations of 40 to 120 mg/L are more common.

Magnesium is not abundant in rocks as calcium. Therefore, although magnesium salts are more
soluble than calcium, less magnesium is found in surface water. Sodium and potassium are
commonly found as free ions. The concentration of these cations in natural water usually are low.

Other constituents in natural water in concentration of 1 mg/L or higher include aluminium, boron,
iron, manganese, phosphorus and etc.

2.3.1.2 Major Anions

Downloaded From www.ktunotes.in

Major anions include chloride, sulfate, carbonate, bicarbonate, fluoride and nitrate. Bicarbonate
(HCO3-) is the principal anion found in natural water. These ions are very important in the
carbonate system, which provides a buffer capacity to natural water and is responsible in a great
measure for the alkalinity of water.

One source of bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) in natural water is the dissociation of carbonic acid
(H2CO3) that is formed when carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere, or from animal (e.g. fish)
and bacterial respiration, dissolves in water.

In addition to bicarbonates (HCO3-) anions such as chlorides (Cl-), sulfates (SO42-), and nitrates
(NO3-) are commonly found in natural water. These anions are released during the dissolution and
dissociation of common salt deposits in geologic formations.

The concentration of the chlorides anions (Cl-) determines the water quality because the quality
of water get worse after increasing in the concentration of this anions which limit possibilities of
using of natural water for different purposes (household, agriculture, industry and etc.). Principal
source of the chlorides anions (Cl-) in natural water are magmatic rock formations that include
chlorine-content minerals. The second source of this anions is Ward Ocean from where a
considerably amount of chlorides anions (Cl-) enter in the atmosphere. From atmosphere chlorides
anions (Cl-) enter in the natural water in result of interaction between precipitation and soil.

The sulfates anions (SO42-) are frequently found in natural water as the result of the chemical
dissolution, dissolve sulfur-content minerals and oxidize sulfates and sulfur:

CaCO3 + H2SO4 = CaSO4 + H2O+CO2;

2FeS2 + 7O2 + 2H2O = 2FeSO4 + 2H2SO4; (2.1)

2S + 3O2+ 2 H2O = 2 H2SO4.

The sulfates anions (SO42-) enter in natural water as the result of the oxidation of the substances
from plant and animal origin. The increase concentration of the sulfates anions (SO 42-), at one hand
brings about change for the worse of some physical characteristics of water (taste, smell and etc.)
and on the other hand has destructive influence upon human consumption. The concentration of
the sulfates anions (SO42-) fluctuates in a wide range in surface water - from 5 mg/l to 60 mg/l.

Nitrate anions (NO3) are found in natural water as the result of the bacteriological oxidation of
nitrogenous materials in soil. That is why the concentration of these anions rapidly increases in
summer when the process of the nitrification takes place very intensively. Another important
source for dressing of the surface water with Nitrate anions (NO 3) are precipitations, which absorb
nitric oxides and convert them into nitric acid. A great deal of nitrate anions (NO 3) enter in surface
water together with domestic water and water from industry, agriculture and etc. Nitrate anions
(NO3) are one of the indicators for the degree of the pollution with organic nitrate-content
substances.

Downloaded From www.ktunotes.in

Other anions found in water include fluorides (F-), carbonates (CO32-) and phosphates (PO43-).
Typical concentrations of major ions in the classic "word average" river are presented in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 Typical concentrations of Major Ions in the Classic

"Word Average" River (Livingstone, 1963)

Concentration Cations
Constituent Anions meg/L
mg/L meg/L
Cations
Ca2+ 15 0.750 -
Mg2+ 4.1 0.342 -
Na+ 6.3 0.274 -
+
K 2.3 0.059 -
Anions
HCO3- 58.4 - 0.958
SO42- 11.2 - 0.233
-
Cl 7.8 - 0.220
-
NO3 1 - 0.017
Sum 106.1 1.425 1.428

2.3.2. Carbonate Equilibrium

The carbonate - bicarbonate system is presumably the most important chemical system in natural
waters. The carbonate system provides the buffering capacity essential for maintaining the pH of
natural water systems in the range required by bacteria and other aquatic species.

The carbonate system includes the following species: CO 2, H2CO3, HCO3- , CO32-, OH- and H+.
The total content (mol/dm3) of its components is as follows:

(2.2)

Frequently Ca2+ and CaCO3 are included in the carbonate system, since Ca2+ is second in
abundance to HCO3- in natural waters. The solution of carbon dioxide (CO 2) into natural water
causes the formation of carbonic acid (H2CO3) (1). The H2CO3dissociates to bicarbonate (HCO)
and hydrogen (H+) ions (2). In its turn HCO3- can dissociate and produce carbonate (CO) and
hydrogen (H+) ions (3).

(1) CO2 + H2O H2CO3;

(2.3)

Downloaded From www.ktunotes.in

(2) H2CO3 H+ + HCO;

(3) HCO3 H+ + CO.

The hydrogen ion (H+) concentrations [H+] = 10-pH in water controls the pH of the solution. The
pH of water is defined as the negative logarithm of the [H +], where [H+] is the hydrogen ion
concentration expressed in moles per litre (mol/L).

;
(2.4)

The pH is the negative power to which 10 must be raised to equal the hydrogen ion concentration
or [H+] = 10-pH. In a neutral solution [H+] is 10-7 or pH = 7. At greater hydrogen ion concentrations
the pH is lower and for greater hydroxide ion concentrations the pH increases. The pH range is
from 0 (extremely acidic) to 14 (extremely basic).

Therefore, the pH of the water controls which species is predominant. Water molecules HOH
(commonly written as H2O) dissociate or ionize to H + and OH- ions.

2H2O H3O+ + OH-

or written in a simple form: (2.5)

H2O H+ + OH-.

The product of [H+] and [OH-], in mol/L, is constant:

[H+] [OH-] = K = 1 x 10-14 (2.6)

where K is the ion-product constant of water.

If the hydrogen ion concentration is 10 -4 mol/L the hydroxide ions (OH-) concentration must be
10-14/10-4 = 10-10 mol/L. Since the 10 -10 is smaller than 10 -4, the solution is acidic. A large amount
of hydrogen ions (H+) in water makes the water acid and lack of hydrogen ions makes the water
basic. A basic solution has predominance of hydroxide ions (OH -). The dissociation reactions of
carbonic acid (H2CO3) and of the bicarbonate ion (HCO) can be written as the following equations:

H2CO3 HCO + H+ and k1 = 10-6.35 at 25 °C;

(2.7)
+ -10.3
H2CO3 CO + H and k2 = 10 at 25 °C.

Downloaded From www.ktunotes.in

These equations can be used to define the relative distribution of carbonate species as a function
of pH. Changes in pH can have drastic effects on the species present in the carbonate system.
Therefore the fraction of carbonic acid [H2CO3] may be expressed as α0 and written as the fraction:

(2.8)

Similarly the fraction of bicarbonate ion [HCO 3-] and carbonate ions [CO32-] may be expressed
as α1 and α2, respectively, and written as the following fractions:

;
(2.9)

2.3.3 pH and Alkalinity

Alkalinity is defined as the capacity of natural water to neutralize acid added to it. Total alkalinity
is the amount of acid required to reach a specific pH (pH = 4,3 to 4,8). Total alkalinity can be
approximated by alkalinity as the following expression:

Total alkalinity = [HCO3-] + 2[CO32-] + [OH-] - [H+] (2.10)

Total alkalinity includes Hydroxide alkalinity [OH -], Bicarbonate alkalinity [HCO3-] and
Carbonate alkalinity [CO32-]. If the pH and total alkalinity are measured, the concentration of the
various components of alkalinity can be calculated using the values of α1and α2 determined for the
pH of the water. These values can be used to calculate the:

Hydroxide alkalinity =
(2.11)
Bicarbonate alkalinity = α1Ct

Carbonate alkalinity = 2 α2Ct

where Ct is total carbonate and Ct = [ H2CO3] + [HCO3-] + [CO32-].

The amount of strong acid (in eq/L) required to change colour of the water from pink to clear
(colourless) when a small amount of phenolphthalein reagent is put into the water sample is
phenolphthalein alkalinity. This colour change occurs at approximately pH = 8.3. Continuing the
titration to pH = 4.3, which is the H2CO3 endpoint, yields the total alkalinity. The values of each

Downloaded From www.ktunotes.in

three forms of alkalinity can be determined using the relative values of the phenolphthalein
alkalinity and the total alkalinity, expressed as either eq/L or mg/L CaCO 3.

2.3.4 Acidity

Acidity is the "quantitative capacity of aqueous media to react with hydroxyl ions". Titration with
a strong base (NaOH) to define end points (pH = 4,3 and pH = 8,3). Acidity indicates the
corrosiveness of acidic water on steel, concrete and other materials.

2.3.5 Inorganic Indicators of Water Quality

Some of the inorganic parameters include hardness, total dissolved solids, conductivity, and
adsorption ratio.

2.3.5.1 Hardness

Hardness is correlated with TDS (Total dissolved solids). It represents total concentration of
Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions, and is reported in equivalent CaCO3. Other ions (Fe2+) may also contribute.
Hardness expressed as mg/L CaCO3 is used to classify waters from "soft" to "very hard". This
classification is summarized in Table 2.2.

Table 2.2 Relationship of Hardness Concentration and Classification of Natural water

(F. Joseph; Jr. Malina)

Hardness as mg/L CaCO3 Classification

0 - 60 Soft
61 - 120 Moderately hard
121 - 180 Hard
>180 Very hard

Hardness observed for streams and rivers throughout the world ranges between 1 to 1000 mg/L.
Typical concentrations are 47 mg/L to 74 mg/l CaCO 3.

Hardness is an indicator to industry of potential precipitation of calcium carbonates in cooling

towers and boilers, interference with soaps and dyes in cleaning and textile industries and with
emulsifiers in photographic development. Hard water is less corrosive than soft. Treatment usually
left to consumer (domestic, industrial, etc) depending on needs.

2.3.5.2 Total Dissolved Solids

Downloaded From www.ktunotes.in

Total dissolved solids (TDS) is a measure of salt dissolved in a water sample after removal of
suspended solids. TDS is residue remaining after evaporation of the water. The TDS load carried
in streams throughout the world has been estimated by Livingston (1963) to 120 mg/L .

2.3.5.3 Conductivity

The concentration of total dissolved solids (TDS) is related to electrical conductivity (EC;
mhos/cm) or specific conductance. The conductivity measures the capacity of water to transmit
electrical current. The conductivity is a relative term and the relationship between the TDS
concentration and conductivity is unique to a given water sample and in a specific TDS
concentration range. The conductivity increases as the concentration of TDS increases.

TDS and conductivity affect the water sample and the solubility of slightly soluble compounds
and gases in water (e.g. CaCO3, and O2). In general, the corrosiveness of the water increases as
TDS and EC increase, assuming other variables are kept constant.

2.3.5.4 Sodium Adsorption Ratio

The Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) is used to evaluate the hazard in irrigation waters caused by
sodium (Na+). The SAR relates the concentration of sodium ions to the concentration of
magnesium (Mg2+) and calcium (Ca2+) ions. The SAR is defined as:

(2.12)
in meg/L

The proper ratio of sodium ions to calcium and magnesium ions in irrigation water results in
irrigated soil that is granular in texture, easily worked, and permeable. With increasing proportions
of sodium as the SAR increases, soil tends to become less permeable and more difficult to work.

2.3.6 Radionuclides

Radionuclides in water are classified according to the type of energy released - alpha radiation
(positively charged helium nuclei); beta radiation (electrons) or gamma radiation (electromagnetic
energy).

Natural radiation is found in elements in the Earth's crust (potassium-40 (40K)). Another source of
natural radiation results from cosmic ray bombardment in the atmosphere (tritium (3H) and carbon-
14 (14C)). Other high-atomic-weight, naturally occurring isotopes found in natural water include
uranium-238, thorium-232, uranium-235 and breakdown products as radium-226 and radium-228.

The units of radiation measurements are curies (CI) or rems (CI = 3,7 X 1010 nuclear
transformations per second; picocurie (pCI) = 10-12 CI). A rem is the radiation dose producing the
same biological effect (rem = absorbed dose X quality factors).

Downloaded From www.ktunotes.in

Each type of radiation has different health effects. For example, alpha particles travel at velocities
up 107 m/sec. When ingested the relatively massive alpha particles can be very damaging to body
tissue. Beta particles travel at about the speed of light, penetrate to greater depth because of their
smaller mass and create less damage. Gamma radiation penetrates deeply, but has limited effects
at low levels. The body dose that accurses from drinking water compared to natural background
radiation is low, however, EPA policy assumes that potential harm exists from any level of
radiation.

2.3.7 Organic Materials

Organic chemicals are made up of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), as well as nitrogen (N) and oxygen
(O). Organic compounds are derived from living organism as well as industrial sources. A wide
variety of assortments of organic compounds are produced in the chemical and petrochemical
industries. Organic compounds also may contain sulfur (S), phosphorus (P), fluorine (F), chlorine
(Cl), bromine (Br), and iodine (I).

Organic compounds in water also affect the water quality. Organic chemicals cause disagreeable
tastes and odours in drinking water. Vinyl chloride, benzene and other organic contaminants are
known carcinogenic agents, while chloroform is a cancer-suspect agent.

2.3.7.1. Natural Organic Matter

Organic materials are found in natural water as a result of a wide range of processes, together with
precipitation and surface water, as the result of the interaction between soils and precipitation and
etc. Organic materials in soils originate from plant and animal degradation products. These
degradation products condense and polymerise into fulvic and humic acids to kerogen and finally
coal. Chemical and microbial processes cause the transformation by first attacking functional
groups and aliphatic side chains. Condensation and polymerisation of various reactive groups
result in larger, more aromatic molecules that decrease in solubility until kerogen or humin is
produced. The end products are not soluble in acid or alkali and are resistant to biodegradation and
chemical reaction.

2.3.7.2 Man-made Organics

Synthetic organic compounds include a broad variety of aliphatic and aromatic compounds. Many
manufactured organic compounds may be found at very low concentrations in natural water.
Isolation, identification and evaluation of health effects of these synthetic organics at low
concentrations are lacking.

2.3.7.3 Measurement of Organics in Water - Organic Carbon

Downloaded From www.ktunotes.in

Organics in water can be expressed in terms total organic carbon (TOC). The TOC is the difference
between total carbon (TC) and inorganic carbon (IC). Typical concentrations of organic matter
observed in natural water in streams and rivers throughout the world are presented in Table 2.3.

Table 2.3 Water quality of streams and rivers and Organic materials
(Mc. Culcheon (1993); Livingstone (1963); Hem (1971))

Typical value, Observed ranges,

Water quality parameter
mg/L mg/L
Inorganic carbon (IC) 50 5-250
Total organic carbon
1-10 0.01 - 40
(TOC)
Dissolved organic carbon
1-6 0.3-32
(DOC)
Volatile organic carbon
0.05
(VOC)
Total organic matter 2-20 0.02 - 80

2.3.8 Organic Indicators of Water Quality

For quantity assessment of concentrations of organic materials, indicator Total Oxygen Demand
are used. The Total Oxygen Demand includes Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD); Biochemical
Oxygen Demand and Nitrogenous Biochemical Oxygen Demand and can be shown as :

CaHbOcNdSe + xO2 aCO2 + ½ bH2O + dNO3- + eSO4- (2.13)

2.3.8.1 Biological Oxygen Demand (animation)

Biological oxygen demand (BOD), the most widely used parameter, is a measure of the amount of
oxygen used by indigenous microbial population in water in response to the introduction of
degradable organic material. This parameter depends on water characteristics: dilution, essential
nutrients (N, P, K, Fe, etc), and bacteria seed. The 5-day BOD (BOD5) is most widely used. The
BOD5 of natural water is related to the dissolved oxygen concentration, which is measured at zero
time and after 5 days of incubation at 20 °C. The difference is the dissolved oxygen used by the
microorganisms in the biochemical oxidation of organic matter. The BOD 5 can be calculated as
BOD5 = D0 - D1, in which the BOD5 is in mg/L and D0 and D1 are the dissolved oxygen
concentration in mg/L at time 0 and 5 days, respectively.

Typical concentration of BOD5 for streams and rivers throughout the world are < 2 to 15 mg/ L
and the observed range is < 2 to 65 mg/L.

Downloaded From www.ktunotes.in

2.3.8.2 Chemical Oxygen Demand

The chemical oxygen demand (COD) test of natural water yields the oxygen equivalent of the
organic matter that can be oxidized by strong chemical oxidizing agent in an acidic medium.
Potassium permanganate is the oxidizing chemical. Silver sulfate is added as a catalyst and to
minimize the interference of chloride on the COD test. Mercuric sulfate is also added to inhibit
interferences of metals on the oxidation of organic compounds. The reaction of the dichromate
with organic matter is presented here in general way:

Organic matter (CaHbOc) + Cr2O72- + H- 2Cr3+ + CO2 + H2O (2.14)

The COD observed in natural streams and rivers is < 2 mg/L to 100 mg/L.

2.3.9 Dissolved Gases

The principal transfer of gas in natural water is the transfer of oxygen from the atmosphere to the
water. However, gas transfer is also used to strip hydrogen sulfide (H 2S), ammonia (NH3) and
volatile organic compounds (VOC) from water. In both processes material is transferred from one
bulk phase to another across a gas-liquid interface. For example , oxygen is transferred from the
bulk gaseous phase (atmosphere) across the gas-liquid interface into bulk liquid phase (water). In
the case of striping volatile organic compounds (VOC) from liquid, the VOC is transferred from
the bulk liquid phase (water) across the liquid-gas interface into the bulk gaseous phase
(atmosphere).

2.3.9.1 Solubility of Gases

The equilibrium of each phase, concentration of gases or volatile organic compounds dissolved in
water, depends on the temperature, the type of gas or volatile compounds, and the partial pressure
of the gas or volatile compounds adjacent to the water. The relationship between the partial
pressure of the gas in the atmosphere above the water and the concentration of the gas or volatile
compound in the water is described by Henry's law:

Xg = H Pg (2.15)

where:
Pg partial pressure of gas, atm.;
H Henry's law constant;
Xg equilibrium mole fraction of dissolved gas, mol/dm3.

The Henry's law constant is a function of type of gas or volatile organic compounds, temperature
of the bulk liquid and constituent of the liquid (water). Values of Henry's constant for various gases

Downloaded From www.ktunotes.in

that are slightly soluble in water at 20 °C are shown in Table 2.4. Thermodynamic parameters that
are required to adjust Henry's law constants for different temperatures are also include in Table
2.4.

Table 2.4 Henry's Law Constants for Selected Gases that are
Slightly Soluble in Water (James M. Montgomery, 1985)

Temperature
Henry's constant dependence
Gas
at 20 °C, atm ΔH, kcal/kmol
K
· 10-3
Oxygen (O2) 4.3 1.45 7.11
Nitrogen (N2) 8.6 1.12 6.85
Methane (CH4) 3.8 1.54 7.22
Ozone (O3) 5.0 2.52 8.05
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 1.51 2.07 6.73
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) 5.15 1.85 5.88
Chlorine (Cl2) 5.85 1.74 5.75
Chlorine dioxide (CLO2) 54 2.93 6.76
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) 38 2.40 5.68
Ammonia (NH3) 0.76 3.75 6.31

2.3.9.2 Dissolved Oxygen

Typical dissolved oxygen concentrations observed in streams and rivers throughout the world are
3 to 9 mg/l. The observed range of dissolved oxygen concentrations is 0 mg/L (anoxic conditions)
to 19 mg/L (supersaturated conditions).

Dissolved oxygen is important in natural water because many microorganisms and fish require it
in aquatic system. Dissolved oxygen also establishes an aerobic environment in which oxidized
forms of many constituents in water are predominant. Under anoxic conditions in water, reduced
forms of chemical species are formed and frequently lead to the release of undesirable odours until
oxic conditions develop.

2.4 Microbiological Characteristics

The principal groups of microorganisms in natural water include protists, plants and animals. Some
of the physical and biological characteristics of organisms important for water quality
considerations are presented in Table 2.5.

Downloaded From www.ktunotes.in

 Table 2.5 Simplified Classification of Microorganisms in Water (Tchobanoglous and
Schroeder, 1985)

Representative Size, Environmentally

Kingdom Shape
members mm resistant stage
Animal Crustaceans
Worms
Rotifers
Rooted aquatic
Plants
plants
Seed Plants
Ferns
Mosses
100-
Protista Protozoa Variable Cysts
102
Algae
Fungi (molds and 100- Filamentous,
Spores
yeasts) 102 coccoid
Coccoid,
Blue-green algae 100 Cysts
filamentous
10-1- Rod, coccoid,
Bacteria Spores, cystlike
101 spiral comma

Many bacteria, viruses and protozoa are causative organisms for some of the more virulent diseases
transmitted to humans directly through water and indirectly through contaminated food.

Assay and confirmation of the presence of the causative agent of waterborne diseases are lengthy
and time consuming. Instead of specific analyses, coliform organisms have been used to determine
the biological characteristics of natural waters. The coliform group of bacteria are aerobic and/or
facultative gram-negative, nonspore-forming, rod-shaped bacteria that ferment lactose to
gas. Escherichia coli is commonly used as an indicator organism. This organism is present in the
intestine of warm-blooded animals, including humans. Therefore the presence of Escherichia
coli in water samples indicates the presence of fecal matter and then the possible presence of
pathogenic organisms of human origin. The concentration of indicator organisms is reported in
MPN/100 mL (MPN = most probable number) or in CFU/100 mL (CFU = colony forming units).

Other enteric organisms that are also considered indicator organisms are fecal streptococci
(Streptococcus faecalis) and clostridia (Clostridium perfringens).

2.5 Biological characteristics

Downloaded From www.ktunotes.in

In a typical aquatic ecosystem (Figure 2.1) plant and animal materials are composed of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur. These elements are building blocks for
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, phospholipids and nucleic acid.

Figure 2.1 Schematic aquatic ecosystem

Protein and nucleic acids consist of nitrogen, which is required by organisms in greatest quantity
after carbon and oxygen. Organic nitrogen ammonia (NH3), nitrite (NO2-), nitrate (NO3-), and
nitrogen gas (N2) are important nitrogen-containing compounds in aquatic systems. The
atmosphere is the reservoir for nitrogen.

Nitric oxide (NO) is formed during fuel combustion at high temperatures:

N2 + O2 2NO, (2.16)

NO reacts easily with ozone and peroxides in the atmosphere:

NO + O3 NO2 + O2 ;
(2.17)
NO + H2O2 NO2 + 2OH-.

NO2 reacts with OH- in the air to form nitric acid:

NO2 + OH- HNO3 (2.18)

Nitric acid is a very strong acid, with a large Kw = 101, which results in very fast dissociation as
soon as it is in contact with water in the atmosphere:

HNO3 + H2O H3O+ + NO3- . (2.19)

Downloaded From www.ktunotes.in

All living matters content phosphorus, but its concentration in many natural water environments
is low. Phosphoric acid (H3PO4), which is not very volatile, can loose up to 3 H+:

H3PO4 = H+ + H2PO4- ;

H2PO4- = H+ + HPO42- ; (2.20)

HPO42- = H+ + PO43-.

Sulfate occurs in natural water as organic sulfur, hydrogen sulfide (H 2S), elemental sulfur (S) and
sulfate (SO42-). Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is toxic for many organisms and is a source of odour in
water. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) can also combine and precipitate heavy metals such as iron, zinc
and cobalt. These metal elements are required for bacterial growth, therefore high levels of H2S
may inhibit growth.

Waterborne Diseases

Waterborne diseases are caused by a variety of microorganisms, biotoxins, and toxic contaminants,
which lead to devastating illnesses such as cholera, schistosomiasis and other gastrointestinal
problems. Outbreaks of waterborne diseases often occur after a severe precipitation event (rainfall,
snowfall). Because climate change increases the severity and frequency of some major
precipitation events, communities—especially in the developing world—could be faced with
elevated disease burden from waterborne diseases. In addition, diseases caused by Vibrio bacteria
such as cholera and other intestinal diseases may pose a greater threat due to the effect that rising
sea temperatures will have on the growth and spread of bacteria. Climate change is likely to
increase diarrheal disease incidence worldwide, and extreme weather conditions may also
complicate already-inadequate prevention efforts. Although the United States has prevention and
treatment strategies for waterborne diseases, surveillance is still spotty, diagnoses are not uniform,
and understanding of the impact of climate change on these diseases is not well established.

Health Impacts

• Droughts can cause increased concentrations of effluent pathogens, overwhelming water

treatment plants and contaminating surface water. Older water treatment plants are
particularly at risk.
• Changes in ocean and coastal ecosystems, including changes in pH, nutrient and
contaminant runoff, salinity, and water security, that can cause degradation of fresh water,
particularly in areas where much of the population uses untreated surface water for daily
consumption and activities.
• Increased frequency of intense extreme weather events can cause flooding of water and
sewage treatment facilities, increasing the risk of waterborne diseases.

Downloaded From www.ktunotes.in

 • Indirectly, the lack of water can cause pressure on agricultural productivity, crop failure,
malnutrition, starvation, population displacement, and resource conflict.
• Changes can occur in the distribution and concentrations of chemical contaminants in
coastal and ocean waters through the release of contaminants previously locked in polar
ice sheets, or in runoff from coastal and watershed development.

Mitigation and Adaptation

• Carbon sequestration,
• Water reuse and recycling
• Protecting wetlands to reduce damage to water quality from severe storms
• Increasing green space and decreasing paved surfaces in urban areas to reduce runoff, slow
the rate of water table depletion, and reduce the impact of extreme precipitation events
• Increasing the use of air conditioning is associated with an increased demand in electricity,
which can impact water availability and regional water ecology.
• Changing weather patterns and decreased food availability in the developing world can
lead to increased desertification, and increase the need for above-ground irrigation. Such
projects, if done in areas where waterborne parasitic diseases are present, can change the
regional transport of the parasite and impact human exposure to disease.

Downloaded From www.ktunotes.in

Downloaded From www.ktunotes.in