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Engineering Failure Analysis 90 (2018) 554–584
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Engineering Failure Analysis

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engfailanal
Review
A review on the wear of oil drill bits (conventional and the state of
T
the art approaches for wear reduction and quantification)
Rafid K. Abbas
Chemical Engineering Dept., Faculty of Engineering, University of Al-Qadisiyah, Al-Diwaniya City 58002, Iraq
A R T IC LE I N F O ABS TRA CT
Keywords: Since the first use of oil drill bits to penetrate petroleum and gas wells, the wear of the teeth and
Drill bit wear bearing (for roller-cone bits) and cutters for (Polycrystalline Diamond Compact (PDC) bits) has
Wear testing been a major dilemma that causes money and time loss, consequently affecting the whole drilling
Wear mechanisms operation. The present study reviews wear mechanisms in both bit types. The review has carried
PDC
out the previous and the state of the art approaches for improving the drill bits against wear.
Rotary drill bits
Advantages and disadvantages of the conventional technologies for improving the manu-
facturing of the drill bits are explained. Conventional and emerging approaches of wear testing of
drill bits are shown to expand the scope for developing the manufacturing of more reliable drill
bits against the wear.
We report a literature survey of the old and current methods of wear quantification in terms of
drilling parameters and mechanical properties of the minerals forming the drill bits, and means of
increasing the efficiency of oil and gas drill bits. Empirical wear models, as well as wear pre-
diction techniques while drilling are discussed along with the simulation wear models using
Finite Element Analysis (FEA) and the Discrete Element Method (DEM).
1. Introduction
Drilling for oil and gas is still very demanding in many areas around the world. Rotary drilling is the most common technique for
drilling oil and gas and since the invention of rotary drilling two types of drill bits have been used: roller-cone and polycrystalline
diamond compact (PDC) bits. Roller cone bits or tricone bits have three rotating cones with each one rotating on its own axis during
drilling, while PDC bits are fixed cutter bits with no moving parts. Drilling occurs due to the compression and rotation of the drill
string. Tricone bits are used in general to drill a wide variety of rocks, from soft to extremely hard, while PDC bits can drill various
sorts of formations, especially at harsh environments. Since the wear of drill bits is considered an intrinsic cost, significant savings can
be achieved by effective control and minimisation of bit wear.
Here we assess wear analysis methods for drill bits, where bit wear mechanisms have been clarified to give a better understanding
of the failure modes of both roller-cone and PDC bits. In addition, the current study deals with the state of the art of manufacturing
processes of synthesizing oil drill bits to mitigate the increasing challenges resulting from bit wear. Two kinds of laboratory tests have
been discussed in the literature to verify the concept of wear mechanisms of roller-cone bits: abrasion and scratch tests, whereas
destructive and non-destructive tests are used for PDC bits. Laboratory scratch tests indicate the concept of micro-ploughing and
micro-cutting behaviour in roller-cone bits, however further scratch test analysis is needed for PDC bits. Wear in drill bits is influ-
enced by many factors related to drilling and rock properties, as well as the properties of materials that form the bit. The type and
intensity of wear is dependent on several complicated factors that need to be considered in anticipating the rates of wear in field and
E-mail address: Rafid.Abbas@qu.edu.iq.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2018.03.026
Received 6 July 2017; Received in revised form 14 March 2018; Accepted 15 March 2018
Available online 04 April 2018
1350-6307/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
R. K. Abbas Engineering Failure Analysis 90 (2018) 554–584
Nomenclature PR rate of penetration (ft/hr)

PRD dimensionless rate of penetration
a1 empirical constant SE specific energy (psi)
a2 empirical constant T measured torque (lb.ft)
d bit diameter (in) TD dimensionless torque
E Young's modulus (N/m2, GPa) Vw volume of wear (μm3, mm3)
ED bit drilling efficiency (dimensionless) W weight on bit (lb)
F applied load (mN, N) WD dimensionless weight on bit
FD dimensionless tooth flatness (dimensionless) WH wear resistant coefficient (dimensionless)
H hardness of the material (N/m2, GPa) X sliding distance (μm)
Ha hardness of the abrasive material (N/m2, GPa) α half angle of the abrasive particles (degrees)
Hw hardness of the abraded material (N/m2, GPa) β abrasion angle (degree)
Kc fracture toughness of the material (MPa.m1/2) μ bit coefficient of friction (dimensionless)
MSE mechanical specific energy (psi) θ abrasion angle (degree)
N speed rotation of the bit (rpm) θc attack angle (degree)
laboratory conditions such as the geometry of the bit as well as the drilling parameters along with the mechanical properties of the
materials forming the drill bit. Numerous quantification technologies of bit wear have been described. Each method depends on the
available measured data and on the wise interpretation to estimate the bit wear condition. Furthermore, each approach has as-
sumptions that limit its applicability. However, despite the diverse quantification techniques that have been applied and the better
understanding of the bit performance and when to pull out the bit due to the wear, such analysis should be done in conjunction with
the conventional techniques of wear detection like bit records and well logging methods. Modelling and simulation are advanced
approaches to give a better understanding of the bit behaviour and its design, which consequently leads to the optimum bit per-
formance as well as predicting the wear rate of drill bits. The main objective of this review is to investigate the wear mechanisms of
the oil drill bits in both roller-cone and PDC bits. Furthermore, we discuss previous methods for wear quantification and also apply a
suggested approach for estimating the torque of the bit which consequently can be used for calculating dimensionless drilling
parameters, to be used as indications for monitoring bit wear.
2. Literature review of the wear mechanism of drill bits
2.1. Introduction
For > 4 decades various methods have been implemented in the petroleum industry to meet the need to drill oil and gas wells
efficiently, by using various drill bits to gain the paramount increase in drilling performance and to lower drilling costs associated
with the drilling operation. Numerous attempts have been made to improve the manufacturing of drill bits by using optimum
materials and design methods. Since the common bits used in drilling oil and gas wells are the roller-cone and PDC bits, the majority
of the research relates to the particular bit types. Roller-cone bits have been widely used since one hundred years ago and have a
undergone series of developments throughout their synthesizing processes and design. The development started from two cone milled
tooth bits in 1908 [52] and continues work with the latest technology of diamond enhanced materials and diamond heel inserts, as
well as improved bearings and seals. PDC bits use a special kind of cutters from diamond to improve the bit performance by obtaining
a high rate of penetration. PDC bits also have improved significantly since they were manufactured in 1970. Roller-cone and PDC bits
are used widely in drilling operations, depending on the rock formations and the present drilling conditions required (Figs. 2.3, 2.4,
2.9, 2.26, 2.27, 2.29, 3.4, 3.5).
2.2. An overview of wear mechanism of oil and gas drill bits
2.2.1. Wear mechanisms of roller-cone bits

Wear of drill bits is defined as macroscopic or microscopic removal or fracture of material, particularly at the cutter surface, or
more general as, any degradation that reduces bit life. Mouritz and Hutchings [31] investigated the wear rates of the materials used in
the teeth of rotary drill bits, and the abrasive wear mechanisms of these materials. The teeth of the rotary drill bits contain three
layers. The external layer consists of a WC-Co hardfacing layer, the second layer is made from high‑carbon martensitic steel and the
third layer is the core of the tooth that consists of low-carbon martensitic steel. Small cylindrical specimens manufactured from
materials similar to those used in the teeth of rotary drill bits were used in the investigation by Mouritz and Hutchings [31]. The
abrasive rocks like sandstones and non-abrasive rocks such as limestone, representing the most common rock formations encountered
in oil drilling were used in the tests.
Two types of tests were performed within the studying of the wear mechanisms by Mouritz and Hutchings [31]:-
1. Abrasion testing: the specimens of the teeth materials were abraded against sandstone and limestone disks for a total period time
of 300 s. Mass loss measurements illustrated that the materials used in the cutting teeth of roller-cone bits suffered wear rates
almost 140 times or more greater when abraded against sandstone as compared to limestone. Figs. 2.1 and 2.2 demonstrate the
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Fig. 2.1. Mass loss of bit materials when abraded against sandstone (after [31]).
difference in the mass loss of the bit materials with time, or sliding distance when abraded with sandstone and limestone
respectively.
Mouritz and Hutchings [31] concluded that the hardness of the metal samples increased as the following order: Low-carbon
steel < high-carbon steel < WC-Co alloy. The above conclusion comes from the principle that abrasive wear rate of any material
depends on the ratio of its hardness (Hm) to the hardness of the abrasive (Ha). When Ha/Hm < 1, this means that the abrasive cannot
easily scratch the material and the wear rate is extremely low. However, when (Ha/Hm) > 1.2, the abrasive is much more capable of
scratching the material and hence causes high wear rates [45]. The hardness values of the three materials used in the test were: -
460 HV, 700 HV and 1320 HV for low-carbon steel, high-carbon steel and WC-Co alloy, respectively.
Fig. 2.2. Mass loss of bit materials when abraded against limestone (after [31]).
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Fig. 2.3. SEM images of low carbon steel scratched by sandstone illustrating wear scars formed by the process of micro -ploughing (after [48]).
Fig. 2.4. SEM images of sulfurized free-machining steel scratched by cemented carbide tool illustrating large wear particle formed by micro-cutting
(after [21]).
Fig. 2.5. Typical failure modes of PDC inserts for rock drill bit (after [18]).
Fig. 2.6. Smooth wear on the diamond layer (after [53]).
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Fig. 2.7. Microchipping damage at the edge (after [53]).
Fig. 2.8. Microchipping failure (after [60]).
Fig. 2.9. Delamination failure mode of PDC cutter (after [53]).
Fig. 2.10. Microfracturing failure (after [60]).
Fig. 2.11. An example of microfracturing failure (after [60]).
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Fig. 2.12. Macrofracturing failure (after [60]).
Fig. 2.13. An example of macrofracturing failure (after [60]).
Fig. 2.14. Gross fracturing failure mode (after [60]).
Fig. 2.15. Gross fracturing failure example (after [60]).
Fig. 2.16. Ultimate fracturing failure mode (after [60]).
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Fig. 2.17. Ultimate fracturing failure in PDC cutter (after [60]).
Fig. 2.18. Abrasion testing of a PDC cutter with a vertical turret lathe. (After [6]).
Fig. 2.19. Spalled cutters after impact testing (after [6]).
Table 2.1 shows the mineral composition and expected hardness values for the sandstone. It can be seen that most of the minerals
in the sandstone are considered hard, while the limestone is mainly consists of calcite with a hardness of 110 HV which is less than the
hardness of the specimens.
Abrasion tests of the specimens against limestone disk showed that wear resistance increases with hardness. Therefore, It is safe to
say that during drilling sandstone formations, the WC-Co alloy of the bit teeth external layer will wear away slowly due to its high
hardness, however when this layer is damaged the teeth will face severe wear.
2. Scratch testing: - This test is carried out to simulate the types of wear obtained by a hard mineral particle as it slides over a drill
bit. This test is performed by sliding a sharp diamond stylus across polished bit materials. The attack angle (θc) defined as the
angle between cutting face of the stylus and surface of specimen. Various attack angles are chosen during the abrasion. The
selected attack angles in Mouritz and Hutching's [31] work, ranged from 6 to 86°. The scratched surfaces of the specimens were
examined by a scanning electron microscope (SEM).
The specimens of low and high carbon steel were scratched with a diamond stylus, the wear damage caused by the process of
micro-ploughing and micro-cutting. Micro-ploughing and micro-cutting processes are shown in Figs. 2–3 and 2–4 respectively. In
micro-ploughing, the material is displaced to the sides of the wear groove and the material is not removed from the surface, while in
cutting a chip is formed at the end of the groove and the material is removed from the surface [24].
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Fig. 2.20. Spallation chart of impacted cutters (after [6])
Fig. 2.21. Load–displacement curves measured during nanoindentation of NPD, CBN and PCD samples [13].
Fig. 2.22. Microscopic image of the scratches produced by micro-scratch test [28].
When the scratch test is performed with θc ˂ 36, the ploughing process is dominant, whereas both ploughing and cutting processes
occur when 36 ≤ θc ≤ 86. Above 86 wear is mainly caused by cutting.
Mouritz and Hutchings [31] observed that abrasion against limestone causes small wear by the mechanism of ploughing for low
and high carbon steel, while no evidence of severe damage to the hardfacing layer of WC-Co was observed.
Osburn [35] and Perrott [37] illustrated the strong influence of rock hardness on the wear of the rotary drill bit tools made of
tungsten-carbide with cobalt as a binder. Abrasion was found to be worse under high temperatures (hot abrasion) causing thermal
fatigue. Osburn [35] also added that the WC grains during the manufacturing of the roller-cone insert bits must be structured
perfectly to gain maximum fracture resistance. Larsen-Basse [27] explained that the main modes of failure for roller-cone insert drill
bits are as the follows: 1- impact fracturing, 2- thermal fatigue, 3- abrasion wear and 4- mechanical fatigue due to overloads.
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R. K. Abbas
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Fig. 2.23. Groove obtained using a spheroconical indenter at 50 N load on WC-Co (left), scratch obtained using a spheroconical layer (right) [1] at 10 N on the diamond layer.
Engineering Failure Analysis 90 (2018) 554–584
Fig. 2.24. Groove obtained from nano-scratch testing on the WC-Co layer of the PDC sample K1908 using spheroconical probe of 25 μm radius [1].
Fig. 2.25. Multi-pass nano-scratch test on substrate layer of the PDC sample K1908 [1].
Fig. 2.26. (a) C-scan test to detect flaws in the diamond of the PDC cutter (after [7]) (b) Acoustical emissions toughness test [54].
Reshetnyak, and Kuybarsepp [44] studied the abrasive erosion of hard metals such as WC-Co alloys that form the roller-cone
insert bits. The extent of wear was evaluated and indicated, that the hardness of the material cannot be the only dominant property
causing the abrasive erosion wear. The wear is attributed to other properties, such as the compressive strength and the fracture
toughness.
2.2.2. Wear mechanisms of PDC bits

Polycrystalline Diamond drill bits are known to be more efficient than conventional roller cone bits, especially in soft rock
formations. For a better understanding of bit efficiency, bit-rock interaction of the worn tool should be studied in detail. It has been
deduced that > 50% of the energy of drilling by PDC bits is dissipated by the wear of cutters under normal drilling conditions, when
assuming a steady- motion, and avoiding excessive heating, therefore studying the wear mechanism of PDC is highly essential [22].
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Fig. 2.27. Raman shift of poor wear resistance of a TSDC sample (after [9]).
Fig. 2.28. Raman spectrum of high wear resistance of a TSDC sample (after [9]).
Fig. 2.29. 3D X-ray image of a poor wear resistance PDC cutter showing the intrusions of WC –substrate (blue colour) to the outer surface (after [9]).
Dunn and Lee [15] believed that the main reason of the PDC failure is due to the tensile stresses arising after the sintering process
inducing cracks, which propagate throughout the diamond table and substrate. PDC bits in general suffer from several additional
problems which including: (1) chipping of the diamond layer, (2) bit balling, (3) stud breakage in hard rocks, (4) abrasive wear, (5)
poor hydraulics, (6) insufficient cleaning efficiency. (7) deviation of the bit when applying high weight on bit, (8) scratching the
composite layer of the cutters due to poor bonding of tungsten carbide stud, (9) distribution of cutters on the bit and (10) thermal
failure. The improvements of synthesizing methods of PDC bits to withstand both failure and impact have been investigated by many
researchers [18]. However, an important step for the improvement is to understand the failure mechanisms and modes of PDC bits.
Fang et al. [18] illustrated the main failure modes of PDC cutters are due to frictional heat and the high abrasiveness of the rock, as
shown in Fig. 2.5.
Tze-Pin et al. [53] and Zacny [60] postulated four primary failure modes of PDC cutters according to the type of wear mechanism:
1- smooth wear, 2- microchipping, 3- gross fracturing or (spalling) and 4-delamination.
Tze-Pin et al. [53] and Zacny [60] attributed smooth wear to the individual diamond crystals being polished away due to
mechanical and thermal loads. This type of failure is less significant than other failure mechanisms, because the wear is not severe
and the material removal of the PDC cutters is trivial (Fig. 2.6).
Microchipping failure occurs along the edge of the diamond table of the PDC cutter or insert. The main reason of this failure is due
to the action of the bit cutting forces besides thermomechanical fatigue (Fig. 2.7 and Fig. 2.8).
Gross fracturing, or fatigue represents the most severe type of failure causing the damage of PDC cutters and subsequently,
reducing the bit life. This failure is attributed to the impact load of the drill bit on the bottom of the wellbore. This failure usually
occurs in hard formations with high hardness, causing greater stress on the PDC cutters.
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Fig. 2.30. X-ray maps of microscrtaches on the substrate layer using vickers indenter along with the corresponding spectroscopy of the main
minerals along the obtained scratch [1].
Delamination of both diamond and WC layers is attributed to the mismatch between the thermal expansion coefficients of the two
layers. Tze-Pin et al. [53] stated that this type of failure is caused by the high impact loading of the bit on the bottomhole. Fig. 4.9
shows delamination failure mode, indicated by dark arrows.
Zacny [60] divided fracturing in general into four categories according to the dimensions, shape, size and distribution of the
occurred fractures as follows: Microfracturing, Macrofracturing, Gross fracturing, and Ultimate fracturing.
In microfracturing, the fractures are very thin having a thickness of a few micrometers. For this category the fractures are parallel
to the diamond table and the width and length of the individual fracture planes not exceed 3 mm. Figs. 2.10 and 2.11 illustrate a
schematic and an example of microfracturing under SEM, respectively.
In macrofracturing, the thickness of the fractures is > 0.1 mm. The length and width of the fracture are about 5 mm and 8 mm
respectively. The fractures are parallel to the diamond table and do not extend to the WC substrate. Figs. 2.12 and 2.13 show a
schematic and a SEM images of macrofracturing mode, respectively.
In gross fracturing (spalling), the fractures are thick and extend into the WC layer, with a length of about 8 mm and a width up to
12 mm. Hence, this type of failure is severe and causes the removal of large parts of the diamond table as shown in Figs. 2.14 and
2.15.
Ultimate fracturing is the most detrimental, because spalls can include more than half of the diamond table with a considerable
part of the WC layer as shown in Figs. 2.16 and 2.17.
Ortega and Glowka [34] illustrated the main categories of PDC cutters failure as:
1-delaminiation near the interface of the diamond and the substrate layers, 2- plastic deformation of the diamond and table and
the substrate 3- chipping at the edge of the cutting, 4-chipping at the diamond table and dislodging of the diamond grains, 5- abrasive
wear and 6- thermal fatigue.
2.3. Testing of PDC bits
Various tests have been carried out on PDC bits to assess their performance and applicability in diverse drilling conditions
including harsh environments such as high bottom hole temperature conditions. The tests are broadly divided into, destructive and
non-destructive methods [6].
A- Destructive testing:
In these tests the cutters of the bit are destroyed without possibility of reusing. The aim of this test is to simulate downhole
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Fig. 2.31. Coloured X-ray map of a groove on the diamond layer as a result of micro-scratching using Vickers indenter of the PDC sample M1313
[1].
Fig. 3.1. Specific energies versus depth for well A1 in south of Iraq (after [2]).
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Fig. 3.2. In situ bit tooth wear for well A1 in south of Iraq (after [2]).
Fig. 3.3. Rabinowicz model for abrasive wear (after [43]).
Fig. 3.4. Predicted wear versus the function (F·L)/H [1].
Fig. 3.5. Simple scheme of finite element modelling (after [10]).
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Fig. 3.6. FEA simulation results showing the stress distribution at the diamond-to substrate interface (after [6]).
Fig. 3.7. A simplified DEM model of a drill cutter removing a cutting by the means of braking the bonds between the particles (after [20]).
Fig. 3.8. Rock cutting process using DEM model (after [3]).
conditions in order to assess the behaviour of the cutters under these conditions. Two types of destructive tests are implemented
by the companies providing PDC cutters and PDC bits, namely abrasion and impact tests.
B- Abrasion test: Abrasion resistance is the capability of the cutter to survive when abraded against abrasive rocks. The abrasion
resistance depends mainly on the hardness of the minerals in the rock. Highly abrasive rocks like granite or hard sandstone are
normally considered for the test.
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Fig. 4.1. Cross section of enhanced inserts (after [49]).
A honeycomb PDC/WC – Standard PDC with 20% Co.

Co-Composite
Cell boundary consists of

standard WC-11% Co
Fig. 4.2. Honeycomb structured polycrystalline diamond (after Fang et al. [18]).
WC-6%
Cobalt
Convenonal WC 27% Co
DC carbide with 27% Co
WC-6%
Fig. 4.3. Optical Microscope of conventional and DC carbid (after Fang et al. [18]).
The Vertical Turret Lathe (VTL) abrasion test is mainly implemented by the PDC cutter manufacturers (Fig. 2.18). In this method
the cutter is fixed on a VTL with a rock sample placed beneath the cutter. The rock sample is rotated at fixed rotational velocity as the
cutter indents the rock sample at a certain depth, usually < 1 mm, and is moved laterally from the outer circumference of the rock to
the axis in a spiral mode. A range of rotation rates are possible.
Modern VTLs are computerised to control the applied slide velocity. During a dry VTL test, the cutter is not cooled and conse-
quently most of the frictional heat enters the cutter and the transformation process of diamond to graphite is accelerated. The test
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Standard PDC Honeycomb PDC/WC-Co
Fig. 4.4. Chipping resistance and durability of a rock drill bit insert is enhanced with the honeycomb structured PDC/WC-Co. (after Fang et al.
[18]).
DC carbide
Convenonal WC-Co
DC carbide
Convenonal WC-Co
Fig. 4.5. Comparison of rock bit inserts with DC carbide and conventional WC-Co after field test (after Fang et al. [18]).
Fig. 4.6. NSPDC bit 156 mm (6–1/8″) with 7 interchangeable nozzles (after [5]).
Figs. 4.7. Dullness condition of the NSPDC bit after drilling the entire interval in one run (after [5]).
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Fig. 4.8. Using the technology of heel row inserts (after [12]).
Fig. 4.9. Progression of damages on diamond enhanced inserts (after [12]).
Fig. 4.10. Comparison between 1st, 2nd and 3rd generations of diamond heels, where each generation has been applied in a cone within the same
roller- bit (after [12]).
Fig. 4.11. Starting and finishing stages of HPHT sintering process (after Osipov et al. [36]).
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Fig. 4.12. Two types of TSPD bits used in run test, ISM-AP-214, 3C type on the left and ISM-AP-165, 1C type on the right (after [36]).
Table 2.1
Composition of minerals and anticipated values of hardness for sandstone⁎ (after [31]).
Mineral Content Mineral
Quartz 41% ~1100

Rock fragments 27% ~950
Feldspars 3% ~875
Fossils 3% ~110
Mica Trace ~110
Heavy minerals Trace ~1200
Quartz-bearing clay Trace ~1100
assesses the stability of PDC cutters under elevated temperatures and the durability of these cutters against wear. The cutter is tested
until the wear progresses into the WC substrate or the test is terminated at the point when the graphitisation occurs, as indicated by a
black ring left on the rock. It is believed that the diamond layer of the PDC cutter converts to graphite at temperature near 700 °C due
to the presence of cobalt. When temperature increases, this transformation of diamond to graphite accelerates.
The cooled or wet VTL test (with air or water) is conducted to evaluate the life of the cutters under moderate temperatures. In this
case the abrasion wear occurred will be mainly due to the abrasiveness of the rock rather as thermal effects are minimised. In this
method wear is measured by the weight loss of the cutter.
The intrinsic goal of the VTL test is to study the resistance of diamond grains against micro-chipping and gouging when abraded
against hard rock such as granite or hard sandstone.
The grinding ratio (G-ratio): G-ratio is an industrial term defined as the dimensionless number that represents the volume of rock
removal per unit wear volume of the cutter. A large, G-ratio means a greater amount of rock will be removed for a certain amount of
volumetric wear of the PDC cutter, and is therefore desirable. The G-ratios have been increased from 1 for the first PDC cutter
generation to 15 for the most recent ones, which indicate the substantial improvements of abrasion resistance of recent PDC cutters.
C- Impact test: In this test, the cutter is impacted at a given inclined angle varying from 15° to 25° from a given height. At least ten
samples of cutters are tested under different heights, giving varying impact energies up to 100 J. Each cutter sample is dropped
three to seven times at a given energy level. Fig. 2.19 illustrates the comparison of damage due to impact for different cutters
under various energy levels.
Fig. 2.20 shows the results of 22 cutters tested under increments of impact energy varied from 20 J up to 100 J. Only six cutters
survived the test showing 0% spallation and the rest exhibited 60% to 80% spallation with an average overall spallation of 68%. For
most cases, the acceptable spallation limit was ˂30%, hence, the cutters failed to pass the test. However, the impact test measures the
impact resistance under very low or zero vibration conditions, while in the drilling field the cutters are under a high level of vibration.
Therefore, the impact test could be useful for evaluating the quality of the cutters, however could have limitations since it does not
replicate true process conditions [6].
1- Semi-destructive testing:
Micro and nano-indentation tests as well as micro and nano-scratch tests on WC-Co ceramics, diamond and materials like diamond
were investigated by many researchers to measure the hardness and Young's modulus However there is limited work on micro and
nano tests in the literature conducted on PDC samples, particularly those with WC-Co as a substrate coated with polycrystalline
diamond embedded in cobalt as a binder. Further investigation of micro and nanoindentations as well as micro and nanoscratch
testing is essential to measure the mechanical properties of the PDC cutters and to reveal the main wear mechanisms of the PDC
inserts.
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Ndlovu et al. [32] performed micro and nanoindentation tests on different tungsten-carbides embedded in cobalt to measure the
mechanical properties of WC-Co and to correlate the obtained results with the effect of the microstructure of the grains. The dif-
ferences in the samples based on various cobalt content as well as different grain size of WC. The wear of the hard metal was
investigated in microscratch testing, where various deformation mechanisms were observed. A smaller WC grain size produced a
lower scratch width and depth; therefore, better scratch resistance compared to coarser WC grains.
Xie and Hawthrone [58] investigated different WC-Co ceramics by using micro-scratch testing to monitor the plastic deformation
and failure of such materials. The scratched areas were described and correlated the wear characteristics with a number of materials
based on the material loss measurement.
Sawa and Tanaka [47] carried out experiments on natural diamond indentation to measure the Young's modulus. The produced
curves were showing high degree of elastic recovery. The obtained load-displacement curves were corrected for the effect of machine
compliance to adjust the obtained results. The final recorded value of Young's modulus of the tested natural diamond was
(1090–1217) GPa.
The hardness of the nano-polycrystalline diamond was measured by the microindentation method using mainly the Knoop in-
denter [50]. Vickers indenter was also used for the indentation test, while the nanoindentation test was also attempted with Ber-
kovich probe, where a large amount of elastic recovery was observed. The wreckage of Vickers indenter during microindentation and
Berkovich indenter during nanoindentation tests were encountered. Couvy et al.[13] reported on the nanoindentation hardness and
Young's modulus of hard materials: Nanopolycrystalline Diamond (NPD); Cubic Boron Nitrite (CBN) and Polycrystalline Compact
Diamond (PCD). The PCD sample consists of diamond grains in micron scale embedded in silicon-carbide as a binder with a volume of
25%. The obtained results of nanohardness of the PCD sample were (8–19) ± 2 GPa and Young's modulus was (86–168) ± 24 GPa.
Fig. 2.21 shows the nanoindentation curves for the samples investigated.
Lu et al. [28] performed micro-scratch testing on specimens made of WC-Co coated with a thin layer of diamond. The cobalt
content of the substrate was 6% and the thickness of the diamond layer was around 4 μm. The micro-scratch test was conducted with
a Rockwell diamond indenter with a tip radius of 50 μm. The micro-scratch test was carried out with various loads of 10, 15, 20, 25
and 30 N. The aim of the test was to investigate the delamination of diamond thin coatings on WC-Co materials. The delamination
was noted to be more worse when increasing the load. The width of the diamond coating after delamination increases with increasing
load. It was found that, the critical load for the tested diamond coatings was between 4 and 6 N. Fig. 2.22 illustrates the microscratch
test of the sample and the grooves obtained at various loads.
Abbas [1] Studied the wear of PDC cutters from various manufacturers. The samples were assessed using micro and nano-scratch
facilities. The tests were carried out on both layers of PDC samples from two different manufacturers.
The results showed that micro and nano scratch testing depends mainly on the geometry of the removed material and conse-
quently gives better representation of the volume of wear being quantified. Furthermore, nano-scratch test provides valuable in-
formation of the groove along the sliding distance showing the stages of failure after testing.
As the scratching the substrate and the diamond layers of the PDC samples, the material of the two layers is removed by the tip of
the diamond indenter (vickers and spheroconical) and hence, the type of the abrasive wear is in considered two body abrasion. The
experimental wear volume obtained from micro and nano-scratch testing was compared with the predicted abrasive wear calculated
from two body abrasive wear models available in the literature. It was concluded that Hutchings' wear model showed the best
agreement with the experimental data compared with other abrasive wear models.
Fig. 2.23 shows the produced groove after applying 50 N on the tungsten-carbide-cobalt (WC-Co) layer of the PDC cutter using
spheroconical indenter. The scratch width and sliding distance were 112.1 μm and 200 μm, respectively, while Fig. 2.23 illustrates a
scratch obtained after applying 10 N on the diamond layer of the same cutter. The scratch width and sliding distance were 29.9 μm
and 2300 μm, respectively. The SEM images showed that the debris resulted from the ploughing action due to the micro-scratching of
the PDC sample [1].
Abbas [1] applied the nano-scratch test on the surface of the substrate and the diamond layer of the PDC inserts. Fig. 2.24 shows a
SEM image of a groove obtained after nano-scratch testing on the substrate layer of the PDC sample K1908 using spheroconical
indenter.
A typical plot of the multi-pass nanoscratch test on the substrate layers of one of the PDC samples is shown in Fig. 2.25, where the
three scan tests are shown. It is important to mention that the results are corrected for the surface roughness and machine com-
pliance.
Semi-destructive testing using state of the art technologies opens the door for further study relevant to wear analysis and
quantification rather than using traditional techniques that based on the measurement of the mass loss, especially with PDC samples
that have cobalt or nickel as a binder. Micro and nano-scratch testing are the most approaches could this task.
2- Non-destructive testing:
In this method, a part of the cutter is examined in order to detect any voids and flaws, particularly at the interface of diamond to
carbide. Visual and microscopic testing as well as C-scan techniques are the most common methods for detecting the flaws. The latter
approach appeared to detect delamination and voids in the diamond table by using ultrasonic waves ranging from 0.2 to 800 MHz
[8]. Small flaws can be detected and the determination of their size and location is also possible. The test is achieved by placing the
cutter into a tank of water, which is scanned with a scanning acoustic microscope. An image of the inner diamond table and the
diamond to substrate interface is produced. This is useful when flaws or voids cannot be detected by visual or microscopic ex-
amination [6]. Fig. 2.21 illustrates examples of the flaws discovered by C-scan test. An Acoustical Emissions Toughness Test (AETT)
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can be quantitatively applied to PDC cutters to evaluate the impact strength of the bonds between diamond - diamond grain created
during the sintering process under High Pressure and High Temperature (HPHT). The test includes applying increasing loads to the
PDC inserts at constant rate. Meanwhile, acoustic emissions caused by micro-cracks are detected by special acoustic sensor and the
crack length determined. As such this technique gives a measure of fracture toughness. PDC cutters with greater fracture toughness
are more desirable [8].
2.3.1. Analytical studies

Boland and Lee [9] showed the use of analytical techniques for studying the Thermally Stable Diamond Composites (TSDC) that
are used widely in the manufacturing of Thermostable PDC bit cutters (explained in section 4.6). The analytical approaches include
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS), X-ray Diffraction (XRD) and Raman Spectroscopy (RS).
The latter one was used by Kromka et al.[25] to distinguish between poor and good quality TSDC samples. This comparative study
based the variation of Raman spectrums; where low wear resistance or poor quality TSDC samples, showed a broad peak between
1350 and 1550 cm−1, which is related to graphite or non-diamond material (Fig. 2.22). On the other hand, good quality TSDC inserts
displayed a sharp unique peak close to 1332 cm−1, which is characteristic of diamond, with no evidence of the graphite peak, as
shown in Fig. 2.23.
Boland and Lee [9] compared PDC cutters of various qualities using X-ray imaging. The study revealed the flaws within a
projected image produced by X-ray source. The 3D X-ray images displayed the intrusions of the substrate (blue colour) into the
diamond layer, forming cracks some of which extend to the outer surface (Fig. 2.28). The cracks were found to be generated during
the manufacturing process of the PDC inserts. PDC samples that contain such cracks showed poor wear resistance compared to good
wear resistance quality PDC cutters that showed fewer flaws (cracks).
Abbas [1] analyzed the EDX of PDC samples in and outside the grooves obtained from the micro-scratch tests. The EDX maps
showed that for the substrate layer, the carbon grains accumulate at the edges of the groove forming pile-up which is called
ploughing, however debris of the substrate was simultaneously found inside and outside the grooves being scratched causing cutting
action instead of ploughing. Therefore ploughing and cutting wear mechanism were believed as the main mechanisms to occur in the
tungsten-carbide layer of the PDC cutter. Fig. 2.30 demonstrates a coloured X-ray map of the main chemical elements forming the
substrate layer (WC) and (Co) as a binder for the PDC sample M1313, while Fig. 2.30 also shows the chemical elements spectra along
a micro-scratch on the substrate layer of the same sample of the PDC sample.
Fig. 2.31 illustrates the chemical element distribution in and outside the groove after the test for the diamond layer. Unlike the
substrate, the cobalt grains as shown in the green map were expelled from the groove and the main remnant inside the scratch is
diamond, whereas the red map illustrates the carbon (diamond) distribution in and outside the groove, where the intensity of carbon
increases inside the scratch area. [1].
The X-ray analysis of micro-scratch tests on the substrate layer of the PDC samples suggests the bonds between the tungsten-
carbide alloy and the binder (cobalt) are broken and possibly produces piling up of carbon on the scratch edges [1].
On the other hand, micro-scratching of the diamond layer will cause the dislodgment of the binder grains out of the groove
leaving the diamond grain in the scratch area. A possible explanation for this mechanism could be attributed to the micro wear of tip
of diamond indenter leaving some material on the scratched surface. Another reason could be due to the fact that the adhesion
between the diamond grains and cobalt is presumably stronger than WC and cobalt and extreme contact pressure during the scratch
could squeeze out the excessive cobalt while further compacting the diamonds grains. Displacement of cobalt could also further
occurs due to a significant difference in the thermal expansion coefficient of diamond and cobalt as compared to WC and cobalt
(2.7*10–06 ͦ C-1 for diamond compared to 5.5*10-06 ͦ C-1 for WC and 1.2*10-05 ͦ C-1 for cobalt) causing cobalt to expand quicker
than diamond as a result of heat generated during scratch and consequently dislodging cobalt [49]. Investigating these hypotheses
requires further work which could be of topic of future studies.
3. Theoretical background on wear quantification
Bit performance, defined as the service duration of bit tooth and the bearings, is affected by many factors according to the drilling
operation. The effect of rotary speed on drill rate and bit performance has been widely studied, with most of the research dedicated to
a better understanding of the parameters involved in bit performance. It has been illustrated that tooth wear increases with rotary
speed and thus, allowing increasing of bearing revolutions that increase the possibility of bearing's failure. Increasing the tooth wear
negatively affects the drilling efficiency and consequently decreases the penetration rate.
3.1. The aim of the theoretical background
The objective of the theoretical background is to explain and describe empirical multi models developed by several researchers.
The focus will be on the expressions, formulas and the applications. Most of the empirical models depend on the main properties of
the material that form the drill bit, such as hardness, Young's modulus, fracture toughness as well as the sliding distance, applied load
and the abrasion angle.
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3.2. Quantification methods of bit wear
3.2.1. Specific energy (SE) technique

Many authors aimed at finding the best optimum method to detect the wear of the drill bits to determine the life of the bit. Bit
performance is intrinsically affected by wear, thus the efficiency of the drill bit could be determined by using the specific energy
technique (SE). Several attempts have been made to study the principle of specific energy, also referred to mechanical specific energy
(MSE) and its effect on bit performance. Teale [51] defined the concept of specific energy in rotary drilling as the energy required
removing a unit volume of rock. Teale indicated that SE is inversely proportional to fragment size of rock excavated and as such
minimum value of SE corresponds to the unconfined compressive strength of the rock, which is a fundamental property. Teale [51]
presented the following Equation for the MSE determination:
W N ⋅T
MSE = + 120π
Abit Abit ∗ PR (3-1)
where W is the weight on bit (lb), Abit is the surface area of the bit (in2), N is the rotary speed (rpm), T is the torque (lb-ft) and PR is
the penetration rate (ft/h). The unit of MSE in the above equation is in lb/in2 or psi.
Waughman et al. [56,57] described a methodology for measuring specific energy (SE) for every section drilled with checking the
current formation type (lithology) with the benefit of gamma ray (GR) readings to indicate bit performance and wear. The main
disadvantage of this technique is that it requires measuring the bit torque which it is not always measured during drilling. Conse-
quently, many authors attempt to develop methods for computing SE without torque values was the main aim for many authors.
Rabia [39] and Rabia et al. [41] simplified the specific energy equation of Teale so that torque was no longer included. The torque
in Teale's equation was replaced by an approximation that torque is directly proportional to weight on bit and bit diameter. Rabia
[39], Rabia et al. [41] and Farrelly and Rabia [19] applied their modified specific energy formula on the actual field drilling as
follows:
W. N
SE =
d. PR (3-2)
where W is the weight on bit (lb), d is the diameter of the bit (in), N is the rotary speed (rpm), PR is the penetration rate (ft/h) and SE
is expressed in lb.in/in3 or psi.
Eq. (3-2) is used specially for roller-cone bits when drilling various rock formations as postulated by [40]. Farrelly and Rabia [19]
concluded that SE controls the bit performance, where the lowest values of SE refer to optimum bits to be used in drilling operation
and consequently reduced drilling costs. SE values provide a reasonable indication of bit performance during drilling. SE depends on
bit type, bit wear, cuttings removal, rock type and rock properties [19]. Specific energy gives an indication of lithology changes and
how to choose the optimum bit for drilling a certain formation. However, the SE technique is not totally reliable and should be used in
conjunction with other methods during bit selection to give a better understanding of bit performance. The following approaches
could be used in conjunction with SE:
1- Cost per foot assessment.

2- Bit wear assessment.
3- Bit records analysis.
4- Coding of International Association of drilling contractors (IADC).
5- Well logs and geophysical analysis.
6- Geological information.
Specific energy was used by Dupriest and Koederitz [16] as a trending tool for monitoring the bit status. Abbas et al. [2] used a
combination of specific energy and bit dullness as an indication for instantaneous monitoring of drill bit wear for selected wells in the
south of Iraq. In most of the studied wells, the specific energy gave an indication of the bit wear, however there was no correlation
between the qualitative bit tooth wear and the calculated values of various specific energies at many depth intervals for various wells
studied. This is attributed to some factors that were not taken into consideration within the specific energy equations of Teale and
Rabia. These factors include (1) the phenomena of the three body abrasive wear of the rock cuttings formed during drilling; causing
the free motion of these cuttings to roll and slide, (2) the type of the material forming the bit and (3) the hardness of the rock
formation to be drilled. Fig. 3.1 illustrates specific energy versus depth for well A1 in southern Iraq, while Fig. 3.2 shows the
qualitative bit dulling for the same well [2]. It is clear from Figs. 3.1 and 3.2 that there was a disagreement between the calculated
specific energies from different sources and the in situ tooth wear, notably from a depth of 660 to 1440 m. This disagreement was
mitigated by using another trending tool i.e. the dimensionless bit tooth flatness parameter.
Pessier and Fear [38] developed an energy balanced model for drilling under hydrostatic pressure rather than atmospheric
pressure as used in previous models in order to make improvements more applicable to the drilling field. The output results were
correlated with the field data and there was a close agreement. Two key indices were used for bit performance and bit monitoring:
mechanical specific energy and bit coefficient of sliding friction.
Both of these indices provide a good indication of bit performance, thus leading to optimum bit selection, diagnosis of failure of
the teeth and bearing of the bit, real time monitoring of the drilling process. The new introduced SE Equation depends on drilling
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parameters such as rate of penetration, weight on bit and torque. When torque is not measured while drilling, Pessier and Fear [38]
derived an empirical equation for the estimation of torque as follows:
d⋅W
T=μ
36 (3-3)
where T is the measured torque (lb.ft) and μ is the bit coefficient of sliding friction (dimensionless number). μ expresses torque as
function of weight on bit and it has been calculated from laboratory measurements.
It is observed that μ values varied from 0.21 for roller-cone bits up to 0.84 for PDC bits, depending on the formation being drilled
and the bit type.
Pessier and Fear [38] reformulated Eq. (3-1) as follows:
1 13.33∗μ∗N ⎞
MSE = W ⎛ ⎜+ ⎟
⎝ Abit d∗PR ⎠ (3-4)

A dramatic increase in SE values could be a warning indication of short bearing life and low penetration rate (PR). The same
interpretation happens when μ values (bit coefficient) increase sharply from the normal increasing trend line.
3.2.2. Wear and measurements while drilling (MWD)

Measurement While Drilling (MWD) tools were introduced in 1981 to measure some of the important drilling parameters, par-
ticularly related to bit wear such as weight on bit, rotary speed, penetration rate and bit torque. The bit information can be obtained
by computing parameters from the MWD. Warren [55], Burgess [11], Falconer and Normore [17] as well as Kuru and Wojtanowicz
[26] investigated a torque model to show the effects of tooth wear on drilling. The method is based on a Mechanical Efficiency Log
(MEL) which used data of penetration rate, rotation speed and MWD (measurement while drilling) values of torque and weight on bit.
The following dimensionless drilling equations were defined:
TD = a1 + a2 PRD (3-5)
where TD is the dimensionless torque, PRD is the dimensionless penetration rate, a1 and a2 are the drilling torque constants and they
varied with lithology and bit wear. Wear of the bit was affected mainly by a1 and according to that Eq. (3-5) can be written as follows
[11]:
TD = a1 ED + a2 PRD (3-6)
where ED is the bit drilling efficiency, which is a function of bit wear (dimensionless) and ranges from 0 to 1.
Rearranging Eq. (3-6) leads to Eq. (3-7):
ED = ( TD − a2 PRD )/ a1 (3-7)
T
TD =
W. d (3-8)
PR
PRD =
N. d (3-9)
where PRD is the dimensionless rate of penetration, PR is the rate of penetration (ft/h), N is the bit rotary speed (rpm) and d is the
diameter of the bit (in).
ED is assumed to be near 1 for a new bit and near zero for completed worn bit. FD is another dimensionless parameter representing
dimensionless flatness and can be determined from ED values:
FD = WD. (1 − ED ) (3-10)
where WD is the dimensionless weight on bit.
PRD
WD =
4. a1 ED (3-11)
The values of drilling torque constants a1 and a2 could be determined by plotting TD vs. square root of PRD with a1 being the
intercept of the TD axis and a2 being the slope of the time through the plotted points.
By using this model, it could become possible to anticipate the wear of milled tooth bits in real time from MWD measurements.
When wear occurs, ED decreases from one to zero, while FD values behave in a reverse way; FD is equal to zero for a sharp new bit and
when wear occurs FD values start to increase.
In this case during the course of drilling, the bit could be pulled and replaced when the bit efficiency (ED) falls sharply. With MWD
technique, a drill bit could be used to the full extent of its useful life, and so maximize the drilling operation and decrease drilling
costs.
3.2.3. Other quantification methods of wear

Abrasive wear is the dominant type of wear occurring in oil well drilling due to the drilling mechanism of the bit cutters against
rock formation. This type of wear causes serious damage to the drill bit, therefore, many tribologists and lubrication engineers have
576
assessed means of wear quantification to understand the materials resistance against it and how it can be minimised. Various wear
models have been postulated, however most are only relevant for specific cases.
Rabinowicz [43] developed an abrasive wear model to improve the quantification of two body abrasive wear (Fig. 3.3). This
model describes the process of an abrasive grain sliding over a distance (X) while the grain is pressed upon a given surface with a
certain applied force (F). Rabinowicz [42] derived the following equation of wear through two body abrasive for soft rock formation:
F . tan(θ). X
Vw = Hw < 0.8Ha
π Hw (3-12)
where Vw is the volume of material removed, F is applied load (N), X is the sliding distance (m), θ is the abrasion angle (degrees), Ha
is the hardness of the abrasive material (N/m2) and Hw is the hardness of the abraded material (N/m2).
However, application of Eq. (3-12) is limited to soft rock formation, Rabinowicz postulated the following equation for wear
determination against intermediate rock formations in the case of three body abrasion wear, where the hardness of the abrasive and
the abraded material are included.
2.5
F . tan(θ). X ⎛ Ha ⎞
Vw = ⎜ ⎟ 0.8Ha < Hw < 1.25Ha
5.3 Hw ⎝ Hw ⎠ (3-13)
Hutchings [23] also investigated abrasive wear involving the removal of material by plastic deformation. This model is based on
assuming that the abrasive particle is represented as a cone of semiangle α being dragged across the surface of the material under
indentation pressure. Hutchings [23] suggested this abrasive wear model is as follows:
2F X
Vw =
π . Hw . tan(α ) (3-14)
3
where Vw is the volume of wear (m ), F is the applied load (N), X is the sliding distance (m), Hw is the hardness of the abraded
̊
material (N/m2) and α is the half angle of the abrasive particle ().
Element six Ltd., one of the largest companies that manufacture PDC cutters, investigated an empirical formula of abrasive wear
of polycrystalline diamond cutters developed by Dubrovinskaia et al. [14], which is as follows:
WH = K C0.5. E −0.8. H1.43 (3-15)
where WH is wear resistant coefficient or the reciprocal of wear coefficient (dimensionless), KC is the fracture toughness (MPa·m0.5), E
is the Young's modulus (GPa) and H is the hardness (GPa). Eq. (3-15) suggests that increasing the value of hardness on fracture
toughness of the material makes it more resistant to wear. However, since this equation is empirically derived, no mechanistic
interpretation is offered to explain the proposed relationships with mechanical properties.
Table 3.1 shows mechanical properties and wear coefficients of various PDC products manufactured by different companies
alongside natural diamond (PDC cutters manufactured by Element six Ltd. are referred to ADNRs). However, it is not clear how the
mechanical properties were determined.
Budinski [10] demonstrated the implication of Archard wear model (1953) as shown in Eq. (3-16):
K. F. X
Vw =
H (3-16)
where K is a constant, or wear coefficient of the system which needs to be determined experimentally, F is the force pressing bodies
together, X is the sliding distance and H is the hardness of the softest solid of the two interacting solid surfaces. Archard's equation
suggests that wear increases with increased force (F) and sliding distance, while the wear decreases when the hardness of the material
increases.
Budinski [10] modified Archard equation by including the conical angle of the abrasive object:
K. F. X
Vw =
H. B (3-17)
where B = 2.cot θ/π and θ represents the conical angle of the abrasive object. K is a constant. Eq. (3-17) is used widely for erosive
wear and functionalised for wear prediction by simulation.
Ning and Ghadiri [33] developed a wear model for materials under shear loading. The surface damage in consideration here is the
elastic-plastic damage by the propagation of lateral cracks as particles are loaded and slid against each other by shearing. The
developed model (Eq. 3-18) shows that the fracture toughness has a stronger influence on the volume loss than the particle hardness.
Table 3.1
Mechanical properties and wear coefficients of PDC and natural diamond (after [14]).
Property Syndrill Syndite Sundax3 Natural Diamond ADNRs
1/2
Fracture toughness (MPa.m ) 9.8 8.8 6.9 3.40–5.0 11.1 ± 1.2
Knoop hardness (GPa) 50 50 50 57–104 105 ± 12
Young's modulus (GPa) 810 776 925 1140 1070 ± 54
Wear coefficient 3.97 3.89 2.99 2.14–5.49 10 ± 2
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Table 3.2
Bit wear quantification models.
Wear model Applied load Hardness of the Hardness of the Sliding Fracture Angle of Young's
abrasive material abraded material distance toughness abrasion modulus
Rabinowicz [43] √ √ √ √ × √ ×
Hutchings [23] √ × √ √ × √ ×
Ning & Ghadiri [33] √ × √ √ √ × ×
Archard [4] √ × √ √ × √ ×
Element six Ltd. × × √ × √ × √
(2006)
5 1 1 3
0.07F 4 ⎛ π 4H 4F 4 ⎞
Vw = 5 1 ⎜2X + ⎟
Kc π 4H 4 ⎝ 17.1K c ⎠ (3-18)
where Vw is the wear or the volume loss by surface damage assuming plastic deformation. F is the applied load, X is the sliding
distance, H is the hardness and Kc is the fracture toughness of the particle. Ning and Ghadiri's equation is applied to semi-brittle
materials like tungsten-carbide or polycrystalline diamond. However, the equation includes the fracture toughness which is difficult
to determine, especially for polycrystalline diamond. Determination of fracture toughness of the diamond layer experimentally using
conventional approaches is not reported in the literature. Although, Bellin et al.[8] explained a state of the art approach of AETT for
fracture toughness determination.
Overall, Table 3.2 illustrates the main models used for wear quantification and the parameters required for the determination of
wear.
Abbas [1] produced a linear correlation of the wear of the PDC cutters with the function: (F·L)/H for both diamond and substrate
layers that form the PDC cutters. The new obtained formula based on the wear equation of Archard [4] as follows:
F. L
Vw = 0.6061∗
H (3-19)
Therefore, the data obtained from nano and micro scratch tests can be fitted into a single curve based on this model with a
reasonable error, suggesting that wear of various samples in this study could be predicted by Eq. (3-19), afterdetermining the
mechanical properties i.e. hardness of the sample, applied force and sliding distance. However, it is worth noting that in real drilling
conditions the existence of lubricant and high temperature of the environment could affect the wear trends and this should be further
investigated in future studies (Abbas, [1]). Fig. 3.4 shows the plot of the experimental wear results obtained from micro and nano-
scratch tests as a function of: (F·L)/H for bother layers of the two PDC samples in form of the best linear.
4. Wear quantification using simulation methods
4.1.1. Finite element analysis (FEA)

FEA can be defined as a process of computer simulation or modelling interactions between contacting surfaces by setting a two or
three dimensional mesh on surfaces, taking into account all the relevant material properties [10]. FEA is useful for predicting the
distribution of the stresses within contacting solids. Fig. 3.5 shows a simple scheme of finite element modelling; indentation of a flat
surface by a sphere, where the nodes of the mesh in the contacting area are deformed depending on some parameters such as modulus
of elasticity and Poisson's ratio. The distribution of stress or deflection map is shown in Fig. 3.6. However, it should be noted that the
accuracy of this approach depends on the accuracy and resolution of the mesh, and the material properties input into the mode.
Furthermore, for modelling wear processes, plastic behaviour of the material should also be taken into account. Finite element
modelling is considered a novel technique for analysing cutter behaviour and cutter advancements [6]. FEA has been used in PDC bits
and on virtual cutters to simulate the sintering conditions and to anticipate stress distribution in the diamond table and the diamond
to substrate interface, in particular the residual tensile stress responsible for fragility in the diamond table, as shown in Fig. 3.6 [6].
The use of FEA allows a numerical matrix solution, mapping the physical properties such as stress and strain of the material at
different locations within the cutter which provides enough knowledge for minimising the wear of PDC cutters under various drilling
circumstances. The stress and strain can then be optimised using certain design features built into the cutter. The use of FEA has
allowed the advancement of new cutter technologies with improved performance. Further study is needed in this field to demonstrate
how FEA can be used to quantify wear in drill bits and particularly for determining the optimum suitable model for wear quanti-
fication.
Many FEA models have been used in the design and determination of thermal behaviour of PDC bits. Continuous refinement of
complex FEA models has led to the development of PDC bits, taking into account many factors that might affect the manufacturing of
the PDC bits [62]. However, several assumptions are typically applied, which limit the practical application of the simulation models
to predicting the performance of PDC bits [61].
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4.1.2. Discrete element method (DEM)

In the last decade the broad use of the discrete element method has progressed and been deployed widely for various applications.
DEM considers a number of particles that more independently, following Newton's laws of motion, with particle contacts following a
force-displacement law. Currently its application is mainly on various particle processing problems as a means of determining in-
formation that cannot be found experimentally. Favier [20] suggested two issues that can limit the implementation of DEM:
1- The determination of the model parameters to be included in the model and their values.
2- The scale limitations of the DEM model, such as the assumed element size and number of elements used.
However, the DEM model is chosen to give the optimum solution for the problem, the real challenge is to determine the best
model for the material with respect to the conditions within the process. DEM can be used to determine the loads exerted by granular
material on various structures. The DEM model can be effectively combined with finite element analysis (FEA) to provide load
information for structural analysis. DEM has been used to model the fracturing of rock and cemented materials [20]. The fracture
features of the rock are controlled by the strength of the bonds between particles, the particle properties and size distribution of the
particles [20]. Mendoza et al. [29] employed DEM to model rock cutting as represented by laboratory scratch tests, showing a good
agreement with experiments. Fig. 3.7 illustrates the cutter of a bit drilling through the bonded particle bed. The study shows that this
approach could be applied to simulate the drilling of rock by drill bits to evaluate the wear of the materials that form the bit. Akbari
et al. [3] used DEM to simulate the loads affecting PDC cutters and their interaction with the rock formation. Boundary conditions
were assumed in order to study the friction forces and the rate of penetration with the optimum weight on bit to gain maximum rock
cutting (shown in Fig. 3.8).
5. Novel methods for improving roller-cone and PDC drill bits
5.1. Enhanced inserts
Sneddon and Hall [49] introduced a new technique of Composite-Transition Layer (CTL) to ameliorate PDC bits, to rectify the
problematic drilling conditions against hard abrasive formations, such as granite and quartz. This new step of synthesizing PDC bits
provides better resistance to impact and wear damage. In this approach, the transition layers of the cutter consist of PDC and sintered
WC-Co particles bonded with each other. The process is achieved by mixing individual crystals of man-made diamond and cemented
carbide particles. This process is called High Pressure, High temperature (HPHT) technology for sintering PDC. Fig. 4.1 shows the
cross- section of an enhanced insert CTL technology [49]. The outer layer of the insert cutter is completely PDC, then the con-
centration of WC-Co increases towards the inner layers until the last inner layer, which consists of 100% WC-Co. According to the
tests of the new enhanced PDC bits, several advantages appeared by using this technique. Firstly, each composite layer enhances the
layer below it forming a great coat against abrasion. Secondly, manufacturing of Composite PDC-WC-Co layers leads to a rounded or
curved shape of the cutters, thus allowing more impact resistance as compared to the planed conventional cutters. The rounded
shapes provide improved toughness and reduced contact area.
5.2. Co-composition graded cemented carbides
Mori et al. [30] studied the development of materials that are highly resistant against wear and chipping to prolong the life of the
roller cone insert bits during drilling hard abrasive rocks. Their design is Co-composition graded cemented carbides. First of all the
efficiency of the inserts (cutters) could be ameliorated by manufacturing them in a conical shape. Test results showed that these
manufactured insert samples achieved more than eight times the wear resistance of traditional inserts. The semi round design of the
inserts achieved over twenty times the wear resistance of traditional ones. It is concluded that using cemented carbides with extra
coarse WC grains (above 5 μm) gives a lower hardness and greater toughness, whereas using medium coarse grains of WC
(2.1–3.4 μm) provides better hardness and lower toughness [46]. A mixture of fine and coarse grains of WC provides a compromise of
both hardness and toughness in the same material. Bellin et al. [7] showed that using sintered grains of fine diamond provide more
resistance against abrasion and give a lower wear rate, while coarse grains of this material have better toughness against impact and
higher wear rate. [59] confirmed that the PDC cutters that have small diamond grains are the most abrasive resistant compared with
coarse grain ones.
5.3. Honeycomb structured polycrystalline diamond and Double Cemented tungsten carbide (DC)
Chipping, breakage and wear are the primary signs of failure for the materials which form roller-cone bits. Chipping and fracture
resistance could be mitigated, but on sacrificing wear resistance and hardness of bit materials. This problem halts the advancement of
producing hard materials that can withstand both wear and chipping. Fang et al. [18] described two methods to tackle the en-
countered challenges:
(1) Honeycomb structured PDC: This approach appeared to address the previous difficulties by designing composite materials used in
the manufacturing of the roller-cone bits. An example for this approach is a honeycomb structured composite of polycrystalline
diamond (PDC) and WC-Co for the synthesizing diamond enhanced inserts for roller-cone bits. The PDC/WC-Co composite
579
exhibits improved wear resistance, because of the diamond, and simultaneously, ameliorates chipping and fracture resistance.
Hence, PDC forms the core of the unit cell, whereas WC-Co constitutes the web cell boundaries i.e. each single PDC cell is
completely isolated by WC-Co boundary. Fig. 4.2 illustrates the microstructure of honeycomb PDC/WC-Co composite.
The role of WC-Co boundary is to deflect and disrupt crack and fracture propagation process due to the high toughness of the WC-
Co as compared to the core of the cell (PDC). On the other hand, this design does not compromise the wear resistance, due to the
high resistance of diamond against wear.
(2) Double Cemented tungsten carbide (DC): consist of a very high amount of cobalt resulting in fracture toughness about 50%
greater than traditional cemented tungsten carbide, while maintaining wear resistance by using large, hard phase granules of
tungsten carbide. Fig. 4.3 demonstrates the microstructure of DC compared to conventional WC-Co materials.
The two designs of the tungsten carbide bits have been tested under both laboratory and field conditions (Fang et al., [18]). It was
found that no damage occurred to the inserts of honeycomb structural PDC of the bit. On the other hand, 57% of the standard PDC
inserts were chipped or spalled on the outer layer of diamond and the WC substrate was also worn. Fig. 4.4 shows the extent of
chipping in honeycomb structured PDC/WC-Co composite inserts as compared to the standard ones. A DC carbide bit was also used in
drilling hard dolomite formation at depths between 4700 and 5200 ft. The compressive strength of the dolomite formation ranges
from 5000 to 30,000 psi, which led to insert breakage of the standard bits in this interval. However, the new DC bits drilled the total
interval with no significant insert breakage. Fig. 4.5 compares DC carbide inserts with the conventional-WC-Co-inserts.
5.4. New steel PDC bits (NSPDC)
Conventional matrix bodied PDC bits, made from multi-materials, including WC, have been used to drill hard and harsh for-
mations, but the majority of the PDC bits were worn and many bit runs were required to complete the drilling particularly in gas wells
[5]. Due to poor rate of penetration and bit performance a new generation of PDC bits was needed to resolve the issue. Beaton et al.
[5] demonstrated new steel PDC bits with the ability to increase the rate of penetration and alleviate the drilling performance
challenges while drilling hard abrasive steep formations with difficult drilling circumstances, such as high bottom hole pressure and
high mud weight and viscosity. The new technology, New Steel Polycrystalline Diamond Compact bit (NSPDC) was based on its
superior hydraulic configuration such as: blade shape and height, bit face void volume (VV), available junk slot area (JSA), flexibility
of total flow area and nozzle orientation. All of these features lead to improving bit performance and cleaning efficiency, thus
increasing penetration rate and fulfilling the drilling operation successfully within a shorter time and with reduced cost. The new
design and shape of NSPDC bits is shown in Fig. 4.6, where using seven interchangeable nozzles are used to enhance hole cleaning
efficiency and ROP.
Fig. 4.7 demonstrates the condition of the NSPDC bit after a complete drilling interval without serious dullness or related pro-
blems. It is clear that the hardfacing protection layer around the cutters is not affected by wear, making NSPDC bits highly popular
due to their superior performance and resistance against damage and wear, especially in severe drilling conditions and directed wells.
5.5. Diamond enhanced inserts or cutters (DEI)
Cobb et al. [12] discussed the new technology of Diamond Enhanced Inserts (DEI), where the inserts are made from composite
polycrystalline diamond for roller-cone bits. This technique has been tested in two case studies in abrasive and directional sections
and the results were encouraging to alleviate bit wear during harsh drilling conditions. The diamond enhanced cutters have the
following applications:
1- First generation of Diamond Enhanced Inserts (DEI):

In this generation heel inserts were used to enhance the protection of the bit against the remaining rock ridges that might wear the
sealing area of the bit, as shown in Fig. 4.8. Furthermore, this new generation of drill bits improves the rate of penetration and
increases the durability of the bit using rounded bit inserts. This type of bits lead to three to four times more wear resistance
compared to Tungsten Carbide Inserts (TCI). The first generation of DEI improved the drilling operation, however it could not
tackle all the encountered problems, such as the short durability of the inserts.
2- Second generation of the Diamond Enhanced Inserts (DEI):

Combination of DEI and TCI specifications led to the second generation of Diamond Enhanced Insert heels. This new design
involves diamond inserts heels of curved shape. The new improvement reduced the overall wear and the inserts were more
aggressive with moderate durability.
3- Third generation of the Diamond Enhanced Inserts (DEI):
During drilling abrasive and directional sections, the bits are prone to abrasive wear and wear due to impact. With the use of
rounded heel inserts with high quality allows less frictional heat is produced at the contact area. However, abrasion wear is
decreased, impact durability reduced that can cause the inserts lose the diamond layer. Fig. 4.9 demonstrates the chipping
problem in DEI, where the crack on the diamond's surface layer leads to the loss of diamond coating and consequently reduces
effectiveness of inserts.
580
Table 4.1
Comparison between conventional PDC and TSPD cutters (after [36]).
Property Standard PDC Thermally stable PDC Synthetic monocrystalline Cemented tungsten-carbide (WC/15
inserts inserts diamond mass.%Co)
Density, g/cm3 3.90–4.10 3.42–3.46 3.51–3.52 13.80–14.10

Knoop microhardness, (GPa) 50–60 50–55 70–105 15–18
Compressive strength, (GPa) 7.5–8.5 4.0–5.5 7.0–9.0 12.0–14.0
Fracture toughness, MPa.m1/2 9.0–10.0 7.0–8.0 3.0–4.0 11.0–12.0
Young's modulus, (GPa) 810–850 920–960 1000–1150 70–100
Thermal stability, °C 700 1200 900 1400
Several attempts have been made to remedy the difficulties of the second generation DEI bits. Cobb et al. [12] developed a novel
DEI bit by using a tougher diamond layer that could overcome the problems of the previous generations of DEI bits, i.e. chipping and
diamond loss. Many bit runs were done with this new technique to test their performance and durability. Fig. 4.10 illustrates the
comparison among three generations of DEI used in three cones within the same bit.
Overall, this approach enabled the roller-cone bits with DEI in the heel row to be more durable against wear and impact as
compared to conventional WC inserts. In addition, the new technique improved the bit life and consequently reduced costs and time
for drilling abrasive and directional sections. Fig. 4.10 illustrates the comparison among three generations of DEI used in three cones
within the same bit.
5.6. Thermostable PDC bit cutters
The use of traditional PDC bits at elevated temperature conditions, particularly 700°C and higher, is not effective due to the
occurrence of thermal and abrasive wear. For this purpose, Thermally Stable Polycrystalline Diamond (TSPD) cutters have been
developed. The TSPD cutters consist of three layer composite materials. The upper layer consists of a diamond –silicon carbide (SiC)
structure with a strong chemical bond in the interface between diamond and silicon carbide grains, while the middle layer is the
sintered polycrystalline diamond and the lower one consists of a WC/Co-substrate.
The process of sintering is done under high pressure and high temperature (HPHT). Fig. 4.11 shows this process (Osipov et al.
[36]).
A comparison between conventional PDC and TSPD cutters is shown in Table 4.1, clearly showing better compressive strength and
fracture toughness for PDC inserts, as compared to TSPD ones. However, the latter is distinguished with a combination of high wear
resistance and high thermostability.
TSPD cutters have been tested for their stability during drilling high abrasive rocks under high temperature conditions. The results
showed increasing temperatures up to 800 °C for 3 min gives a total deterioration or wear of the diamond layer for conventional PDC
cutters, whereas heating up to 1100°C for 3 min leads to only a slight change in the diamond –SiC layer of the TSPD cutters. Two types
of TSPD bits were run to drill certain formations. Fig. 4.12 illustrates the two kinds of TSPD bits that were used throughout the test
run (which are commercially known as ISM-AP-214, 3C type and ISM-AP-165, 1C type), however the properties of these bits are not
disclosed.
The field test used various bits with conventional PDC and TSPD cutters to drill different formations. The results of the field test
showed that the TSPD bit (ISM-AP-214, 3C) achieved a better performance than the traditional PDC cutters, especially when drilling
moderate to hard formations, where a higher rate of penetration was achieved (0.98 m./h) and also the entire hole was drilled using
just one TSPD bit.
6. Discussion
Field rock samples should be used in abrasion tests in order to give a better representation of the encountered rocks while drilling
for oil and gas, since otherwise the testing rock samples may not show similar features to these of oil field. Impact laboratory tests for
PDC bits are fulfilled under low vibrations, typically < 1 Hz. In contrast, under drilling conditions, PDC bits exhibit axial vibrations
with frequencies ranging from 2 to 6 Hz. However, impact tests provide an indication of impact resistance. The impact test it is more
useful for assessing the quality of the diamond and diamond-WC substrate, rather than impact resistance measurements that replicate
the conditions experienced whilst drilling.
The progress in PDC cutter technology which achieved by various famous manufacture companies led to the advancement of the
testing instruments and techniques. Some of the current testing methods need significant time for completion. In addition, the current
impact test which is used by many companies require a significant number of cutters to be tested for each run to gain reliable results.
However, Varel Company has recently developed the new technique of Acoustical Emission Toughness Testing (AETT).
Specific energy as well as all other wear quantification methods should be compared simultaneously with conventional bit record
data and penetration rate logs to avoid any noise data or misleading interpretation produced from one or more of the wear quan-
tification methods.
If theoretical wear models are applied to quantify the wear of the drill bits, comprehensive comparison between the qualitative bit
wear and the theoretical predicted wear must be made in order to evaluate the reliability of the wear models.
581
FEA simulation techniques should be used to analyse the residual stresses in roller-cone cutters and PDC cutters as well to provide
a better understanding of the behaviour of the material during the sintering process and how to avoid the reported problems en-
countered within the synthesizing. Furthermore, DEM simulations could be very useful for determining the torque, especially when
torque data is missing, which is a crucial parameter for quantifying the bit dullness. The rapid progress of PDC will benefit from the
deployment of numerical simulations for bit design. However, further work is needed to simulate the wear of PDC and roller-cone
bits.
As described above, past research gave an understanding of the manufacturing methods of oil drill bits and how to improve the
overall features of them.
7. Conclusions
It is concluded that abrasion wear is the main dominant type of wear occurring in roller-cone bits, which is caused by the process
of ploughing when the abrasive rocks are soft like limestone, while the process of micro-ploughing and micro-cutting are the main
cause of abrasive wear of roller-cone bits when abraded against hard formations such as granite or hard sandstone.
The most common types of wear occurring in PDC bits during drilling are abrasion and impact. Abrasive wear is mainly caused by
thermal degradation when PDC bits are used to drill in harsh environments where conditions of elevated temperatures are en-
countered, causing the transformation of diamond to graphite (graphitisation).
Overall, the major cause of wear for drill bits is abrasion when the drill bit is mostly abraded against rock formations that are
mainly consists of silica (SiO2) such as sandstone. However, other destructive form of wear occurring in oil drill bits is fatigue or gross
fracturing. Fatigue occurs due to the repeated excessive drilling loads when impacting against rocks. The properties of the rock
influence the wear rate of the bit. Hence, studying the characteristics of rocks would be helpful to select the optimum drill parameters
and to choose the most appropriate type of drill bit for a certain rock formation and consequently this will prolong the bit life and
reduce the drilling costs. It is safe to say that rocks that have a coarse grain size and contain larger angular particles cause increased
wear rates. The wear rates of the materials forming the drill bit decrease as their hardness increase.
Using a combination of the state of the art instruments for bit cutters testing will give better knowledge of the durability of roller-
cone teeth and PDC cutters under various drilling conditions.
Field tests on TSPD bits showed that these bits are highly resistant against wear, especially in elevated temperatures. In com-
parison, TSPD bits exhibit better performance than conventional PDC bits, especially when drilling intermediate to hard formations
which represent the most difficult sections encountered during drilling.
Characterisation of the mechanical properties of the materials forming the bit is crucially important to quantify the wear of the
drill bits, as all wear models discussed here require the determination of these properties.
Furthermore, the quantitative results suggest that wear of each sample is proportional to the applied force and sliding distance
and inversely to the hardness of the material.
It was shown that all the data for both samples can be unified on a curve considering the three parameters mentioned above (load, sliding
distance and hardness) suggesting wear tendency of samples could be predicted based on the mechanical properties, notably hardness.
The findings of this study could be applied to various types of PDC cutters from different manufacturers to evaluate the intensity
of wear as a quality index rather than using the previous traditional abrasion tests
DEM models could be used for torque and wear quantification. The models of Archard, Rabinowicz, Ning and Ghadiri and
Hutchings, could be DEM models for wear prediction. Appropriate amendments should be made to include many other drilling
parameters, particularly those that are measured while drilling, such as weight on bit, rate of penetration, rotary speed, bit diameter,
and other bit design parameters, to produce a reliable model for quantifying wear in PDC and roller-cone bits.
Acknowledgments
I would like to express my gratitude to Mr. Stuart Micklethwaite for his kind help and notes regarding using the facilities of the
scanning electron macrograph in Lemas at the University of Leeds. A special word of thanks is given to Mr. Adrian Eagles for helping
me to use the instruments of surface profilemeter at the Institute of Medical and Biological Engineering at the University of Leeds.
Special word of thanks is given to Dr. Umair Zafar (Postdoc.) in Ghadiri group at the University of Leeds for his assistance in carrying
out nano-scratch tests. Furthermore, I must not forget the precious information given by Prof. Ben Beake (Micromaterials, UK) for his
help regarding the nano-scratch test. Last and not least, I have to mention my deep gratitude to my ex-supervisor Dr. Ali Hassanpour
for his valuable and indisipensible notes and advices throughout the work.
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584

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Engineering Failure Analysis 90 (2018) 554–584

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Engineering Failure Analysis

E-mail address: Raﬁd.Abbas@qu.edu.iq.

Nomenclature PR rate of penetration (ft/hr)

2. Literature review of the wear mechanism of drill bits

2.2. An overview of wear mechanism of oil and gas drill bits

2.2.1. Wear mechanisms of roller-cone bits

Fig. 2.6. Smooth wear on the diamond layer (after [53]).

Fig. 2.7. Microchipping damage at the edge (after [53]).

Fig. 2.8. Microchipping failure (after [60]).

Fig. 2.9. Delamination failure mode of PDC cutter (after [53]).

Fig. 2.10. Microfracturing failure (after [60]).

Fig. 2.11. An example of microfracturing failure (after [60]).

Fig. 2.12. Macrofracturing failure (after [60]).

Fig. 2.13. An example of macrofracturing failure (after [60]).

Fig. 2.14. Gross fracturing failure mode (after [60]).

Fig. 2.15. Gross fracturing failure example (after [60]).

Fig. 2.16. Ultimate fracturing failure mode (after [60]).

Fig. 2.17. Ultimate fracturing failure in PDC cutter (after [60]).

Fig. 2.19. Spalled cutters after impact testing (after [6]).

Fig. 2.20. Spallation chart of impacted cutters (after [6])

2.2.2. Wear mechanisms of PDC bits

2.3. Testing of PDC bits

Fig. 3.3. Rabinowicz model for abrasive wear (after [43]).

Fig. 3.4. Predicted wear versus the function (F·L)/H [1].

Fig. 3.5. Simple scheme of ﬁnite element modelling (after [10]).

Fig. 4.1. Cross section of enhanced inserts (after [49]).

A honeycomb PDC/WC – Standard PDC with 20% Co.

Cell boundary consists of

DC carbide with 27% Co

Standard PDC Honeycomb PDC/WC-Co

Fig. 4.9. Progression of damages on diamond enhanced inserts (after [12]).

Quartz 41% ~1100

2.3.1. Analytical studies

3. Theoretical background on wear quantiﬁcation

3.1. The aim of the theoretical background

3.2. Quantiﬁcation methods of bit wear

3.2.1. Speciﬁc energy (SE) technique

1- Cost per foot assessment.

⎝ Abit d∗PR ⎠ (3-4)

3.2.2. Wear and measurements while drilling (MWD)

3.2.3. Other quantiﬁcation methods of wear

4. Wear quantiﬁcation using simulation methods

4.1.1. Finite element analysis (FEA)

4.1.2. Discrete element method (DEM)

5. Novel methods for improving roller-cone and PDC drill bits

5.1. Enhanced inserts

5.2. Co-composition graded cemented carbides

5.4. New steel PDC bits (NSPDC)

5.5. Diamond enhanced inserts or cutters (DEI)

1- First generation of Diamond Enhanced Inserts (DEI):

2- Second generation of the Diamond Enhanced Inserts (DEI):

Density, g/cm3 3.90–4.10 3.42–3.46 3.51–3.52 13.80–14.10

5.6. Thermostable PDC bit cutters

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