English Language PDF

Umesh Adhikari
How to form the present simple tense in English.
Structure of present simple
positive negative question
I work in a bank. I don't (do not) work. Do I work in a bank?

You work in a bank. You don't (do not) work. Do you work in a bank?
We work in a bank. We don't (do not) work. Do we work in a bank?
They work in a bank. They don't (do not) work. Do they work in a bank?
He doesn't (does not) work.

He works in a bank. Does he work?
She doesn't (does not) work.
She works in a bank. Does she work?
It doesn't (does not) open at 9
The bank opens at 9 o'clock. Does it open at 9 o'clock?
o'clock.
Present simple - common mistakes
Common mistakes Correct version Why?
The gerund ing form is not

I working in London. I work in London.
used in the present simple.
The third
He work in London. He works in London. person he, she, itadds the
letter s.
He work in London? Does he work in London? Questions - third person:

does + subject + infinitive.
Work he in London? Does he work in London? All other persons:
do + subject + infinitive.
Negatives - third person:

subject + doesn't + infinitive.
He not work in London. He doesn't work in London.
All other persons:
subject + don't + infinitive.
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Present continuous tens
The present continuous tense is sometimes called the present progressive.

Here is how to form the present continuous tense in English.
Structure of present continuous
I'm (I am) not reading.
I'm (I am) reading a book. You're (you are) not Am I reading?
You're (you are) reading. reading. Are you reading?
We're (we are) reading. We're (we are) not reading. Are we reading?
They're (they are) reading. They're (they are) not Are they reading?
reading.
He's not / he isn't (he is not)
He's (he is) reading a book. reading.
Is he reading?
She's (she is) reading a She's not / she isn't (she is
Is she reading?
book. not) reading.
Is it raining?
It's (it is) raining. It's not / it isn't (it is not)
raining.
Present continuous - common mistakes

They are still waiting for to form a continuous tense
They still waiting for you.
you. we use be + -ing.
They are still waiting for Are they still waiting for
you? you?
In questions the subject
Do they still waiting for Are they still waiting for
(they) and the auxiliary verb
you? you?
(be) change places.
Where they are waiting for Where are they waiting for
you? you?
To form the negative we
put notafter the verb be (am
She doesn't watching TV. She isn't watching TV.
not, is not = isn't, are not =
aren't).
Some verbs are not used in
I'm believing you. I believe you.
continuous tenses - these are
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called stative verbs

(e.g.believe, come from,
cost, depend, exist, feel,
hate, like).
Past simple tense
Here is how to form the past simple tense in English.
Structure of past simple
I arrived yesterday. I didn't (did not) arrive. Did I arrive yesterday?

You arrived yesterday. You didn't (did not) arrive. Did you arrive?
He/she/it arrived. He/she/it didn't arrive. Did he/she/it arrive?
We arrived. We didn't arrive. Did we arrive?
They arrived. They didn't arrive. Did they arrive?
Past simple - common mistakes
In positive sentences, a
I was work in London. I worked in London. helping verb such as 'was' or
'did' is not used.
The helping verb 'did' is used

He worked in London? Did he work in London?
in past simple questions.
The helping verb 'did' is used

Worked he in London? Did he work in London?
in past simple questions.
The main verb is used in the

Did he wrote a letter? Did he write a letter? infinitive form in questions and
negatives.
The main verb is used in the

He didn't wrote a letter. He didn't write a letter. infinitive form in questions and
negatives.
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Past continuous tense
The past continuous tense is also sometimes called the past progressive.
Here is how to form the past continuous in English.
Structure of past continuous
I was reading a book. I wasn't (was not) reading. Was I reading?
He/she was talking. He/she wasn't talking. Was he/she talking?
It was raining. It wasn't raining. Was it raining?
You weren't (were not)
You were reading a book. Were you reading?
reading.
We were waiting. Were we waiting?
We weren't talking.
They were drinking. Were they drinking?
They weren't drinking.
Past continuous - common mistakes

I waiting for him almost two I was waiting for him
hours. almost two hours. To form the past continuous
What did he doing when What was he doing when we use was/were + ing.
you saw him? you saw him?
We were playing tennis We played tennis every We use the past simple for
every morning. morning. repeated actions in the past.
We use the past continuous
when we want to say what
They watched TV when I They were watching TV
was happening (what was in
came. when I came.
progress) at a particular time
in the past.
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Present perfect simple tense
Structure of present perfect simple

I haven't (have not) seen
I've (I have) seen him. Have I seen him?
him.
You've done it. Have you seen her?
You haven't done it.
We've been there. Have we finished it?
We haven't been there.
They've eaten it. Have they been there?
They haven't eaten it.
He's (he has) gone. He hasn't (has not) gone. Has he been here?
She's (she has) gone. She hasn't gone. Has she finished?
It's (it has) gone. It hasn't gone. Has it gone?
Present perfect simple - common mistakes

The past participle of the
Steven has wrote a new Steven has written a new verb must be used - wrote is
book. book. past simple, written is the
past participle.
The helping verb 'have' is
used in the present perfect-
Did you have seen him
Have you seen him before? it is inverted with the person
before?
(you have becomes have
you).
The helping verb 'have' is
I didn't have seen him used in the present perfect-
I haven't seen him before.
before. to make it negative we
simply add not(n't).
The present perfect is used
I have been here since last to show an action which
I am here since last week.
week. continues to the present (an
unfinished action).
Verbs such
I've been knowing him for 5
I've known him for 5 years. as know, want,like, etc.
years.
(stative verbs) suggest
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permanent states, not

actions, so are used in the
simple form, NOT the -ing
form.
Present perfect continuous tense
Structure of present perfect continuous

positive question negative
I have (I've) been living here I have not (haven't) been
Have you been living here
for two years. waiting for long.
for a long time?
He has (he's) been waiting He has not (hasn't) been
What has she been doing?
for you. working.
Present perfect continuous - common mistakes

The structure of the present
It has been rain heavily all It has been raining heavily
perfect continuous
day. all day.
is have/has been -ing.
Verbs such
as sit, wait, speak, etc. (non-
I have sat here for two I have been sitting here for stative verbs) suggest
hours. two hours. continuity and so are mostly
used in the continuous (-ing)
form.
When BOTH the simple and
Which?
continuous forms are
I have worked here for five years.
possible, native speakers
I have been working here for five years.
prefer to use the continuous.
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Past perfect simple tense
Structure of past perfect simple

I'd (I had) seen him. I hadn't (had not) seen him. Had I seen him?
You'd done it. You hadn't done it. Had you seen her?
We'd been there. We hadn't been there. Had we finished it?
They'd eaten it. They hadn't eaten it. Had they been there?
He'd (he had) gone. He hadn't (had not) gone. Had he been here?
She'd (she had) gone. She hadn't gone. Had she finished?
It'd (it had) gone. It hadn't gone. Had it gone?
Past perfect simple - common mistakes

The helping
I didn't been to London. I hadn't been to London. verb had (negative -hadn't)
is used in the past perfect.
The action (haircut) which
happened before another
When I saw him, I noticed When I saw him I noticed past action must be put into
that he had a haircut. that he had had a haircut. the past perfect to make the
time order clear to the
listener.
His original words were: ''I
have been to London.''
However, in reported speech
He told me has been to He told me he had been to
we move the tense back -
London. London.
the present perfect (have
been) becomes past perfect
(had been).
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Past perfect continuous tense
Structure of past perfect continuous

positive question negative
I had (I'd) been waiting. I hadn't (had not) been
You had (you'd) been Had I been waiting? waiting.
cooking. Had you been working? You hadn't been waiting
He/she/it had been eating. Had he/she/it been waiting? He/she/it hadn't been
We had (we'd) been waiting. Had we been eating? waiting.
They had (they'd) been Had they been talking? We hadn't been working.
playing. They hadn't been working.
Past perfect continuous - common mistakes

I had working hard, so
I felt very tired. I had been
The form of the past perfect
I had been worked working hard, so I felt
continuous is had + been + verb-ing.
hard, so I felt very very tired.
tired.
Some verbs are not normally used in
I had been hearing the the continuous form, e.g. stative verbs
I had heard the song
song many times such
many times before.
before. asknow, like, understand, believe,hear,
etc.
Structure of future simple

statement negative question
I will (I'll) be there
tomorrow. I won't (will not) be there. Will I be there tomorrow?
You will (you'll) be there. You won't be there. Will you be there?
He/she/it will (he'll) be He/she/it won't be there. Will he/she/it be there?
there. We won't be there. Will we be there?
We will (we'll) be there. They won't be there. Will they be there?
They will (they'll) be there.
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Future continuous tense
Structure of future continuous

I will (I'll) be waiting there
at five o'clock. I will not (won't) be waiting.
Will I be waiting there?
You will (I'll) be waiting. You will not be waiting.
Will you be waiting?
He/she/it will (he'll) be He/she/it will not be
Will he/she/it be waiting?
waiting. waiting.
Will we be waiting?
We will (we'll) be waiting. We will not be waiting.
Will they be waiting?
They will (they'll) be They will not be waiting.
waiting.
‘Going to’ future tense
Structure of 'going to' future

I'm (I am) going to take my I'm (I am) not going to take Are you going to take a
holidays in August. a holiday this year. holiday?
He's (he is) going to watch He isn't (is not) going to Is he going to watch TV this
TV this evening. watch TV this evening. evening?
'going to' for future - common mistakes

You know that I am going We use going to for a future
You know that I'll buy a
to buy a new car, don't action that has been decided
new car, don't you?
you? before the time of speaking.
We use going to if we see
Look! You will drop your Look! You are going to
(and are sure) that the action
books. dropyour books.
will happen.
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Present tenses used for the future
Present tenses used for the future

We use the present simple when we talk The train leaves at 12.00.
about timetables and programmes. What time does the film begin?
We use the present continuous when we
I'm going to the cinema this evening.
talk about things we have already arranged
I'm not working tomorrow.
to do.
Future perfect simple tense
Structure of future perfect (simple)

The film will not (won't)
The film will have started Will the film have started by
have started by the time we
by the time we get there. the time we get there?
get there.
Future perfect simple - common mistakes

The form of the future
The film will already has The film will
perfect is
started by the time we get already havestarted by the
will + have + past
home. time we get home.
participle.
Will have you finished it by Will you have finished it by See word order and the form
the time I come back? the time I come back? of the question above.
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Future perfect continuous tense
Structure of future perfect continuous

Next year I'll (I will) have I won't (will not) have been Will you have been working
been working in the working in the company for in the company for 10
company for 10 years. 10 years. years?
Future perfect continuous - common mistakes

The form of the future
I will have working in the I will have been working in
perfect continuous is
company for five years next the company for five years
will + have + been + past
month. next month.
participle.
I will not (won't) have
I will haven't been working The form of the negative is
been working in the
in the company for five will not + have + been +
company for five years next
years next month. past participle.
month.
Will have you been working Will you have been The form of the question is
in the company for five workingin the company for will + subject + have +
years next month? five years next month? been + past participle.
I'll have been working in I'll have worked in three
We use the simple form
three different positions at different positions at the
when we talk about an
the company by the end of company by the end of the
amount or number.
the year. year.
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Conditional sentences
Learners of English often have problems with conditional sentences. One problem is knowing which
conditional to use. A learner might then have difficulties with the construction of the conditional sentence.
Here are all four of the conditionals forms in English, with examples and explanations of when and how to
use them.
Structure and usage of the zero conditional
Structure and usage of the first conditional
Structure and usage of the second conditional
Structure and usage of the third conditional
Structure of zero conditional
Structure of the zero conditional

If/when you don't heat water
If/when you heat water to What happens if/when you
to 100 degrees, it doesn't
100 degrees, it boils. heat water to 100 degrees?
boil.
The zero conditional - common mistakes

We use the present simple in
both clauses of the zero
If/when people eat too If/when people eat too conditional. We are saying
much, they will get fat. much, they get fat. that the condition can be
true at any time (it is a fact).
Water boils when it will Water boils when If means the same
reach 100°C. it reaches100°C. as when in a zero
conditional sentence. We
can also use whenever.
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Structure of first conditional
Structure of the first conditional

If I see him, I'll (I will) tell If you don't hurry, you'll What will you do if there is
him. miss the bus. a problem?
The first conditional - common mistakes

If you will go to England,
If you go to England, you We use the present simple in
you will improve your
will improve your English. the if-clause.
English.
We use will in the main
If I find his address, I send If I find his address,
clause, to express certainty
him the letter. I will send him the letter.
in the future.
We use the present simple in
I'll tell him if I will see him. I'll tell him if I see him.
the if-clause.
Structure of second conditional
This is how we form second conditional sentences. The second table shows some mistakes which are
commonly made by learners when using second conditionals:
Structure of the second conditional
I wouldn't (would not)
If I had more time, I'd (I What would you say if you
refuse if you offered me
would) travel more. met Queen Elizabeth?
$10,000.
If I were you, I'd leave the I wouldn't (would not) leave Would you leave the job if
job. the job if I were you. you were me?
The second conditional - common mistakes

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We use the past simple
(here I had) in the if-clause.
If I would have enough
If I had enough money, I It shows we are talking
money, I would buy a new
would buy a new computer. about something which is
computer.
unlikely to happen or is an
imaginary situation.
If you didn't hurry so much,
If you didn't hurry so much, The main clause has would
youwould feel more
you will feel more relaxed. + infinitive.
relaxed.
Structure of third conditional
Structure of the third conditional

If I'd (I had) known you If she hadn't (had not) been Would you have done it if
were coming, I would have ill, she would have gone to you'd (you had) known
waited for you. the cinema. earlier?
The third conditional - common mistakes

In the if-clause we use the past
If I would have asked him, If I had asked him, he perfect (had + pastparticiple).
he would have helped me. would have helped me. We don't use 'would' or 'would
have' in the if-clause.
If you had spoken to my If you had spoken to my The main clause has
mother, she would tell you mother, she would have would + have + past
where I was. toldyou where I was. participle.
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Verb structures in English
Verb forms can be confusing in English. For instance, when do we use the infinitive form go and when
should we use the gerund / ‘ing’ form going?
This is a list of the different structures that are used when we have two verbs together in a sentence.
Click to see a more detailed explanation:
Verb + bare infinitive - I can go there.
Verb + -ing (gerund) - I love going there.
Verb + to + infinitive - I want to go there.
Verb + object + to + infinitive - He wants me to go there.
Verb and bare infinitive
When we have two verbs together in a sentence, the form of the second verb is influenced by the first
verb.
This table shows which verbs require the second verb to take the form of the bare infinitive (infinitive
without to).
Verb + bare infinitive
The bare infinitive (an infinitive without 'to') is My parents didn't let me watch TV at night.
used after certain verbs which are followed by Did you see anyone enter the building?
an object: let, make, see, hear, feel. He made me laugh.
The bare infinitive is used after modal He can't sing.

verbs:can, should, could, might, may, etc. It might be a good idea.
Verb and ing form (gerund)
verb.
This table shows which verbs require the second verb to take the gerund (ing) form.
Verb + -ing
The gerund form (-ing) is used after I enjoy going to the cinema.
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certain verbs: avoid, admit, can't stand, I don't like living in a city.
deny, dislike, enjoy, hate, like, love, mind,
practise.
The gerund form (-ing) is used after
I'm looking forward to seeing you.
a verb + preposition: insist on, look
He insisted on seeing the shop manager.
forward to, etc.
Verb and to infinitive
verb.
This table shows which verbs require the second verb to take the to + infinitive (sometimes called the full
infinitive) form.
Verb + to + infinitive
We use to + infinitive after certain

I have decided to lend him the car.
verbs: agree, arrange, decide, offer, seem,
He offered to help me.
plan, want, need, promise, hope, refuse, start,
He promised not to say anything.
stop.
We also use to + infinitive after certain verbs He asked me to go there with him.
and their object: ask, tell, want, need. She told me to help her.
Verb and object and full infinitive
Sometimes verbs are followed by an object and then by another verb in the to + infinitive form.
The to + infinitive is sometimes called the full infinitive. Examples are: to go, to be, to have, to speak.
Verb + object + to + infinitive
After some verbs we use the object, They helped their neighbour to repair his
followed byto + infinitive. car.
Verbs which can be followed by this form She asked me to give her some advice.
include: advise, ask, allow, expect,
encourage, force, help, invite, order, I told my assistant to send the letter.
persuade, teach, tell. I advised my friend not to sell his house.
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Modal verbs
Modal verbs, sometimes just called modals, are auxiliary verbs (helping verbs). They can express such
things as possibility, probability, permission and obligation. We use a modal verb before a second verb. A
modal verb can sometimes have more than one meaning.
Examples of modal verbs

Modal verbs and their negatives
Modal verbs in the past
Expressing obligation
Must / have to
Should – to express obligation
Should have – to express unfulfilled obligation in the past
Expressing probability and deduction

Present probability with modal verbs: must, can’t, may, might, could
Past probability with modal verbs: must have, can’t have, couldn’t have

positive negative
must (used for a personal opinion) can't

He must be crazy. He can't be crazy.
must / have to / has to (used for don't have to / needn't = something is not
obligation) necessary
You must be there at 8 o'clock. You don't have to be there at 8 o'clock.
You have to be there at 8 o'clock. You needn't be there at 8 o'clock.
can (used for ability) can't / cannot
I can play the guitar. I can't play the guitar.
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can't / cannot / mustn't

can (used for possibility)
You can't smoke here.
You can smoke here.
You mustn't smoke here.

present past
should be should have been
could be could have been
will be would be
may be may have been
might be might have been
would be would have been
Must and have to
This table shows us the past tense of ‘must’ and ‘have to’.
We also see how the past tense of ‘must’ depends on whether we are expressing obligation or our
personal opinion about probability.
Must / have to
present past
When expressing obligation, the past of

When expressing obligation: 'must' and 'have to' is always 'had to':
I must go. / I have to go. I had to go.
They had to be there at 2 o'clock.
When expressing a personal opinion about When expressing a personal opinion in the
probability (deduction), we use 'must' to past, we use 'must have', not 'had to':
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express that we feel something is true: He must have been here.

He must be here. It must have been great.
It must be great.
Should – weak obligation and advice

The modal verb should expresses weaker obligation than must and have to.
Should - to express obligation
Structure: should + infinitive

We use should for the present and the future. You should tell them the truth.
We use should to give advice to someone and You shouldn't smoke, it's bad for you.
to say that something is a good idea. I don't think you should do it.
Should is weaker than have to or must.
Should have – for unfulfilled past obligation
Should have - to express unfulfilled past obligation
Structure: should + have + past participle

You should have told them the truth.
We use should have for the past.
You shouldn't have gone there - it was a
We use should have to say that someone
mistake.
didn't do something, but it would have been
I don't think you should have done it.
better to do it.
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Modal verbs for present probability

Some modal verbs can be used to express probability in the present and past.
Must / can't - to express probability
Structure: modal + infinitive without to

must be, must have, can't go, etc.
We use must to express that we feel sure that They are really good, they must win.
something is true. They must be very rich. Look at the house.
She can't be ill. I've just seen her in the shop

We use can't to say we are sure that
and she looked fine.
something is impossible.
It can't be true. I don't believe it.
May / might / could - to express probability
Structure: modal + infinitive without to

may be, might do, could go, etc.
They may be arriving tomorrow.

We use may or could or might to say that it is
He might be away on holiday.
possible that something will happen or is
He could be away on holiday.
happening.
He might be offered the job.
The negative of may is may not.

The negative of might is might not.
He might not be offered the job.
They both mean that it is possible that I may not pass the exam.
something will not happen or is not happening. I might not go to the match tomorrow.
We DO NOT use could not to express
probability.
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Modal verbs for past probability
Must / can't / couldn't have - to express probability in the past

Structure: modal + have + past participle
must have been, can't have gone, etc.
We use must have to express that we feel They must have left early.
sure that something was true. He must have already gone.
He can't have escaped through this
We use can't have / couldn't have to say window. It is too small.
that we believe something was impossible. She can't have said that.
She couldn't have said that.
May / might / could have - to express probability in the past

Structure: modal + have + past participle
may have been, could have gone, might have lost, etc.
We use may / could / might have to say
that it was possible that something He may have missed the bus.
happened in the past (but we are not 100% The road might have been blocked.
sure).
He may not have left yet.
The negatives are may not have and might
The assistant might not have received his
not have.
message.
Prepositions
A preposition can show us place or express time. It can also follow a verb or adjective. Here are some
examples.
Prepositions of place (in, on, at)
Prepositions of time (in, on, at, during, for, over, or, by, until)
Prepositional verbs
Prepositions after adjectives (1) (afraid of, angry about, etc.)
Prepositions after adjectives (2) (aware of, depend on, etc.)
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Prepositions of place
Prepositions of place
in on at
inside an area or space: in contact with a surface: close to:
in the city, in the sky, in bed on the wall, on the table at the table, at the bus stop
forms of transport:
forms of transport:
on a bike, on a bus, on a
in a car, in a taxi, in a
train, on the metro, on a
helicopter
plane, on a ship
before nouns referring to a
place or position:
at the top, at the bottom, at
the front, at the back, at the
beginning, at the end
BUT in the middle
arrive in a city: arrive at a small place:
arrive in London, arrive in arrive at the station, at the
Amsterdam meeting
when expressing 'towards':
point at something, smile at
someone
Prepositions of time
Prepositions of time
in on at
years days of the week hours of the clock
in 1998, in 2012 on Thursday, on Friday at 7.30, at 8 o'clock
months dates religious festivals
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in January, in February on 28 June, on 25 October at Easter, at Christmas

parts of the day
on Monday morning points in time
in the morning, in the
on Thursday evening at the beginning, at end of
afternoon, in the
on Friday night the week
evening BUT at night)
seasons
in spring, in summer, in
autumn, in winter
Prepositions of time (during, for, over, by, until)

We use during to talk about something that
During my time in London I visited a lot of
happens within a particular period of time,
interesting places.
to say when something takes place. We
use during to talk about something that
He came to work during the morning
happens within the same time as another
meeting.
event.
We use over or in to talk about something We've had a lot of problems over / in the
that has been happening continuously up last few months.
until the present, or will happen We expect a rise in sales over / in the next
continuously in the future. few months.
We use for to say how long something I can only come for a few minutes.
continues. I was waiting for him for two hours.
We use by to say that something will
It has to be finished by two o'clock.
happen or be achieved before a particular
He should return by the end of March.
time.
We use until to say that something will We have to stay here until he comes.
continue up to a particular time. The concert went on until eleven o'clock.
I'm going on holiday in a week. (one week
We use in to express a time (in the future) from now)
from now. I'll be back in five minutes. (five minutes
from now)
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Prepositional verbs
Prepositional verbs are a verb + preposition. The preposition must be followed by an object.
Prepositional verbs
to accept
to agree to something I don't think he will ever agree to such a
plan.
to say you are sorry for something
to apologise for something I apologize for not replying to your letter
sooner.
to formally ask someone for something
such as a job or permission to do
to apply for something
something
Why didn't you apply for a bank loan?
to say you are annoyed about something
to complain to somebody about
If the service is not satisfactory, you should
something/somebody
complain to the customer service about it.
to be in accordance with something
to conform to something This signal system doesn't conform to the
official safety standards.
to mention all of the things that something
contains
to consist of something
The delegation consists of over 200 people,
including interpreters and journalists.
when someone, especially someone you
know well, writes to you or telephones you
to hear from somebody
When was the last time you heard from
him?
to say that something must happen or
to insist on something somebody must do something
I insist on speaking to the head of the office.
to talk about somebody or something in a
conversation, speech or a piece of writing
to refer to something
Everyone knows who she was referring to
in her speech.
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Prepositions after adjectives (1)
Here are some examples of adjectives and the correct prepositions which follow them.
Prepositions after adjectives
afraid of something She is afraid of driving on motorways.
afraid of doing something Are you afraid of the dark?
I am really angry about what she did.
angry about something
Why did she do it? I am really angry with
angry with somebody
her.
concerned about something I'm concerned about his exam results.
pleased with someone / something I was very pleased with his performance.
sorry about something Was she sorry about the mistake?
sorry for doing something I'm sorry for being late.
good at something He is good at languages.
Prepositions after adjectives (2)
Here are some more examples of adjectives and the correct prepositions which follow them.
Prepositions after adjectives
(un)aware of something Is he aware of the problem?
dependent on something She is still dependent on her parents.
famous for something He is famous for his sporting achievements.
impressed by/with something I was very impressed by his performance.

His interests are similar to those of his
similar to something
brother.
upset about something I was really upset about it.
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Adjectives and adverbs
When and how do we use an adverb? What is the difference between an adverb and an adjective?
Use of adjectives
Use of adverbs
Adverbs of frequency – word order
Comparative and superlative of adjectives
Irregular adverbs
Use of adjectives
Adjectives
Can you see the young woman at the end of
We use an adjective to describe the
the street?
qualities of people, things, places, etc.
He's a great singer.
We use an adjective (not an adverb) after It looks interesting.
'linking' verbs such as be, become, feel, It tastes delicious.
seem, smell, sound, look, etc. His ideas are interesting.
We can use an adjective to describe the
His answer made his boss angry.
object of a sentence.
Adjectives - common mistakes

She was too frighten to say She was too frightened to Many adjectives are
a word. say a word. participle forms of verbs.
The -ed form describes how
I am very interesting in this I am very interested in this someone feels (bored).
problem. problem. The -ing form describes the
person or thing that causes
It was a bored film. It was a boring film. the feeling (boring).
The camera We use adverbs to say how

The camera works perfect.
works perfectly. we do something.
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Adjectives normally go in
the following
She married a German, She married a tall, young,
sequence: size-age-shape-
young, tall lawyer. German lawyer.
colour-origin-material-
purpose.
Use of adverbs
Adverbs
We use an adverb to say how an action is He speaks English fluently.
performed. She answered correctly.
We use an adverb to add information about

How long have you lived here?
the time/place/manner.
We can use an adverb to add information to She was extremely happy to see him again.
an adjective. I really hate travelling by train.
Forms of adverbs
Most adverbs are formed by adding ly to an
adjective. nicely, quickly, beautifully, happily,
There are some exceptions - irregular economically
adverbs.
If the adjective ends in ic we add ally. basic - basically, dramatic - dramatically
Some adverbs are irregular: they have the
same form as the adjective. fast, daily, late, early, hard
The adjective good is irregular: its adverb good - well

form iswell.
Adverbs - common mistakes

We use an adverb
The camera
The camera works perfect. (perfectly - adverb, perfect -
works perfectly.
adjective) when we want to
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Umesh Adhikari
say how we do something.

Some adverbs have the
same form as the
Did you work hardly today? Did you work hard today?
adjective: hard - hard, fast -
fast, late - late.
Adjectives ending in -ly
have the same spelling in
the adverb form (friendly -
She behaved rather sillily. She behaved rather silly.
friendly, early - early, likely
- likely, lonely - lonely, ugly
- ugly, silly - silly).
After 'linking' verbs (look,
His answer sounded His answer
sound, taste, smell, feel,
correctly. sounded correct.
seem) we use adjectives not
He looks happily. He looks happy.
adverbs.
Adverbs of frequency – word order
Adverbs of frequency:
always, never, usually, sometimes, rarely, seldom, often, occasionally, ever. Here are the rules for the
position of these adverbs in a sentence.
Word order - adverbs of frequency
An adverb of frequency can go: He always goes to work by bus.
before the main verb They never go on holiday in winter.
John is often absent from lessons.
after the verb be
They were usually on time.
You should always turn the electricity off.
after modal verbs, should, can, could, etc.
My boss can never remember my name.
Sometimes and occasionally can go in the Sometimes she is late.
front, middle or end position in the She is sometimes late.
sentence. She is late sometimes.
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Comparative and superlative of adjectives
Comparative and superlative adjectives

Adjective Comparative Superlative
One-syllable old older the oldest

adjectives long longer the longest
Adjectives ending in
big bigger the biggest
one vowel and one
hot hotter the hottest
consonant
Adjectives ending in ugly uglier the ugliest
-y noisy noisier the noisiest
Adjectives with two expensive more expensive the most expensive
or more syllables beautiful more beautiful the most beautiful
Exceptions
good better the best
bad worse the worst
far further / farther the furthest / the farthest
Irregular adverbs
A guide to irregular adverbs in English.
Irregular adverbs
Most adverbs are formed by adding -ly to an adjective (e.g. slow - slowly). However, there are
some irregular adverbs.
adjective adverb
good well
fast fast
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hard hard
late late
early early
daily daily
Reported speech
Reported speech (also known as indirect speech) is when we report what somebody has said. Native
speakers use reported speech very often.
Structures of reported speech
Structures of reported questions

direct speech She said, "It is better to wait."
reported speech She said (that) it was better to wait.
direct speech He said, "I have never been to Spain."
reported speech He said (that) he had never been to Spain.
Reported speech - common mistakes

After tell we mention the
She said me that she wasn't She told me that she wasn't listener.
able to do it. able to do it. After say we don't mention
the listener.
She told me that she is She told me that she was If the reporting verb (in this
looking for her handbag. looking for her handbag. casetell) is in the past tense,
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He told me he hasn't seen He told me he hadn't the tenses used in the

her before. seen her before. original sentence normally
have to be changed:
I am becomes I was
I can becomes I could
She told me she will see him She told me she would see have been becomes had
later. him later. been
was becomes had been
will becomes would
can becomes could
When we report a command
I told him don't go there. I told him not to go there or warning, we use:
(not) + to + infinitive.

direct speech She asked, "Is it better to wait?"
reported question She asked if it was better to wait.
direct speech He asked, "Have you been to Spain?"
reported question He asked if I had been to Spain.
Reported questions - common mistakes

The word order in reported
She asked me why did I She asked me why I
questions is: SUBJECT +
work so much. workedso much.
VERB.
Yes/no questions (closed
She asked me if it was questions) begin
She asked me it was raining.
raining. with if when they become
reported questions.
She asked me if I have been She asked me if I had If the reporting verb (in this
to Bristol? been to Bristol. caseask) is in the past tense,
She asked me what I do for She asked me what I did for the tenses used in the
a living. a living. original sentence have to
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change:
I am becomes I was
I have been becomes I had
been.
Forming questions
Structures of questions
If there is an auxiliary (helping) verb (be, Is anybody in the office?
have, can, will, etc.) we put it before the Have you ever visited London?
subject (he, she, I, etc.) What time Will they be here?
If there is no auxiliary (helping) verb, we Do you know my older brother?
put do, does or did before the subject. Did he come in time?
How long have you been waiting for me?
We put wh- words (when, where, why, who,
Where is their office?
how,etc.) at the beginning of the question.
Which colour do you like best?
We don't use do, does or did when we
What happened to you?
use what, which, who or whose as the
Who told you about it?
subject.
Questions - common mistakes

What meant you by saying What did you mean by If there is no auxiliary
that? saying that? (helping) verb, we put do,
does or didbefore the
You like this film? Do you like this film? subject.
Where you are going this Where are you going this
afternoon? afternoon? We put an auxiliary verb
before the subject.
You did read the letter? Did you read the letter?
Who did give you the Who gave you the We don't use do,
information? information? does or didwhen we
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use what, which,

whoor whose as the subject.
Does he knows your sister? Does he know your sister? When there is an auxiliary
verb, the main verb is in the
Where will she studies? Where will she study? infinitive form.
Word order in indirect
Can you tell me where can I Can you tell me where I question is the same as in a
buy a good camera? canbuy a good camera? normal sentence: SUBJECT
+ VERB + ...
Structures of indirect questions
Structure of indirect questions

Word order in indirect question is the same as in a normal statement sentence:
SUBJECT + VERB + ...
Direct question Indirect question
Can you tell me where I can buy ink for the
Where can I buy ink for the printer?
printer?
Why do you want to work for our He asked me why I wanted to work for their
company? company.
I'm calling to ask you what the number of
What is the number of the last invoice?
the last invoice is.
How much did it cost? Do you know how much it cost?
How did it happen? Did she tell you how it happened?
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Various grammar
Here are some English grammar rules outside of our main categories.
Choose a grammar point and see examples and explanations.
All, the whole
Always, still
Already, yet
Although, even though
Although, though (see our article ‘Confusing words: although, though’)
As long as, provided, providing
Be used to, get used to, used to
Be (the verb ‘to be’)
Both (see Either, neither, both)
Convince v persuade (see article Confusing words: convince v persuade)
Despite, in spite of
During (see article Confusing words: during, for, while)
Either, neither, both
Ever, never: usage and position in sentence
Each, every
Few, a few, little, a little
Have / have got (see our article ‘Using have and have got’)
In case, in case of
Just: meaning of, position in sentence
Little, a little (see Few, a few, little, a little)
Make or do (see vocabulary section Make or do)
Neither (see Either, neither, both)
Past, present, future (see section List of all tenses)
Persuade (see article Confusing words: convince v persuade)
Phrasal verbs: structure of
Plural nouns
Prefer, would prefer, would rather
Rather / would rather (see Prefer, would prefer, would rather)
Relative clauses
Say or tell
Speak or talk
Some, any
Transitive / intransitive verbs (see our article ‘Understanding transitive and intransitive verbs’)
Used to (see Be used to, get used to, used to)
Question tags
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Unless
While (see article Confusing words: during, for, while)
Who, which, that: relative pronouns
Within
All, the whole
How to use the words all and the whole correctly.
All
We use all (of) to express the total number or all (of) my friends, all (of) the time
amount of something. All (of) my friends visited me in the hospital.
all (of) the money, all (of) the oil

We usually use all (of) with uncountable nouns.
She has spent all (of) the money on cosmetics.
We usually use all of with personal pronouns it, all of them, all of it
them, etc. Have you invited all of them?
All is usually placed after the personal we all, they all

pronounwe, they, them, us. We all enjoyed the concert.
The whole
We usually use the whole (of) with singular

countable nouns. the whole meeting, my whole life
The can be replaced by a possessive She lived in the same house her whole life.
pronounour, my, etc.
All or the whole
all day / the whole day

All or the whole can be used with time all morning / the whole morning
expressions. I was there all day.
I was there the whole day.
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Always, still
How to use always and still correctly.
Always, still
We use always to say that something happens I always go swimming on Monday evenings.
all the time (or very often). She has always wanted to visit Finland.
We use always to say that something happens He is always forgetting things.

all the time (in an annoying way). He's always complaining.
We use always to say that something exists for

I'll always remember the first time I met her.
ever.
Always is usually before the main verb; I always have...

after an auxiliary or modal verb; I can always...
after the verb 'to be'. He is always...
She is still living with her parents.

Still means 'continuing later than expected.'
Why are you still talking about it?
It expresses that someting started in the past
They still haven't mended my car (They haven't
and is the same now.
mended my car yet).
I still like her.

Still usually comes before the main verb.
Does he still live in Cambridge?
Still usually comes after the main verb if the
He is still here.
main verb is 'be'.
I can still run 100 metres in less than 12
seconds.
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Already, yet
Already, yet
We use already to say that something

happened sooner than expected. I am sorry, she has already gone home.
The film has already started.
Already usually comes before the main She's only four years old and she
verb or between an auxiliary or modal verb is alreadyreading.
and the main verb.
We use yet in questions or negative
statements to talk about things that we Have you finished the work yet?
expected to happen before now. I haven't seen the film yet.
Yet usually comes at the end of the A: Have you met him? B: Not yet.
sentence.
We usually use the present perfect with already and yet.
Although he is much older than the others,

We use although or even though to he won the race.
express a contrast between two things. Even though he's a millionaire, he lives in
a very small flat.
I enjoyed the holiday, even though it rained

Even though and although can be used in
a lot.
the the same way as despite the fact
I enjoyed the holiday, despite the fact
that and in spite of the fact that.
that it rained a lot.
See also: Despite, in spite of
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Confusing words: although, though
Even native speakers of English sometimes have problems with although and though, but the words are
really not that difficult to use.
Is there a difference in meaning?
No, there isn’t. Although and though have the same meaning and are interchangeable in most cases.
Here are some examples which show us how we can use either word:
Although/though the sun was shining, it was very cold.
He disagreed with us, although/though he didn’t tell us.
The house is lovely, although/though the garden is a bit small.
When are ‘although’ and ‘though’ NOT interchangeable?

There are three cases when you can use though but NOT although:
1. at the end of a sentence (used in spoken English):
He disagreed with us. He didn’t tell us, though.
The house is lovely. The garden is a bit small, though.
2. with ‘as’ as though (meaning ‘as if’):
It sounds as though/as if you had a nice holiday.
He acted as though/as if nothing was wrong.
3. with ‘even’ even though:
Even though Arsenal played well, they lost the game.
I took my coat, even though it wasn’t cold.
! Remember that although is a little more formal than though. We often use although in written English
and though in spoken English.
! Even though is a stronger form of although.
Got it? Now test yourself with this short exercise:
As long as, provided, providing
As long as
I'll lend you the book as long as you promise to

We use as long as to express a condition, to
give me it back next week.
say that something will happen only on
= If you don't promise to give the book back
condition that something else happens.
next week I will not lend you it.
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It expresses that one thing depends on another. You can go to the party as long as you come
back before midnight.
= You can go to the party but you must promise
to be back before midnight.
You can go to the

party, providing / providedyou come back
As long as has the same meaning before midnight.
asproviding or provided. We're going skiing next
week, providing /provided there's enough
snow.

How to use be used to, get used to and used to correctly.
Be used to
Be used to + noun phrase or verb-ing (in this

pattern used is an adjective and to is a I am used to getting up early in the morning. I
preposition). don't mind it.
If you are used to something, you have often He didn't complain about the noise nextdoor -
done or experienced it, so it's not strange, new hewas used to it.
or difficult for you.
The opposite of be used to is be not used to. I am not used to the new system yet.
Get used to
Get used to + noun phrase or verb-ing (in

this pattern used is an adjective and to is a
preposition). I got used to getting up early in the morning.
If you get used to something, you become After a while he didn't mind the noise in the
accustomed to it. office - he got used to it.
It is the process of becoming used to
something.
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Used to
Used to + verb refers to a habit or state in the past. It is used only in the past simple.
Past habits
We used to live there when I was a child.
If you used to do something, you did it for a
I used to walk to work everyday when I was
period of time in the past, but you don't do it
younger.
any more.
Past states
We also say used to to express a state that I used to like The Beatles but now I never
existed in the past but doesn't exist now. States listen to them.
are not actions. They are expressed using He used to have long hair but nowadays his
stative verbs such as have, believe, hair is very short.
know andlike.
The form of the question is

did(n't) + subject + use to be. Did(n't) he use to work in your office?
The form of the negative is We didn't use to be vegetarians.
subject + didn't + use to be.
Be, the verb ‘to be’
The verb 'to be'

I am
you are
he/she/it is
The verb 'to be' in the present tense
we are
they are
everybody is / nobody is
I was
you were
he/she/it was
The verb 'to be' in the past tense
we were
they were
everybody was / nobody was
The verb 'to be' in the future simple tense I will be I won't be (will not be)
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you will be you won't be

he/she/it will be he/she/it won't be
we will be we won't be
they will be they won't be

The table shows us the meaning of either, neither and both.
One of the tricky things about either, neither and both is knowing when they should followed by singular
or plural nouns and verbs. The rules, with examples, are given below:
We use either, neither and both when we are talking about two things.
> Would you like tea or coffee?

> Either. I don't mind.
either = one OR the other
This means: 'You can give me tea OR
coffee. I have no preference.'
> Would you like ham or beef in your
sandwich?
> Neither. I am a vegetarian. I don't eat
neither = not one and not the other
meat.
This means: 'I don't want ham and I don't
want beef.'
I take both milk and sugar in my coffee.
both = the first AND the second
This means: 'I take sugar. I also take milk.'
We use either with a singular noun. either car, either person
We use either of with a plural noun. either of the chairs, either of the people
We use either and either of with a singular Either day is fine for me.
verb. Either of the days is fine for me.
We use neither with a singular noun. neither house, neither man
We use neither of with a plural noun. neither of the houses, neither of the men
We use neither and neither of with a Neither day was suitable.

singular verb. Neither of the days was suitable.
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We use both with a plural noun. both houses, both men

both of the houses, both of the men
We use both with a plural verb. Both (of) my brothers are tall.
We need of before the both of us, both of you, either of them,
pronouns us, you, them. neither of them, etc.
Between of and a noun we need to both of those houses, neither
use these, those or my, your, John's, etc., of my brothers, both of John's sisters,
or the. either of the cinemas
Confusing words: convince and persuade
The verbs ‘convince’ and ‘persuade’ are very similar in meaning, but there is a difference in how we use
them.
After ‘persuade’ we use the structure
to + infinitive:
I persuaded them to stay for another drink.
He persuaded her not to take the job.
After ‘convince’ we cannot use a verb infinitive. We say ‘convince someone that‘:
She convinced the police that she was telling the truth.
He convinced her that it was the right thing to do.
Both of the above sentence would also be correct without ‘that’:
• She convinced the police she was telling the truth.
• He convinced her it was the right thing to do.
Meaning
There can also be a subtle difference in meaning between ‘convince’ and ‘persuade’, as seen here:
Although Robert finally persuaded his girlfriend to move abroad with him, she was not fully convinced that
it was the best thing to do.
In the example, Robert’s girlfriend was persuaded (to move) but was not convinced (that it was the
correct decision). So, we can see that when we persuade someone to do something it doesn’t always
mean that we have also convinced that person.
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One more thing is worth mentioning about ‘persuade’ and ‘convince’. If we are absolutely sure about
something, we say I’m convinced:
- Are you sure he’s innocent?
- Yes, I’m convinced. NOT I’m persuaded
Some related words:

convincing (adjective) It was a convincing argument.
persuasive (adjective) Marta can be very persuasive when she wants.
persuasion (noun) He used his powers of persuasion.
If you have any questions about ‘convince’ and ‘persuade’, please leave a comment below. I always read
comments and try to reply to them all.
Have you understood everything? Here’s a quick exercise for you to test yourself:
Despite, in spite of
How to use despite and in spite of correctly.

Prepositions - despite, in spite of
Despite the heavy traffic, we
We use despite in one half
despite something (noun) got there on time.
of a sentence to express a
despite + verb + -ing Despite being much older
contrast with the other half
despite the fact that than the others, he won the
of the sentence.
race.
In spite of / despite the
heavy traffic, we got there
on time.
In spite of / despite the
traffic being heavy, we got
in spite of something (noun)
In spite of has the same there on time.
in spite of + verb + -ing
meaning as despite. In spite of / despite the fact
in spite of the fact that
that he is much older than
the others, he won the race.
In spite of / despite being
much older than the others,
he won the race.
We prefer despite to in spite of in written English.
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Confusing words: during, for and while
Confusing ‘during’, ‘for’ and ‘while’ is a common learner error. Let’s look at the difference and then do a
quick exercise.
During
‘During’ is a preposition. We use it to talk about a period of time.
‘During’ is followed by a noun:
during the night
during our holiday
during their marriage
during the concert.
Some examples:
I woke up three times during the night.
There was a massive thunderstorm during the concert. NOT while the concert
I met a lot of interesting people during my time in New York.
For
We use ‘for’ to say how long something happened, has been happening, or will be happening. ‘For’ is a
preposition.
He was at work for ten hours yesterday. NOT during yesterday
I’ve lived here for five years. NOT during five years
I’m going to watch TV for an hour. NOT during an hour
While
‘While’ is a conjunction and means ‘when’ or ‘at the same time’. We use ‘while’ with a verb structure:
while I was living
while I lived
while living NOT during living
while I was.
Some examples:
The doorbell rang while we were having dinner. NOT during we were having dinner
You shouldn’t use a mobile phone while driving a car. NOT during driving a car
I met a lot of interesting people while I was in New York.
Here’s a quick exercise for you to test yourself on during, for and while.
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Umesh Adhikari


sandwich?
meat.
want beef.'

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Umesh Adhikari
Ever, never: usage, position in sentence
How to us ever and never correctly.
Ever, never
Ever means 'at any time'. It is the opposite

Do you ever drink coffee?
ofnever.
Have you ever been to Paris?
We generally use ever in questions.
He has never visited me.

Never means 'at no time'. I'll never forget how kind he has been.
I never drink tea with milk.
I never eat meat.

Never and ever go immediately before the Do you ever go cycling?
main verb. I am never late.
Exceptions are the verb be and modal verbs. I can never remember his name.
You should never drink and drive.
I have never been to America.

When speaking about our past, we use the
Have you ever been to America?
present perfect with ever and never. It was the best wine I have ever tasted.
Each, every
How to use each and every correctly.

Each, every
Each is used if we mean an individual
We have send the invitation
member of a group.
to each / everybusiness partner.
Every can also be used.
Each of is used if we mean all members of
a group and we include a possessive We have sent the invitation to each of
pronoun likeour, my, their, etc. ourbusiness partners.
Every cannot be used in this case.
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Every is used with a plural noun when it is

I visit my mother every two months
followed by a number.
/ every other day / every second week.
Each cannot be used in this case.
Few / a few, little / a little are determiners. Here is how to use them correctly:
Few / a few
A few is more than few.
We use a few and few + a plural countable few people, few books, few letters
noun. a few people, a few books, a few letters
Fortunately, our financial situation is
A few is a positive idea.
good: we still have a few good customers.
I'm very sad: I have few good friends.
I'm very sad: I have very few good
Few is a negative idea.
friends.
It means 'almost none'.
(Both these sentences mean I don't have
We can also use very few.
many good friends - I would like to have
more.)
A few and few have irregular comparative few - fewer - the fewest
and superlative forms. a few - more - the most
Little / a little
A little is more than little.
We use a little and little + an uncountable a little time, a little food, a little money
noun. little time, little food, little money
Compare:
A little is a positive idea. I can help you: I speak a little English.
It means 'some but not much'. I'm sorry I can't help you: I speak very
littleEnglish.
I can't help you. I speak little English.
Little is a negative idea.
I can't help you. I speak very little English.
It means 'nearly none, nearly nothing'.
(Both these sentences mean My English is
We can also use very little.
bad. I would like to speak English better.)
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A little and little have irregular little - less - the least

comparative and superlative forms. a little - more - the most
Which should we use: ‘have’ or ‘have got’?

Learners often want to know if have and have got are the same. They want to know which of the
two they should use and if they are interchangeable. ”Can we use either one of them anytime we
want?” they ask.
The answer is that have and have got are the same in meaning when we want to express
possession of something. And, yes, they are very often interchangeable.
There are, however, some important differences in grammar and usage between have and have
got.
This is what you should remember if you decide to use have got:
1. Have got is for spoken English
• Use have got in spoken English.

• Use have in your formal written English (business correspondence, etc.).
If you are writing an informal message to your friends—on Facebook, for example—have got is
fine.
Of course, there is nothing wrong with using have instead of have got in spoken English.
2. Use contractions with have got
If you want to use have got when you speak, remember that you must use contractions (short
forms) where possible. Don’t use the full forms. You should say:
• I’ve got
• I haven’t got
• he’s got
• he hasn’t got, etc.
Some more examples of contractions with have got are:
we’ve got; we haven’t got; everyone’s got; it’s got; it hasn’t got; they’ve got, etc.
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3. Different question and negative forms
With have got we don’t use helping verbs such as do and don’t to form questions and negatives.
For questions, we simply invert the subject and have or has, as follows:
positive: you’ve got

question: have you got?
positive: he’s got
question: has he got?
For negatives, we put not (n’t) after have or has, as follows:
positive: you’ve got

negative: you haven’t got
positive: she’s got
negative: she hasn’t got.
4. Have got only in the present
Have got only exists in the present simple tense. We don’t use it in the continuous, past or future
tenses.
present simple tense: He’s got a problem.

past simple tense: He had a problem.
future simple: He’ll have a problem.
5. When we cannot use have got
When have is a substitute word for another verb, we cannot interchange it with have got. For
example, instead of take a shower we sometimes say have a shower, or instead of eat lunch we
say have lunch. In these cases, we cannot use have got:
I have lunch at 12 o’clock.
I’ve got lunch at 12 o’clock.
I have a shower every day.
I’ve got a shower every day.
If we say ”I’ve got a shower”, we are saying that we own a shower or that there is a shower in
the house
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In case, in case of
How to use in case and in case of correctly.
In case
We use in case to express that we are doing Take an umbrella in case it rains!
something in preparation for something I'll buy two bottles of wine in case one is
which might happen. not enough.
In case of
We use in case of to say what we should do In case of fire, leave the building as quickly
if or when something happens. as possible.
Just
How to use just correctly in a sentence.
Just
Just means a short time ago.
I have just seen him in the corridor.
Just goes immediately before the main I had just finished it when he came.
verb.

Few / a few, little / a little are determiners. Here is how to use them correctly:
Few / a few
A few is more than few.
We use a few and few + a plural countable few people, few books, few letters
noun. a few people, a few books, a few letters
Fortunately, our financial situation is
A few is a positive idea.
good: we still have a few good customers.
Few is a negative idea. I'm very sad: I have few good friends.
It means 'almost none'. I'm very sad: I have very few good friends.
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We can also use very few. (Both these sentences mean I don't have
many good friends - I would like to have
more.)
A few and few have irregular comparative few - fewer - the fewest
and superlative forms. a few - more - the most
Little / a little
A little is more than little.
We use a little and little + an uncountable a little time, a little food, a little money
noun. little time, little food, little money
Compare:
A little is a positive idea. I can help you: I speak a little English.
It means 'some but not much'. I'm sorry I can't help you: I speak very
little English.
I can't help you. I speak little English.
Little is a negative idea.
I can't help you. I speak very little English.
It means 'nearly none, nearly nothing'.
(Both these sentences mean My English is
We can also use very little.
bad. I would like to speak English better.)
A little and little have irregular little - less - the least
comparative and superlative forms. a little - more - the most
Intermediate vocabulary: make or do
Learners of English often confuse do and make.
There is a rough guideline, but no hard and fast rule:

We often use do when we speak about everyday jobs and tasks: do the shopping; do the
dishes; do my homework.
We use make when we want to speak about creating something, in particular something which
didn’t previously exist: make a cake; make a suggestion; make an offer.
Here are some examples of when to use make or do:
When to use make
make an offer He made me a good offer.
make a mistake I made a mistake. I’m sorry.
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make an appointment He made an appointment at the dentist.
make an arrangement We’re just making our holiday arrangements.
make a promise You made me a promise. Keep it!
make a complaint They made a complaint about the noise.
make a decision Managers have to make hard decisions sometimes.
make a telephone call I spent all day making telephone calls.
make a suggestion I made a few suggestions but nobody agreed.
make an excuse Stop making excuses for your laziness.
make a profit Our company made a big profit last year.
make a loss Our company will make a loss this year.
make a mess He dropped the milk and made a mess on the floor.
make a choice I think he made the right choice.
make progress The students are all making good progress.
make money A profit means you have made money.
When to use do
do something What are you doing? I’m not doing anything.
do an exam I did five exams and passed all of them.
do homework School kids have to do a lot of homework.
do housework I always do the housework at weekends.
do the shopping I hate doing the shopping in supermarkets.
do an exercise I did all the exercises in my grammar book.
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do a job He does his job well.
do the dishes Who’s going to do the dishes after dinner?
do the ironing Her husband never does the ironing.
do someone a favour Do me a favour – lend me some cash.
do good Smoking won’t do you any good.
do harm Violence on TV does a lot of harm, I think.
do your best Always try to do your best.
do damage I crashed and did a lot of damage to my car.
do business Our company does a lot of business in Asia.


sandwich?
meat.
want beef.'
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Confusing words: convince and persuade
The verbs ‘convince’ and ‘persuade’ are very similar in meaning, but there is a difference in how we use
them.
After ‘persuade’ we use the structure
to + infinitive:
I persuaded them to stay for another drink.
He persuaded her not to take the job.
After ‘convince’ we cannot use a verb infinitive. We say ‘convince someone that‘:
She convinced the police that she was telling the truth.
He convinced her that it was the right thing to do.
Both of the above sentence would also be correct without ‘that’:
• She convinced the police she was telling the truth.
• He convinced her it was the right thing to do.
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Meaning
There can also be a subtle difference in meaning between ‘convince’ and ‘persuade’, as seen here:
Although Robert finally persuaded his girlfriend to move abroad with him, she was not fully convinced that
it was the best thing to do.
In the example, Robert’s girlfriend was persuaded (to move) but was not convinced (that it was the
correct decision). So, we can see that when we persuade someone to do something it doesn’t always
mean that we have also convinced that person.
One more thing is worth mentioning about ‘persuade’ and ‘convince’. If we are absolutely sure about
something, we say I’m convinced:
- Are you sure he’s innocent?
- Yes, I’m convinced. NOT I’m persuaded
Some related words:

convincing (adjective) It was a convincing argument.
persuasive (adjective) Marta can be very persuasive when she wants.
persuasion (noun) He used his powers of persuasion.
If you have any questions about ‘convince’ and ‘persuade’, please leave a comment below. I always read
comments and try to reply to them all.
Phrasal verbs – structure
A phrasal verb can be:
a verb + a preposition
a verb + an adverb
a verb + an adverb + a preposition.
Structure of phrasal verbs
a verb + adverb throw away
A phrasal verb can be made up

a verb + preposition look into
of:
a verb + adverb + preposition put up with
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Intransitive phrasal verbs

Some phrasal verbs are transitive (they need to have an object), and some are intransitive (they never
have an object). Some can be both.
look up [intransitive]: After a horrible year last year things are starting to look up. (things are getting
better now)
Transitive phrasal verbs
look up [intransitive]: I always look up the words I don’t know. (I look in the dictionary for the words)
In the example above, the words is the object of the transitive phrasal verb.
If a phrasal verb is transitive it is important to know if you can put the object between the phrasal verb and
its participle (up, in, off, etc.), or whether the object must go after the phrasal verb.
With put down, the position of the object is flexible:
Put down the pen.
Put the pen down.
With look after, the position of the object is not flexible:
We looked after the children yesterday.
We looked the children after yesterday.
Vocabulary: phrasal verbs with ‘put’
Here is a list of phrasal verbs that contain put.
A word in brackets, such as something, means that we can use the phrasal with or without that word.
put something down
To stop carrying something.
Put down those heavy bags you’re carrying and take a seat.
He stopped writing and put his pen down for a moment.
put money down
To pay a deposit on something.
I put a £1000 deposit down on the car.
put money in
To make a financial contribution.
The cost of driving to Paris and back is €400 so we all need to put in €100.
put something off
To postpone or delay something.
She put off telling him the bad news until he was feeling happier.
A procrastinator is someone who is always putting things off.
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put off, be put off (something)

To get the feeling that something is bad and consequently to change your mind or plan.
I’d love to try oysters but the look of them always puts me off.
It puts me off my writing if lots of people are talking around me.
I was put off going to India when I read about how many tourists get ill when they go there.
be put off (by something)
To be distracted or disturbed by something else happening.
The footballer missed the penalty because he was put off by the crowd whistling.
put on weight
To get fatter.
He put on a lot of weight after he lost his job and had to stay at home.
No dessert for me, thanks – I don’t want to put on weight.
put something on
To turn on something electrical.
I’ll put the television on – there’s a good film on tonight.
Put the light on! I can’t see.
put someone out
To be upset by something someone has done.
I don’t want to put you out but could you work late tonight?
put up the price of something
To increase the price of something.
The government have put up VAT again.
We’ve put up our prices in order to cover our costs.
put something up
To fix something to a wall.
Why don’t you put a sign up to tell people where the party is.
I’m going to put some more pictures up on the wall.
put someone up
To accommodate someone; to let someone sleep at your house for a night or a few nights.
Can you put me up for a few days while I’m in London?
put up with something
To live with something you don’t like; to tolerate something you don’t like.
I have to put up with my husband’s snoring.
How do you put up with all the noise that your neighbours make?
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Vocabulary: phrasal verbs with ‘come’
A list of phrasal verbs that contain come.
A word in brackets, such as somewhere or something, means that we can use the phrasal with or without
that word.
come across something
To find or discover something.
She had never come across vinegar on chips before she visited Britain.
come across as
To seem or appear to be like something.
He comes across as a nice man but he can be very unpleasant sometimes.
I’ve met the new boss and he comes across as being very nice.
come back (somewhere)
To return.
I came back home because I had forgotten my mobile phone.
Steve, come back immediately!
come down with something
To become ill.
I think I’m coming down with a cold. I feel terrible.
come out with something
To introduce something.
Apple have come out with a new design for the iPad.
come out in something
To have a medical condition on the skin, such as a rash or spots.
I’ve come out in these horrible red spots.
come round
To visit someone.
What time will you come round tonight?
come through (something)
To survive something.
She came through the operation very well.
come up
Something unexpected happens.
Something has come up. Sorry, I have to go home straight away.
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come up with
To have an idea or a suggestion.
During the meeting we came up with some good suggestions.
John came up with a good idea.
Plural nouns
Some nouns have no singular form and only exist in a plural form. They are called plural nouns.
Some plural nouns are things which have two parts joined together:
trousers (trousers consist of two legs)
scissors (scissors have two parts)
sunglasses (two main parts, one for each eye).
Some plural nouns refer to a group (of people or things):
police
cattle
Plural nouns always take a plural form of the verb:
The police were there.
His trousers are black.
My sunglasses are broken.
We can use some with many plural nouns. In some cases we can say a pair of:
some jeans
a pair of jeans
some glasses
a pair of glasses
some goods
For more examples, see 10 plural nouns in our vocab section.
Vocabulary: 10 plural nouns
Plural nouns are always plural and have no singular form. They are often things which have two parts
joined together, e.g. trousers (trousers have two legs), or scissors.
Some plural nouns refer to a group (of people or things). An example of this is police.
Plural nouns always take a plural form of the verb. So we say:
My trousers are wet.
The goods were stolen.
The police are here.
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Sometimes we use some with a plural noun. In other cases we can say a pair of. Here are 10 plural
nouns and examples of how we use them.
10 plural nouns
scissors
some scissors,
a pair of scissors
trousers
some trousers,
a pair of trousers
clothes
some clothes
headphones
some headphones,
a pair of headphones
refreshments
some refreshments
sunglasses
some sunglasses,
a pair of sunglasses
goods
some goods
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outskirts
on the outskirts
headquarters
at headquarters
at our headquarters
surroundings
in nice surroundings
Would rather, would prefer, prefer
How to use would rather, would prefer and prefer correctly.

Would rather vs. would prefer - to express a specific preference
When we speak about a specific We went to the theatre yesterday. Today

preference,would rather and would Iwould rather go to the cinema.
prefer have the same meaning and are We went to the theatre yesterday. Today
interchangeable. Iwould prefer to go to the cinema.
Would rather can be abbreviated to 'd

rather. I'd rather go to the cinema today.
Would prefer can be abbreviated to 'd I'd prefer to go to the cinema today.
prefer.
Would rather is followed by the bare
infinitive. I'd rather have water.
Would prefer is followed by to + I'd prefer to have fruit juice.
infinitive.
We use a past tense after would I'd rather you took a taxi than walk - it's
rather when we speak about the actions of not safe on the streets at night.
other people, even though that action may The film is quite violent. I'd rather our
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be in the present or future. children didn't watch it.

When making a comparison we say: It's such nice weather - I'd rather sit in the
would rather ... than garden than watch TV.
After would prefer we say: It's such nice weather - I'd prefer to sit in
would prefer ... rather than the garden rather than watch TV.
Prefer vs. would rather - to express a general preference
When we talk about general

I prefer walking to cycling.
preferences we can use prefer or would
I'd rather walk than cycle.
rather. The meaning is the same.
After prefer we use the verb in its ing I prefer using a keyboard to writing with a
form. pen.I'd rather use a keyboard than write
After would rather we use than. with a pen.
Would rather, would prefer, prefer
How to use would rather, would prefer and prefer correctly.

Would rather vs. would prefer - to express a specific preference
When we speak about a specific We went to the theatre yesterday. Today

preference,would rather and would Iwould rather go to the cinema.
prefer have the same meaning and are We went to the theatre yesterday. Today
interchangeable. Iwould prefer to go to the cinema.
Would rather can be abbreviated to 'd

rather. I'd rather go to the cinema today.
Would prefer can be abbreviated to 'd I'd prefer to go to the cinema today.
prefer.
Would rather is followed by the bare
infinitive. I'd rather have water.
Would prefer is followed by to + I'd prefer to have fruit juice.
infinitive.
We use a past tense after would I'd rather you took a taxi than walk - it's
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rather when we speak about the actions of not safe on the streets at night.
other people, even though that action may The film is quite violent. I'd rather our
be in the present or future. children didn't watch it.
When making a comparison we say: It's such nice weather - I'd rather sit in the
would rather ... than garden than watch TV.
After would prefer we say: It's such nice weather - I'd prefer to sit in
would prefer ... rather than the garden rather than watch TV.
Prefer vs. would rather - to express a general preference
When we talk about general

I prefer walking to cycling.
preferences we can use prefer or would
I'd rather walk than cycle.
rather. The meaning is the same.
After prefer we use the verb in its ing I prefer using a keyboard to writing with a
form. pen.I'd rather use a keyboard than write
After would rather we use than. with a pen.
Relative clauses
What is a relative clause? Here are some examples and explanations.

Relative clauses
Defining relative clauses are used to I have a friend who speaks five languages.
specify which person or thing we mean. We I have a friend that speaks five languages.
don't put commas between the noun and a She showed me the coat which she had
defining relative clause. bought.
Who or that are used for people. She showed me the coat that she had
Which or that are used for things. bought.
Non-defining relative clauses (extra Mr Fry, who speaks five languages, works
information clauses) are used to add extra as a translator for the EU.
information to a sentence. We put commas Mr Fry, that speaks five languages, works
between the noun and a non-defining as a translator for the EU.
relative clause. The area, which has very high
Who is used for people. unemployment, is in the north of the
Which is used for things. country.
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That cannot be used. The area, that has very high unemployment,
is in the north of the country.
Relative clauses - common mistakes

The man who was sitting The man who was sitting
After a relative clause we do
next to me he had a brown next to me had a brown
not repeat the subject.
jacket. jacket.
The book what I bought was The book that I bought was Only that or which are
by Edward Lear. by Edward Lear. possible, not what.
He lent me the book, which He lent me the book, which A relative clause can have
I found it very useful. I found very useful. only one direct object.
That cannot be used in a
The winner, that was 25, The winner, who was 25,
non-defining (extra
will receive $12,000. will receive $12,000.
information) clause.
Our office is about two Our office, which I share
kilometres from the centre, with my two colleagues, is A relative clause follows the
which I share with my two about two kilometres from noun to which it refers.
colleagues. the city centre.
Say, tell – differences
When do we use say and when do we use tell?

Say / tell
I told David about it.

We use: tell + somebody. Did you tell him?
He told me that he was ill.
We use: say + clause.

She said she was ill.
We use: tell + clause when we include a pronoun such
She told him she was ill.
as me, him, us, etc.
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We use: say + something + to somebody. She said hello to me.

She told me (that) she was
We use tell when we are giving facts or information:
ill.
tell somebody (that) ...
She told me the news.
tell somebody something
Tell me about your new
tell somebody about something
job.
tell somebody who/when/where.
He told me where it was.
For a further explanation of say/tell differences, see Stuart’s article Confusing words: say, tell
Confusing words: say, tell
Say and tell both mean ’communicate with someone verbally’. However, we use the two words
differently.
This is the basic difference. We:

say something
BUT
tell somebody something.
Some examples:
Michael said he was tired. OR Michael told me he was tired.
Sara says she’s moving house. OR Sara tells me she’s moving house.
Pete said: “I’m hungry, Elizabeth.” OR Pete told Elizabeth he was hungry.
We can also use this construction:
say [something] to somebody.
She said something to me but I didn’t understand.
She didn’t say anything to us.
My neighbour always says good morning to me.
When only ‘tell’ is possible
We use tell when we are giving facts or information:
tell somebody (that) …
tell somebody something
tell somebody about something
tell somebody who/when/where, etc.
There are also some set phrases with tell:
tell (someone) a lie
tell (someone) the truth
tell (someone) a story.
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When only ‘say’ is possible

We use say when we our words do NOT contain facts or information, for example when we greet
people:
She said hello to me.
She said: ‘Hello’.
She said me hello.
She told me hello.
She said no.
She said: ‘No!’
She told no.
She said me: ‘No!’.
Now try this quick quiz to see how well you can use say and tell.
Instructions: fill in each gap using ‘say’ or ‘tell’ in its correct form (be careful!):
Speak, talk – differences
When do we use speak and when do we use talk? Here are the differences:
Speak / talk
Speak and talk have similar meanings. How old were you when you learned
They suggest that a person is using his/her to speak?
voice, or that two or more people are
having a discussion. What are you talking about?
We can say: Who were you speaking to on the phone?

speak to somebody
talk to somebody Who were you talking to on the phone?
speak to somebody about something I was speaking to Mark about cricket.

talk to somebody about something
But we say:
speak a language NOT talk a language He speaks four languages.
talk nonsense NOT speak nonsense. Stop talking nonsense!
Speak to and talk to are used more often I was talking to Tom yesterday.
thanspeak with and talk with.
Speak is a little more formal than talk, and
Hello, could I speak to Mr Jones, please?
is often used in polite requests.
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Confusing words: speak, talk
Speak and talk have similar meanings but there are differences in the way we use the two words.
Both speak and talk suggest that a person is using his voice, or that two or more people are having a
conversation.
We can say:
speak to someone
talk to someone
speak to someone about something
talk to someone about something.
‘Speak’ is more formal
One of the main differences is formality. Speak is a little more formal than talk, and is often used in polite
requests:
Hello, could I speak to David Thompson, please? [formal, on the telephone]
I’ve got a complaint: I want to speak to the manager. [formal, in a restaurant or shop]
Talk is a little less formal and is more common in spoken English:
What on earth are you talking about? = ‘you are not making sense’ or ‘you are not being truthful’.
I was talking to* Tom yesterday. He told me about his new house and job.
* Speak to and talk to are used more often than speak with / talk with (mainly in British English).
When to use ‘speak’
In some idioms and fixed phrases:
Speak your mind = to say exactly what you are thinking, in a direct way
Come on, speak your mind! We want to know what you’re thinking.
Speak up [often on the telephone]
Could you speak up please? I can’t hear you.
Generally speaking [when generalising]
Generally speaking, better quality food costs more.
Speak about / Speak in public [to address an audience, to make a speech]
The professor spoke about fair trade in Asia.
If a noun comes after speak, it must be a language. We say:
speak English NOT talk English
speak Russian NOT talk Russian
speak a language NOT talk a language.
When to use ‘talk’
In the following examples, only talk is correct:
talk sense
I always listen to him: he talks a lot of sense.
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talk nonsense
I agreed with you earlier but now you’re talking nonsense.
talk rubbish
He’s talking rubbish again. Don’t listen to him!
talk business [to discuss business things, to negotiate]
Let’s have some lunch, then we’ll talk business.
! Be careful – sometimes ‘talk’ and ‘speak’ are both wrong:
tell the truth NOT speak the truth or talk the truth
tell a lie NOT speak a lie or talk a lie
tell a story NOT speak a story or talk a story.
Some, any – differences
When do we use some and when do we use any?

Some
Some:
a pen, some pens (countable noun)
is used with the plural form of countable
some water (uncountable noun)
nouns, and with uncountable nouns
There is some milk in the
fridge. (uncountable noun)
is used in positive sentences
I did some exercises. (countable noun,
plural)
Would you like some tea? (uncountable
is used in offers
noun)
Could you give me some advice,
is used in requests
please?(uncountable noun)
Any
Any:
a pen, any pens (countable noun)
is used with the plural form of countable
any water (uncountable noun)
nouns, and with uncountable nouns
Is there any milk in the
is used in questions
fridge? (uncountable noun)
is used in negative sentences There isn't any milk in the
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fridge. (uncountable noun)
Understanding transitive and intransitive

verbs
Knowing if a verb is transitive or intransitive helps learners to use words correctly and improves
grammar accuracy.
To understand what transitive and intransitive verbs are, it’s first necessary to understand what
theobject of a verb is.
Take a look at these two simple sentences:
My mother likes tea.
My mother laughed.
‘My mother’ is the subject in both sentences. In the first sentence ‘like’ is the verb and ‘tea’ is
its object. ’Like’ is therefore a transitive verb, because it has an object.
In the second sentence, the verb is ‘laugh’. It has no object and is therefore an intransitive verb.
So, we have the following definitions:
a transitive verb has an object
an intransitive verb has NO object.
Now let’s go into more detail about transitive and intransitive verbs by looking at what can follow them in a
sentence.
Transitive verbs (and what follows them)
When a verb is transitive it always has an object. It is incorrect to use a transitive verb without an
object.
The object of a transitive verb can be:
1. a noun
Tom sold his house. / They drank the beer.
2. a pronoun
He sold it. / He kissed her.
3. a clause
He asked his friend to help him. / She knows where I live.
Transitive verbs with two objects
Some transitive verbs, such as ‘lend’, ‘give’ and ‘buy’ can have two objects. In the sentence I brought her
some wine both ‘her’ and ‘wine’ are objects. Here are three more examples:
He gave his wife a birthday present. (‘his wife’ and ‘a birthday present’ are the objects)
They cooked their friends a meal. (‘their friends’ and ‘a meal’ are the objects)
Mary poured him a glass of wine. (‘him’ and ‘a glass of wine’ are the objects)
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Umesh Adhikari
Intransitive verbs (and what sometimes follows them)

When a verb is intransitive it never has an object:
The man appeared. (intransitive verb = ‘appear’)
I sneezed. (intransitive verb = ‘sneeze’)
My uncle has just died. (intransitive verb = ‘die’)
The bomb exploded. (intransitive verb = ‘explode’)
The match ended. (intransitive verb = ‘end’)
However, some intransitive verbs can be followed by a prepositional phrase or an adverb:
I fell off my bike. (prepositional phrase = ‘off my bike’)
The ball rolled away. (adverb = ‘away’)
A few intransitive verbs must be followed by something (either a prepositional phrase or an adverb).
These are often verbs for describing movement:
The plane spiralled out of control. NOT only The plane spiralled.
The rocket hurtled towards the planet. NOT only The rocket hurtled.
(Although intransitive, the verbs ‘spiral’ and ‘hurtle’ need to be followed by something. They cannot be
used alone.)
! Tip: You can recognise an intransitive verb because it never has a passive form. For example, you’ll see
that ‘bite’, which is transitive, can be used passively. The intransitive verb ‘fall’, however, cannot:
The dog bit me. (active)
I was bitten by the dog. (passive)
I fell off my bike. (active)
The bike was fallen off. (passive)
There are some transitive verbs which cannot be made passive —the verb ‘afford’, for example—but
there are very few of these.
Both transitive AND intransitive
Some verbs have multiple meanings and can be transitive or intransitive, depending on the sense in
which they are used. Here are some examples:
grow (transitive, ‘to produce food’) He grows his own fruit and vegetables.
grow (intransitive, ‘to increase in size’) My son is growing.
ring (transitive, ’to call someone’) I rang her yesterday.
ring (intransitive, ’to sound, make a noise’) The doorbell rang.
Transitive/intransitive verbs in dictionaries
A good Advanced Learner’s English-English dictionary will always tell you whether a verb is transitive or
intransitive. You may see them marked [T] and [I].
By understanding what transitive and intransitive verbs are, you will get the most out of your dictionary
and become a more versatile speaker with a wider range of vocabulary and improved grammar accuracy.
If you found this article helpful, please share it with friends and colleagues. Thanks!
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Umesh Adhikari

How to use be used to, get used to and used to correctly.
Be used to
Be used to + noun phrase or verb-ing (in this

pattern used is an adjective and to is a I am used to getting up early in the morning. I
preposition). don't mind it.
If you are used to something, you have often He didn't complain about the noise nextdoor -
done or experienced it, so it's not strange, new hewas used to it.
or difficult for you.
The opposite of be used to is be not used to. I am not used to the new system yet.
Get used to
Get used to + noun phrase or verb-ing (in

this pattern used is an adjective and to is a
preposition). I got used to getting up early in the morning.
If you get used to something, you become After a while he didn't mind the noise in the
accustomed to it. office - he got used to it.
It is the process of becoming used to
something.
Used to
Used to + verb refers to a habit or state in the past. It is used only in the past simple.
Past habits
We used to live there when I was a child.
If you used to do something, you did it for a
I used to walk to work everyday when I was
period of time in the past, but you don't do it
younger.
any more.
Past states I used to like The Beatles but now I never

We also say used to to express a state that listen to them.
existed in the past but doesn't exist now. States He used to have long hair but nowadays his
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Umesh Adhikari
are not actions. They are expressed using hair is very short.
stative verbs such as have, believe,
know andlike.
The form of the question is

did(n't) + subject + use to be. Did(n't) he use to work in your office?
The form of the negative is We didn't use to be vegetarians.
subject + didn't + use to be.
Question tags
What are question tags and when do we use them?
Question tags
A question tag is a question which we add to the end of a statement because we would like to
get an answer to our statement.
The tag contains a subject pronoun (it, he, she, etc.) which matches the subject of the
statement, and a verb which matches the verb in the statement.
If the statement is positive the tag is negative.

If the statement is negative the tag is positive.
It's very nice weather today, isn't it? It isn't very nice weather today, is it?
She can speak English, can't she? She can't speak English, can she?
You have finished the work, haven't you? You haven't finished the work, have you?
He will arrive on time, won't he? He won't arrive on time, will he?
You know him, don't you? You don't know him, do you?
He earned a lot of money, didn't he? He didn't earned much money, did he?
There is enough time, isn't there? There isn't enough time, is there?
Less common question tags
Imperative Be careful, won't you?
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Don't be late, will you?
After let's Let's go to the cinema, shall we?
Unless
How to use unless correctly.
Unless
You won't get the job unless you prepare
for the interview.
We use unless to say that something will = You will only get the job if you prepare
happen if something else doesn't stop it well for the interview.
happening.
Don't do it unless he tells you to.
= Only do it if he tells you to do it.
Confusing words: during, for and while

Confusing ‘during’, ‘for’ and ‘while’ is a common learner error. Let’s look at the difference and
then do a quick exercise.
During
‘During’ is a preposition. We use it to talk about a period of time.
‘During’ is followed by a noun:
during the night
during our holiday
during their marriage
during the concert.
Some examples:
I woke up three times during the night.
There was a massive thunderstorm during the concert. NOT while the concert
I met a lot of interesting people during my time in New York.
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Umesh Adhikari
For
We use ‘for’ to say how long something happened, has been happening, or will be happening. ‘For’ is a
preposition.
He was at work for ten hours yesterday. NOT during yesterday
I’ve lived here for five years. NOT during five years
I’m going to watch TV for an hour. NOT during an hour
While
‘While’ is a conjunction and means ‘when’ or ‘at the same time’. We use ‘while’ with a verb structure:
while I was living
while I lived
while living NOT during living
while I was.
Some examples:
The doorbell rang while we were having dinner. NOT during we were having dinner
You shouldn’t use a mobile phone while driving a car. NOT during driving a car
I met a lot of interesting people while I was in New York.
Who, which, that: relative pronouns

How to use who, which, that – relative pronouns.
Relative pronouns
This is the man who helped us.
We use who or that when we talk about (more formal)
people.Who is more formal than that. This is the man that helped us.
(less formal)
It's the watch which my husband bought me

We use which or that when we talk about
for my birthday. (more formal)
things (not people). Which is more formal
It's the watch that my husband bought me
thanthat.
for my birthday. (less formal)
It's the watch my husband bought me for my

Which and that can be left out of a birthday.
defining relative clause when the pronoun In this sentence, 'the watch' is the object of
refers to theobject of the sentence. the verb 'bought' and so we don't need to
use that orwhich.
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Umesh Adhikari
It was the man that sold me the car.

Which and that cannot be left out of a
In this sentence, 'the man' is the subject of
defining relative clause when the pronoun
the verb 'sold' and so we need to use a
refers to thesubject of the sentence.
relative pronoun that or who.
John, whose brother was also a musician,
We use whose to show possession.
plays over 100 concerts every year.
My wife and I went back to the
We use where when we talk about place.
bar where we first met.
Relative clauses
What is a relative clause? Here are some examples and explanations.

Relative clauses
Defining relative clauses are used to I have a friend who speaks five languages.
specify which person or thing we mean. We I have a friend that speaks five languages.
don't put commas between the noun and a She showed me the coat which she had
defining relative clause. bought.
Who or that are used for people. She showed me the coat that she had
Which or that are used for things. bought.
Mr Fry, who speaks five languages, works
Non-defining relative clauses (extra as a translator for the EU.
information clauses) are used to add extra Mr Fry, that speaks five languages, works
information to a sentence. We put commas as a translator for the EU.
between the noun and a non-defining The area, which has very high
relative clause. unemployment, is in the north of the
Who is used for people. country.
Which is used for things. The area, that has very high unemployment,
That cannot be used. is in the north of the country.
Relative clauses - common mistakes

The man who was sitting The man who was sitting
After a relative clause we do
next to me he had a brown next to me had a brown
not repeat the subject.
jacket. jacket.
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The book what I bought was The book that I bought was Only that or which are
by Edward Lear. by Edward Lear. possible, not what.
He lent me the book, which He lent me the book, which A relative clause can have
I found it very useful. I found very useful. only one direct object.
That cannot be used in a
The winner, that was 25, The winner, who was 25,
non-defining (extra
will receive $12,000. will receive $12,000.
information) clause.
Our office is about two Our office, which I share
kilometres from the centre, with my two colleagues, is A relative clause follows the
which I share with my two about two kilometres from noun to which it refers.
colleagues. the city centre.
Within
How to use within correctly.
Within
Within a week everything will be finished.
When used with a time
This means that everything will be finished
expression, withinmeans: 'inside' or 'inside
in seven days or earlier.
the limit'.
I'll be back within an hour.
Within 24 hours means 'in 24 hours or
The speaker is saying that he'll be back in
maybe sooner'.
sixty minutes at the latest.
Reported speech
Reported speech (also known as indirect speech) is when we report what somebody has said. Native
speakers use reported speech very often.
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direct speech She said, "It is better to wait."
reported speech She said (that) it was better to wait.
direct speech He said, "I have never been to Spain."
reported speech He said (that) he had never been to Spain.

Reported speech - common mistakes
After tell we mention the
She said me that she wasn't She told me that she wasn't listener.
able to do it. able to do it. After say we don't mention
the listener.
She told me that she is She told me that she was If the reporting verb (in this
looking for her handbag. looking for her handbag. casetell) is in the past tense,
the tenses used in the
He told me he hasn't seen He told me he hadn't original sentence normally
her before. seen her before. have to be changed:
I am becomes I was
have been becomes had
She told me she will see him She told me she would see been
later. him later. was becomes had been
will becomes would
can becomes could
When we report a command
I told him don't go there. I told him not to go there or warning, we use:
(not) + to + infinitive.
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direct speech She asked, "Is it better to wait?"
reported question She asked if it was better to wait.
direct speech He asked, "Have you been to Spain?"
reported question He asked if I had been to Spain.
Reported questions - common mistakes

The word order in reported
She asked me why did I She asked me why I
questions is: SUBJECT +
work so much. workedso much.
VERB.
Yes/no questions (closed
She asked me if it was questions) begin
She asked me it was raining.
raining. with if when they become
reported questions.
She asked me if I have been She asked me if I had If the reporting verb (in this
to Bristol? been to Bristol. caseask) is in the past tense,
the tenses used in the
original sentence have to
change:
She asked me what I do for She asked me what I did for I am becomes I was
a living. a living. I can becomes I could
I have been becomes I had
been.
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Forming questions
Structures of questions
If there is an auxiliary (helping) verb (be, Is anybody in the office?
have, can, will, etc.) we put it before the Have you ever visited London?
subject (he, she, I, etc.) What time Will they be here?
If there is no auxiliary (helping) verb, we Do you know my older brother?
put do, does or did before the subject. Did he come in time?
How long have you been waiting for me?
We put wh- words (when, where, why, who,
Where is their office?
how,etc.) at the beginning of the question.
Which colour do you like best?
We don't use do, does or did when we
What happened to you?
use what, which, who or whose as the
Who told you about it?
subject.
Questions - common mistakes

What meant you by saying What did you mean by If there is no auxiliary
that? saying that? (helping) verb, we put do,
does or didbefore the
You like this film? Do you like this film? subject.
Where you are going this Where are you going this
afternoon? afternoon? We put an auxiliary verb
before the subject.
You did read the letter? Did you read the letter?
We don't use do,
Who did give you the Who gave you the does or didwhen we
information? information? use what, which,
whoor whose as the subject.
Does he knows your sister? Does he know your sister? When there is an auxiliary
verb, the main verb is in the
Where will she studies? Where will she study? infinitive form.
Can you tell me where can I Can you tell me where I Word order in indirect
buy a good camera? canbuy a good camera? question is the same as in a
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Umesh Adhikari
normal sentence: SUBJECT

+ VERB + ...
Structures of indirect questions
Structure of indirect questions

Word order in indirect question is the same as in a normal statement sentence:
SUBJECT + VERB + ...
Direct question Indirect question
Can you tell me where I can buy ink for the
Where can I buy ink for the printer?
printer?
Why do you want to work for our He asked me why I wanted to work for their
company? company.
I'm calling to ask you what the number of
What is the number of the last invoice?
the last invoice is.
How much did it cost? Do you know how much it cost?
How did it happen? Did she tell you how it happened?
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How to form the present simple tense in English.

Structure of present simple

positive negative question

I work in a bank. I don't (do not) work. Do I work in a bank?

He doesn't (does not) work.

Present simple - common mistakes

Common mistakes Correct version Why?

The gerund ing form is not

He work in London? Does he work in London? Questions - third person:

Negatives - third person:

Present continuous tens

The present continuous tense is sometimes called the present progressive.

Present continuous - common mistakes

called stative verbs

Past simple tense

Here is how to form the past simple tense in English.

Structure of past simple

positive negative question

I arrived yesterday. I didn't (did not) arrive. Did I arrive yesterday?

Past simple - common mistakes

Common mistakes Correct version Why?

The helping verb 'did' is used

The helping verb 'did' is used

The main verb is used in the

The main verb is used in the

Past continuous tense

Past continuous - common mistakes

Present perfect simple tense

Structure of present perfect simple

Present perfect simple - common mistakes

permanent states, not

Present perfect continuous tense

Structure of present perfect continuous

Present perfect continuous - common mistakes

Past perfect simple tense

Structure of past perfect simple

Past perfect simple - common mistakes

Past perfect continuous tense

Structure of past perfect continuous

Past perfect continuous - common mistakes

Structure of future simple

Future continuous tense

Structure of future continuous

‘Going to’ future tense

Structure of 'going to' future

'going to' for future - common mistakes

Present tenses used for the future

Present tenses used for the future

Future perfect simple tense

Structure of future perfect (simple)

Future perfect simple - common mistakes

Future perfect continuous tense

Structure of future perfect continuous

Future perfect continuous - common mistakes

Structure of zero conditional

Structure of the zero conditional

The zero conditional - common mistakes

Structure of first conditional

Structure of the first conditional

The first conditional - common mistakes

Structure of second conditional

The second conditional - common mistakes