Performance and Cost-Effectiveness of Sustainable

Technologies in Flexible Pavements Using the

Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide
Samuel B. Cooper III1; Mostafa Elseifi, M.ASCE2; Louay N. Mohammad, M.ASCE3; and Marwa Hassan4

Abstract: Past studies evaluated the mechanistic properties, economic benefits, and ecological impacts of sustainable asphalt mixtures.
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However, questions remain concerning the effects of these technologies on structural pavement design and performance. The objectives
of this study were to evaluate the effects of selected sustainable technologies [warm-mix asphalt (WMA), reclaimed asphalt pavement
(RAP), crumb rubber modifier (CRM), and sulfur additive] on the performance predicted by the Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design
Guide (MEPDG) software and to assess the life-cycle costs (LCC) of pavement structures constructed with these sustainable alternatives. This
study also determined if the MEPDG software is sensitive to variation in the mechanistic properties of asphalt mixtures containing selected
sustainable technologies. Three typical pavement structures were analyzed at three traffic levels (low, medium, and high). On the basis of the
results of this analysis, it was determined that the performance predicted by the MEPDG software was improved because of the use of
sustainable mixtures. In addition, results indicated that sustainable technologies have the potential to reduce production and LCCs compared
with conventional asphalt mixtures. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000376. © 2012 American Society of Civil Engineers.
CE Database subject headings: Sustainable development; Sulfur; Rubber; Asphalt pavements; Flexible pavements; Design.
Author keywords: Sustainable; MEPDG; WMA; RAP; Sulfur additive; Crumb rubber modifier.

Introduction technologies include warm-mix asphalt (WMA) mixtures, mixtures

In recent years, an increase in construction prices coupled with a
global change for improved ecological stewardship have led to the
development of several sustainable technologies for asphalt pave-
ments. A commonly accepted definition of sustainable pavement is
a pavement that is safe, efficient, and environmentally friendly
while meeting the needs of the present generation without affecting
the ability of future generations to meet their needs (Uzarowski
2008). The main objectives for sustainable pavements are to min-
imize the use of natural resources, reduce energy consumption, re-
duce greenhouse gas emissions, limit pollution, improve health and
safety, and ensure a high level of user comfort (Uzarowski 2008).
The economic impact of a pavement should also be considered
when discussing sustainability. Examples of sustainable pavement
1
Graduate Research Assistant, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engi-
neering, Louisiana State Univ., 3504 Patrick Taylor Hall, Baton Rouge, LA
70803. E-mail: scoop15@lsu.edu
2
Lloyd Guillory Distinguished Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, Louisiana State Univ., 3504 Patrick Taylor
Hall, Baton Rouge, LA 70803. E-mail: elseifi@lsu.edu
3
Irma Louise Rush Stewart Distinguished Professor, Dept. of Civil
and Environmental Engineering; and Director, Engineering Materials
Characterization Research Facility, Louisiana Transportation Research
Center, Louisiana State Univ., 4101 Gourrier Ave., Baton Rouge, LA
70808 (corresponding author). E-mail: louaym@lsu.edu
4
Performance Contractors Distinguished Assistant Professor, Dept. of
Construction Management, Louisiana State Univ., 3130A Patrick F. Taylor
Hall, Baton Rouge, LA 70803. E-mail: marwa@lsu.edu
Note. This manuscript was submitted on March 25, 2011; approved on
August 5, 2011; published online on January 17, 2012. Discussion period
open until July 1, 2012; separate discussions must be submitted for
individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Materials in Civil
Engineering, Vol. 24, No. 2, February 1, 2012. ©ASCE, ISSN 0899-1561/
2012/2-239–247/$25.00.
containing recycled products, and mixtures containing waste
products from industrial processes. Engineers must consider new
technologies and design methodologies to comply with current
and future stringent environmental and economic constraints.
Pavement engineers are transitioning from a semi-empirical to a
mechanistic-empirical pavement design methodology. Historically,
pavements have been designed using the American Association of
State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Guide
for Design of Pavement Structures. This design methodology is
based on empirical performance correlations developed from the
American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO) road
test conducted in the late 1950s and early 1960s in Ottawa, Illinois.
The major limitation of this methodology is that the correlations are
derived considering single climatic and subgrade conditions. In ad-
dition, traffic loads have dramatically changed since the 1950s and
1960s; hence, there is a higher structural demand for today’s pave-
ment structures (Huang 2004). These limitations prompted the need
to develop a design methodology that is based on the mechanistic
properties of the pavement structure. The Mechanistic-Empirical
Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG) was developed in response
to the notable shortcomings of the 1993 AASHTO design
methodology.
Since the development of the aforementioned sustainable tech-
nologies, research has evaluated the mechanistic properties, eco-
nomic benefits, and ecological impacts of these mixtures (Buss
et al. 2009; Cooper 2008; Timm et al. 2009; Cooper et al. 2011;
Goh et al. 2007; Diefenderfer and Hearon 2008; Daniel et al. 2009;
Maupin et al. 2009; Muench 2010; Hassan 2010). However, ques-
tions remain concerning the effect of these technologies on struc-
tural pavement design and performance. To this end, this study
evaluated whether the MEPDG software is sensitive to variation
in the mechanistic properties of asphalt mixtures containing

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J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2012.24:239-247.

 selected sustainable technologies and whether the MEPDG is an
appropriate tool to use for designing sustainable pavements.
Objectives and Scope
The objectives of this study were to evaluate the effects of selected
sustainable technologies on the predicted performance from the
MEPDG and to assess the LCCs of pavement structures con-
structed with these sustainable alternatives. The effects of WMA,
reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP), crumb rubber modifier (CRM),
and sulfur additive were evaluated. Three traffic levels (low,
medium, and high) were considered in the analysis. Level 1 inputs
were used to describe the asphalt layers, whereas Level 2 inputs
were used for the granular base and subgrade layers. Several sus-
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tainable pavement technologies were evaluated as components of
the pavement structure to determine whether the predicted
performance would distinguish sustainable mixtures from conven-
tional mixtures. In addition, a cost comparison between con-
ventional and sustainable pavements was conducted to evaluate the
cost-effectiveness of sustainable technologies.
Background
The development of the MEPDG provided a tool to evaluate asphalt
mixtures with respect to pavement performance against major dis-
tresses. The purpose of the MEPDG is “to provide the highway
community with a state-of-the-practice for the design of new and
rehabilitated pavement structures, based on mechanistic-empirical
principles” [National Cooperative Highway Research Program
(NCHRP) 2004]. The MEPDG addresses the shortcomings of
the semi-empirical 1993 AASHTO pavement design guide that
was developed based on the results of the AASHO road test (Buss
et al. 2009). The design guide software uses site-specific traffic,
climate, and subgrade data combined with mechanistic properties
of the pavement structure to evaluate the distress susceptibility of
the design. The MEPDG can evaluate the pavement structure based
on three levels of input. Level 1 input considers measured mecha-
nistic properties for the structural layers. Level 2 input evaluates the
pavement performance using predicted mechanistic values. In
contrast, Level 3 input uses national default values to analyze
the pavement structure (NCHRP 2004).
Sustainable Technologies
Despite the lack of a clear protocol for designing and constructing
an environmentally friendly highway, the asphalt industry has
experimented with sustainable alternatives since the 1970s. This
has led to experimentation with various construction and recycling
techniques that are thought to reduce the environmental impacts of
Table 1. Mixture Descriptions
Technology Mixture name Binder grade
WMA HMARAP15 PG 70-22
WMAFoam15
WMARedi15
WMAFoam30
Crumb rubber 76Conv PG 76-22
76CRM
RAP 64RAP40 PG 64-22
64Conv
Sulfur 64Thio PG 64-22
64Conv
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J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2012.24:239-247.
highway construction and positively assist in the reduction of waste
disposed in landfills. A brief description of the sustainable technol-
ogies evaluated in this research is provided in this section.
The production of WMA using foaming and surfactant additives
was evaluated in this research (Buss et al. 2009). Harmful emission
and energy costs are reduced by lowering asphalt concrete produc-
tion temperature. Foaming the binder is accomplished by introduc-
ing small amounts of water to reduce asphalt cement viscosity and
aids in mixing and compacting at lower production temperature
(Buss et al. 2009). The surfactant is added to asphalt cement at
a rate between 1.25 and 2% and reduces the mixing and compacting
temperature of the mixture.
In the 1970s, state agencies began using RAP in asphalt pave-
ments. The use of RAP can reduce the amount of virgin aggregates
and asphalt cement used in hot-mix asphalt (HMA) production
(Cooper 2008). Cooper found that the use of RAP had a stiffening
effect on the mixtures and that this stiffening may be reduced with
rejuvenating agents. In this study, the performance of a PG
64-22 HMA mixture containing 40% RAP was compared with a
conventional mix prepared with PG 64-22 and no RAP.
The use of CRM additives, which can reduce virgin asphalt con-
tent in the mixture, was evaluated in this study (Cooper 2008). The
use of waste tires reduces the need for unsanitary tire disposal
yards. In this study, the performance of a PG 64-22 HMA mixture
containing 10% Mesh 30 CRM blended in a wet process (which
yielded a PG 76-22 binder) was compared with a conventional
HMA mixture prepared with a conventional polymer-modified
binder graded as PG 76-22.
With the recent increase in the price of liquid asphalt, the use of
sulfur as a binder extender appears economically attractive. A new
generation of sulfur additive consists of small sulfur pellets, which
are added to the aggregate during the mixing process. Mixture
preparation consists of heating the sulfur pellets and the aggregate
blends. The binder is then mixed with the hot aggregates, followed
by adding the heated sulfur pellets and mixing thoroughly to ensure
that all the pellets melted. To address concerns with sulfur emis-
sions, it is required that the mixing temperature be lower than
140
5°C (Timm et al. 2009). The use of sulfur additive may
reduce the use of virgin asphalt cement and reduce energy costs
during production (Cooper et al. 2011). In this study, the perfor-
mance of a PG 64-22 WMA mixture containing 40% sulfur addi-
tives was compared with a conventional PG 64-22 HMA. Table 1
provides a description of the mixtures evaluated in this study.
A number of studies evaluated the effects of WMA mixtures and
mixtures containing various quantities of RAP on the predicted per-
formance from the MEPDG. Buss et al. (2009) conducted a series
of experiments comparing the effects of multiple WMA technolo-
gies on pavement performance using the MEPDG. Results of the
study showed that WMA performance was equal to or slightly
Description
HMA containing 15% RAP (control)
Foamed WMA containing 15% RAP
WMA with surfactant additive containing 15% RAP
Foamed WMA containing 30% RAP
Conventional HMA with PG 76-22 binder
HMA containing 10% CRM additives (wet blend)
HMA containing 40% RAP and CRM (dry blend)
Conventional HMA with PG 64-22 binder
WMA containing 40% sulfur modifiers
Conventional HMA with PG 64-22 binder
 better than conventional HMA. Similarly, Goh et al. (2007) evalu-
ated the performance of several WMA mixtures in comparison with
conventional HMA. The results from the study showed that, on the
basis of a Level 1 input, WMA had a lower predicted rut depth than
conventional HMA. Diefenderfer et al. (2008) evaluated the long-
term performance effects of WMA in Virginia using the MEPDG
and found that the predicted performance did not differ signifi-
cantly from conventional HMA. Daniel et al. (2009) evaluated
the sensitivity of the MEPDG to RAP binder grade. Results showed
that Level 1 inputs were not significantly affected by fluctuations
in the predicted RAP binder content. Contrarily, Levels 2 and 3
were greatly affected by variation in the RAP binder content. On
the basis of these results, the authors suggested using Level 2 and 3
inputs for more conservative results. They also stated that further
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research was necessary to evaluate the effects of RAP mixtures
used in additional pavement structures, traffic levels, and climates.
To ensure that economic aspects are considered in performance
evaluation, it is necessary to evaluate the LCC of sustainable tech-
nologies. A reduction in the LCC is accomplished by either reduc-
ing the initial investment in the project or extending the service life
of the structure. The service life of a pavement is a function of the
pavement structure’s resistance to distresses caused by traffic and
environmental loading. Typically, the performance of flexible
pavements is controlled by the thickness of the structural layers.
Pavements subjected to higher traffic loads need higher layer thick-
nesses to achieve acceptable performance. When evaluating multi-
ple traffic cases, layer thicknesses are changed to reduce fluctuation
in pavement performance attributable to traffic levels. Studies show
that the use of sustainable technologies can significantly reduce the
LCC of pavement structures (Diefenderfer and Hearon 2008;
Maupin et al. 2009).
Methodology
Pavement Performance Prediction
The MEPDG was used to predict the performance of three-
pavement structures designed with nine asphalt mixtures. Three-
pavement designs representing typical pavement structures used
in the state of Louisiana were considered for three traffic levels
(low, medium, and high). Fig. 1 depicts the pavement structures
50mm SMA
152mm
HMA Layer 102mm
HMA Layer
50mm HMA Layer
305mm 305mm 305mm
Crushed Crushed Crushed
Stone Base Stone Base Stone Base
A-7-6 Clayey A-7-6 Clayey A-7-6 Clayey
Subgrade Subgrade Subgrade
(a) High Volume Traffic (b) Medium Volume Traffic (c) Low Volume Traffic
Fig. 1. Pavement structures
JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING © ASCE / FEBRUARY 2012 / 241
J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2012.24:239-247.
evaluated in this study. The layer of interest is the HMA layer.
The MEPDG analysis was conducted by altering the material prop-
erties of the HMA layer for each of the mixtures in the factorial. All
other layers’ properties were kept constant.
Design Inputs
The pavement structure was designed for a service life of 20 years
as new flexible pavement, default calibration factors were used in
the analysis. The national default value available in the MEPDG
software for initial international roughness index (IRI) was used
in the analysis. However, values consistent with Louisiana Pave-
ment Management System (PMS) failure limits were used for ter-
minal IRI and permanent deformation. The Louisiana PMS system
uses index values to describe pavement distress limits. To use these
limits in the MEPDG software, the index values were converted to
the appropriate units. Louisiana Department of Transportation and
Development (LADOTD) provides conversion equations for IRI
and rutting as well as trigger values for rehabilitation. The values
used in this study are given in Table 2. The MEPDG national de-
fault reliability level of 90% was used in the analysis. However, to
evaluate the predicted distress values without inflation from reli-
ability, a reliability level of 50% was used.
Traffic
Average annual daily traffic (AADT) values for multiple traffic
classifications, truck factors, and distribution for vehicle classes
1 to 13 were provided by LADOTD. Because the MEPDG only
supports truck classes 4 to 13, vehicle classes 1 to 3 were not con-
sidered, and the truck class distributions were adjusted to consider
only classes 4 to 13. Monthly distribution data were obtained from
previous research (Ishak et al. 2009). The national default values
from LTPP data for hourly distribution and growth factor were
used. Table 2 shows the average annual daily truck traffic
(AADTT) values associated with the traffic levels evaluated in this
study.
Climate
Climatic data was obtained from the MEPDG climate database for
the city of Baton Rouge, Louisiana (NCHRP 2010). There were
116 months of data available for the selected location and an as-
sumed average water table depth of 2.1 m. The water table depth
determined via Eq. (1) estimates the water table based on surface
elevations in the Gulf Coast regions in the United States (Williams
1989). The elevation was determined from the MEPDG climatic
database:
Water table altitude ¼ Land-surface altitude  0:8978 ð1Þ
AC Layer Properties
Dynamic complex modulus (E) and binder complex shear modu-
lus (G) data for each of the mixtures were measured in the labo-
ratory in accordance with AASHTO TP-62 and were used in the
MEPDG to describe the mixture properties for Level 1 input.
Dynamic modulus testing was conducted using triplicate samples.
The air void content of the samples was controlled between 6.5 and
7.5%. The coefficient of variation of the test results was less than
20% for all test temperatures and frequencies. The gradations and
Table 2. Louisiana PMS Distress Triggers
Traffic level (AADTT)
Distress High (14,554) Medium (1,992) Low (816)
IRI (mm=km) 1,973 3,157 3,946
Rut depth (mm) 9.6 14.2 14.2
 volumetric properties were also available for each mixture evalu-
ated in this study. Fig. 2 presents a comparison of the master curve
constructed for each of the mixtures evaluated in this study. It is
worth noting that the master curves of the four WMA mixtures
were nearly identical. Figs. 2(a), 2(c), and 2(d) indicate that the
use of RAP and sulfur additive resulted in increased mix stiffness
when compared with conventional mixtures at high and intermedi-
ate temperatures; in contrast, Fig. 2(b) illustrates that the use of
CRM additives reduced mixture stiffness at high temperatures
while increasing the mix stiffness at intermediate temperatures.
Base and Subgrade Properties
Measured resilient modulus (M r ) values for crushed limestone
and clayey subgrade were collected from previous projects
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(Mohammad et al. 2008) and were used in the analysis of the vari-
ous pavement structures. These values were kept constant for all
three pavement structures.
Cost-Effectiveness
Contact with experts and producers from the industry provided ac-
curate cost information regarding sustainable technologies. In ad-
dition, a number of assumptions were based on historical cost
indices. Table 3 summarizes the cost data used to evaluate the pro-
duction cost of the mixtures evaluated in this study. The effect of
the RAP cost on the production of the mixture was assumed neg-
ligible. This assumption is based on the contractor using a supply of
RAP that has already been collected and paid for. The researchers
also recognize that the cost of RAP is extremely variable and dif-
ficult to quantify, as the cost will vary with respect to the plant dis-
tance from the source.
A simplified LCC for a mixture was determined by dividing the
total cost of producing 1 ton of each mixture by the number of years
of service predicted by the MEPDG software for each traffic level.
Service life was defined as the period that the pavement struc-
ture performed adequately with distress indices lower than the
Fig. 2. Master curve comparisons
242 / JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING © ASCE / FEBRUARY 2012
J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2012.24:239-247.
Louisiana pavement management system’s rehabilitation triggers’
values. This simplified approach represents the direct cost to the
agency normalized with respect to the performance predicted for
each mixture.
Energy and Emission Data for Warm-Mix Asphalt
Data were collected to quantify cost savings based on the reduction
in energy consumption for WMA. Energy consumption data for
WMA were collected from three plants around the state of
Louisiana. Results showed that energy consumption in the three
plants was reduced by 12, 14, and 13.2% attributable to the use
of WMA. A review of relevant studies found reported energy sav-
ings between 20 and 35%, indicating that the data collected for
Louisiana are on the conservative side (Kristjansdottir 2007). This
energy reduction was associated with lowering the mixing temper-
ature from 150°C for HMA production to 120°C for WMA. Table 4
summarizes the energy and cost saving associated with WMA pro-
duction. WMA energy consumption was calculated as 87% of the
HMA needed energy for plant operations and construction. This
resulted in an energy saving of 43:7 MJ=ton for WMA.
Results and Analysis
MEPDG Performance Prediction
Pavement performance distresses were predicted using the MEPDG
software for the three flexible pavement designs at the three traffic
levels (low, medium, and high). Sustainable pavement technologies
were evaluated as components of the pavement structures to deter-
mine whether the design guide software would distinguish sustain-
able mixtures from conventional mixtures in terms of performance.
In addition, a cost comparison between conventional and sustain-
able pavements was conducted to evaluate the cost-effectiveness
of the sustainable technologies. Summaries of the results for
 Table 3. Cost Data The use of WMA, CRM, RAP, and sulfur additive resulted in
Item Cost marginally lower total rut depth for the pavement structures com-
pared with conventional asphalt mixtures. Similarly, Fig. 5 presents
Asphalt cement $375–$575=liquid ton the effect of sustainable technologies on the predicted fatigue
Virgin aggregate $35=ton cracking. The figure shows that the predicted values are very
RAP aggregate $0=ton low, approximately 1.5% maximum. RAP and sulfur-modified
CRM additive $500=ton mixes showed marginal improvements over conventional mixtures.
Surfactant additive $4;000=ton The CRM and WMA comparisons showed little or no difference in
Sulfur additive $150=ton the predicted values compared with the conventional mixtures.
However, it is noted that the predicted values were minimal and
may be considered negligible for all of the mixtures evaluated.
Fig. 6 presents the predicted service lives for the various sustain-
Table 4. Energy Cost Savings
able technologies. The design life of a pavement was defined as the
Energy cost moment in time when the first pavement distress exceeded the
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Production Source ($=ton) terminal threshold. In all cases, the critical distress was the total
HMA [U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) 5.80 pavement rut depth. All sustainable technologies resulted in greater
2010; Bloomberg 1999;
pavement service lives when compared with conventional mixtures
at all traffic levels. The 64RAP40 mixture resulted in the greatest
Canadian Industry Program for Energy
increase in the predicted service life. The service life of the pave-
Conservation (CIPEC) 2005]
ments subjected to high traffic levels was much shorter than that of
WMA LA Plant 1 4.83 the low and medium designs. This indicates that the design selected
LA Plant 2 3.20 for high traffic level needs to be increased to withstand heavy traffic
LA Plant 3 4.54 conditions.
Average energy cost savings 1.37
Laboratory Performance
Laboratory measurements conducted using the Hamburg Loaded-
performance predictions and cost analysis are provided. Fig. 3 pres-
Wheel Tester (LWT), in accordance with AASHTO T 324, showed
ents the effects of sustainable pavement technologies on IRI pre- significant improvement against rutting for the 64RAP40 and
dictions after 10 years in service. As shown in Figs. 3(c) and 3(d), 64Thio mixtures, see Fig. 7. As shown in Fig. 7, the mixture con-
the use of RAP and sulfur additive resulted in the most improved taining 40% RAP (64RAP40) and the sulfur additive (64Thio) sig-
IRI performance predictions, compared with conventional mixtures nificantly improved the rutting performance of conventional HMA.
at all traffic levels. The predictions associated with WMA and The discrepancy between MEPDG and the LWT is most likely
CRM mixes, Figs. 3(a) and 3(b), were marginally improved. caused by the rutting model in the MEPDG that uses E as the
Fig. 4 presents the effects of using sustainable technologies on controlling factor. In accordance with the dynamic modulus test,
the predicted performance against rutting after 10 years in service. the 64RAP40 and 64Thio mixtures were stiffer than the 76CRM

Fig. 3. 10-Year IRI comparison

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Fig. 4. 10-Year total rut depth comparison

Fig. 5. 10-Year fatigue cracking comparison

mixture at high temperatures. This relationship caused the pre- (Roque et al. 2004). As shown in Fig. 8, test results showed that
dicted rut depth to be greater for the 76CRM mixture. the mixtures containing 40% RAP and CRM were more susceptible
Laboratory evaluation of the mix cracking properties was to cracking than conventional mixtures, whereas the mixture con-
conducted using the dissipated creep strain energy (DCSE) taining sulfur additive was marginally more susceptible to cracking

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Fig. 6. Design life comparison

Fig. 8. Fatigue performance from the DCSE test results

Fig. 7. Rutting performance from the LWT test results

in this study. The 64RAP40 mixture provided the greatest cost

distress. These results do not agree with the predictions of the
MEPDG software.
Cost and Energy Analysis
Fig. 9 presents the results of the production costs analysis of the
various mixtures. Fig. 9(a) shows that with the energy savings,
the cost of the surfactant additives increased the production costs
of the WMA. In addition, the cost of the WMAFoam30 was much
lower than for the other mixtures due to the higher percentage of
RAP used in the mixture design. Figs. 9(b)–9(d) show that cost
saving is possible for all other sustainable technologies evaluated
saving because of the high percentage of RAP in this mix.
To gain a better understanding of true pavement costs versus
predicted performance, the production cost of each mix was di-
vided by the predicted service life of the pavement at each traffic
level. Fig. 10 shows the results of the simplified life-cycle eco-
nomic analysis. The results show that sustainable mixtures pro-
vided lower LCC when compared with conventional mixtures at
all traffic levels. In addition, the 64RAP40 mixture yielded the
greatest improvement in LCC. The high traffic level case yielded
high LCC because the predicted service life of the pavement was
relatively short.

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Fig. 9. Production cost comparison

Fig. 10. LCC comparison

Summary and Conclusions MEPDG and to assess the LCCs of pavement structures con-
structed with these sustainable alternatives. To achieve this objec-
The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of selected tive, pavement performance against major distresses were
sustainable technologies on the predicted performance from the determined using the MEPDG for three designs at three traffic

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J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2012.24:239-247.

 levels. In addition, a LCC assessment was conducted for the evalu-
ated mixtures. Comparisons were drawn between sustainable and
control mixtures. The following conclusions are drawn on the basis
of the results of this study:
• The performance predicted by the MEPDG software was im-
proved because of the use of sustainable mixtures. The HMA
mixture containing 40% RAP resulted in the most favorable pre-
dicted performance.
• The predictions of the MEPDG for rutting and cracking perfor-
mances were different from those predicted from physical la-
boratory tests. These discrepancies are most likely caused by
the rutting and cracking models in the MEPDG that use E
as the main factor in describing the mix mechanistic properties.
• The use of RAP resulted in the greatest reduction in production
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costs. The mixture containing 40% RAP had the lowest LCC,
followed by the sulfur mixture, the foamed WMA mixture, and
then the crumb rubber modified mixture.
On the basis of the results presented in this study, further re-
search is needed to relate the selection of sustainable mixtures
to their performance in the field. Further research is recommended
to conduct a life-cycle assessment (LCA) of sustainable mixtures
compared with conventional HMA. This analysis should consider
factors such as environmental impacts, maintenance and rehabili-
tation activities, end-of-life recycling options, and variation of
adopted data with project size and location.
Acknowledgments
The writers would like to acknowledge the support of Shell, Inc.
and the Louisiana Transportation Research Center (LTRC). The as-
sistance of Yoonseok Chung and Bhanu Vijay Vallabhu is also
greatly appreciated.
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