On Literary Composition

by Alasha Ngawang Tendar

This presentation of literary composition has three sections:

I. The qualities of the author

II. The classifications of literary treatises
III. The process of composing treatises

I. The Qualities of the Author

Let us inquire into what qualities are required of a treatise’s author. It is commonly
stated that if one understands grammar one will not be confused by semantics. If one
understands synonymics1 one will not be confused by terminology. If one
understands poetry one will not be confused by poetic ornaments. If one understands
composition one will not be confused by meter. If one understands dramaturgy one
will not be confused by language.

It is in this sense that grammar and composition are elements necessary for the
composition of Chinese treatises and, while poetry and synonymics are not
absolutely indispensable for Tibetan treatises, their presence only serves to enhance a
given treatise. Whether one is composing a treatise in Chinese, Tibetan, or
Mongolian, it is unacceptable to lack mastery in that given language, whether
spoken or written. With Tibetan in particular, as a foundation one should be
educated in old and new orthographies, the presentations on the application of
gender signs, and the practice of penmanship. On top of this, one should either be a
specialist in the terminology and key topics related to the subject matter on which
one is to compose, have acquired the favor of the deity, or possess the pith
instructions of the lineage gurus. As an alternative, the Teaching of the Three Jewels2
states:

Intellect that dissects the subtlest of logical reasonings,

Practice in which the scriptural tradition dawns as instructions,
And the splendor of speech skilled in the ways of arranging words—
These are the three precious jewels to be found in this world.

Any one of these three qualities is sufficient in itself. However, unless the author’s
motivation is pure, they will bring little benefit to others. It is therefore important to
embody wholesome intentions. The Summary of Yogācāra Bhūmis3 describes how
one ought to possess the six causal motivations for composing treatises and the four
qualities of an author which are, indeed, fundamental:

The Six Causal Motivations for Composing Treatises

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 1. Intending that the message of the Dharma spread far and wide
2. Intending that it bring benefit to some individuals given the manifold
dispositions and interests of beings
3. Intending to arrange particular topics into categories
4. Intending to organize scattered topics
5. Intending to clarify profound topics
6. Intending to inspire beauty through beautiful words

The Four Qualities of an Author

1. Humility in not thinking such things as, “If others, who are equally or less
qualified than I, can compose treatises then why shouldn’t I?”
2. Compassion in desiring that the confusion of beings on certain topics be
dispelled
3. Kindness in desiring that beings come to easily understand particular
topics
4. Not calling attention to oneself thinking, “How great would it be if others
considered me a learned scholar”

In short, one should compose treatises with humility, compassionately desiring to

dispel the suffering of others, kindly desiring to benefit others, and in order to
generate roots of virtue for both oneself and others.

II. The Classifications of Literary Treatises

Literary treatises are classified in the following manner.

In terms of function:

a) Summarizing the vast, as in the case of the Ornament of the Sūtras4

b) Unraveling the profound, as in the case of the Ornament of Realization5
c) Ordering the disordered, as in the case of the Compendium of Instructions6

In terms of subject matter, treatises may teach either of the two truths.

In terms of topics of exposition:

a) Commentaries on buddhavacana in general

b) Commentaries on particular buddhavacana

The first is divided into the uncommon and the common.

There are also treatises that put an end to mistaken ideas and those that offer
guidance to others. As for the first, there are those that focus on form and those that
focus on content. Those that focus on form include:

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 Primarily grammatical works that take straightforward nature, condition,
and rasa as their subject matter, such as the Grammar of Kalapa7 and
Grammar of Chandra8
Branching off from those are treatises on composition which present
metrical weight and prastāra,9 such as Candoratnākara10
Treatises on synonymics which present synonyms, the classifications of
the three genders, the application of and homophones such as the Treasury
of Immortality11
Treatises on poetry which focus on the three ornaments—the ornaments
of sense, of which there are thirty-five in total, and phonetic ornaments;
the poetic challenges; and word ornaments like riddles—according to the
divergent positions of the masters of the eastern and southern schools,
such as The Mirror of Poetry12
Treatises on dramaturgy which apply the above to language, such as The
Joy of the Nāgas13 and The Joy of the World14

For those that focus on content there are treatises on the science of logic such as the
Discourse on Valid Cognition15 among others.

Treatises that offer guidance to others include treatises on craftsmanship and

medicine. The first concerns both the treatises that cover mundane topics such as
alchemy and the compounding of incense as well as those that cover extraordinary
topics such as the representations of enlightened body, speech, and mind. Treatises
on medicine concern four branches, namely: the nature of diseases, the causes of
illness, their medical antidotes, and the practice of medical treatment. There are,
alternatively, the following eight branches described in medical works:

General medicine, pediatrics, psychiatry, upper body illnesses,

Surgery, toxicology, rejuvenation, and fertility.

Treatises on secular ethics are not to be disregarded as they can become a method for
the attainment of liberation, as long as one knows how to practice them accordingly.
A Hundred Wisdoms states:16

If one practices the ethics of men,

The path to the god realm is not far off.
If one climbs the stairways to the realms
Of gods and men, liberation is within reach.

The validity of the words of the Victorious Buddha is established in dependence on

valid commentarial treatises. Thus, the cryptic and obscure words and meanings in
earlier root scriptures are explained in the word commentaries, overviews, in-depth
analyses, and notes of later commentators, who do not allow themselves to be tainted
by innovation but instead draw exclusively upon evidence from reliable sources.

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III. The Process of Composing Treatises
The process of composing treatises has three sections:

1. The preliminaries to the composition of a treatise

2. The actual manner of composition
3. The benefits of composing treatises

1. The Preliminaries to the Composition of a Treatise

The Mirror of Poetry states:

The utterance of auspiciousness, homage,

And the presentation of the topic are the gateway to the treatise.

At the outset of composing a treatise, one opens with words invoking auspiciousness
before then introducing the composition by means of an opening homage, the
presentation of the topic, and other such elements that offer a synopsis of its main
body. This tradition is said to be shared by both non-Buddhists and Buddhists alike.
Yet, in addition to this, the dedication of virtue at the end is a unique feature of
Buddhist authors. The Praise of the Exalted One17 states:

The dedication of collections of virtue

To the entirety of sentient beings
As was taught by you, the Blessed One,
Was not taught in the treatises of others.

The purpose of the utterance of auspiciousness is to invoke the siddhis for oneself
while the purpose of the homage is to prevent the arising of obstacles. There are two
objects of the homage—one pays homage to the Buddha, the principal teacher of the
Dharma, out of trust in the Dharma and to the masters, who teach the meaning of
the Dharma, out of trust in its meaning. This is accordance with the Collected
Topics,18 which teaches that one should offer homage first to Śākyamuni Buddha and
then to the direct and indirect masters following him.

There are also instances in which the opening homage is not made. For instance, the
Illumination of Thought: An Extensive Explanation of the “Treatise on the Middle”19
notes that A Letter to a Friend20 lacks an opening homage yet does contain a pledge
to compose. There are many other such examples. The arrangements of the homage
likewise do not necessarily accord with what was just explained. This is the case in
many instances in the writings of the Precious Lord Tsongkhapa where he first pays
homage to his chosen meditation deity. Moreover, it is also logical to pay homage,
before everything else, to the guru from whom one received the kindness of Dharma.
This is acceptable, as the Vinaya-vastu states:21

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 You should first pay homage
Like a brahmin to the waxing moon
To whomever you learned the Dharma from,
No matter whether they be old or young.

Well then, you might wonder, is the Vinaya-vastu with its context of ordained monks
in contradiction with the Sūtra of One Hundred Karmas22 which instructs that one
should first pay homage to the Buddha and then to the masters that follow him? No,
there is no contradiction here, because, as the great Tsonawa23 has stated, this is an
exceptional case.

The Staff of Wisdom24 furthermore states:

Sublime beings do not make many commitments.

Yet if they commit themselves to something difficult
Then, as if the pledge were carved in stone,
Even in the face of death, they will not fail.

Accordingly, the purpose of the pledge to compose is to ensure that the composition
reaches completion. Even making a pledge to compose which conveys a sense of
humility has a purpose, insofar as it shows the author to be someone extraordinary.
There is also the tradition of inciting suitable vessels to listen, the purpose of which
is for the author to give guidance with love and make evident the importance of the
treatise.

2. The Actual Manner of Composition

The actual manner of composition has two subsections:

a) The qualities of superior compositions

b) The shortcomings of inferior compositions

The qualities of superior compositions

It is important for the author to apprehend the general outline of the given work to
be composed and subtly ornament it with quotes from other works. The quotes
should be arranged together in order, and authors should conduct their analysis
based on scripture and reasoning, and prevent their work from being tainted by
contradictions and errors.

The most outstanding writings on profound topics have the following qualities:

The content that comprises the subject matter is solid yet easily
understood
The words that comprise the form are ornamented with poetry
The syntax is ordered and pleasantly formulated

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 The metered lines are well-composed and evoke poetry or, in the case of
essays, are easily understood
The word choices are ornamented with synonyms and are inspiring
There is no repetition and later statements serve to establish the points
made in earlier ones
Avoidance of the phrase et cetera when it does not summarize anything

Such writing is a gift to delight the wise.

The shortcomings of inferior compositions

The shortcomings of inferior compositions include a difficulty in distinguishing one’s
own position from that of others, as in the case of the Golden Hued Victory Banner: A
Liturgy for the Vinaya,25 and an outline with far too many subdivisions unlike in the
cases of Bindu of Reasoning.26 and Illuminating the Intent of the Victorious Ones27 It is
possible that composing topical outlines as per the Tibetan style where “one has two
subdivisions, two has three subdivisions, and three has four subdivisions” and so
forth will not be helpful to beginners, but instead just confuse them. Chinese texts
present as much of a topical outline as necessary once at the beginning of the treatise
and then expound upon that in the main body of the commentary, without mixing
up the order. It would not be so bad if we were to do the same.

There are still other faults such as failing to use a shad punctuation mark to set apart
certain words, using only obscure synonyms and riddles, translating into Tibetan
place names and personal names that are known only in certain places or time
periods, and the writing of Chinese words in Tibetan. The collected works of Situ
Paṇchen of Dege, for instance, include the names of several Chinese medicines
written directly in Tibetan. No matter whether you showed these to Chinese or
Tibetans, there would be no one these days who could understand. Thus, while it
might be great medicine, it will not be able to heal anyone.

Furthermore, for authors of treatises to fail to state their names clearly in the
colophon or to conceal their real names and use other, less familiar names is one of
the greatest faults. Some treatises might appear to contain sage advice but become
suspect on account of the author’s name being unclear. This is also why scholars are
unable to cite them as scriptural sources.

Having done away with these faults, authors should clearly state their name, clan,
and location; ground themselves in the new and old orthographies that are common
to all of Tibet; and write in a style that does not contradict either the Thirty Verses or
Application of Gender Signs.

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3. The Benefits of Composing Treatises
The benefits of composing treatises include the fact that your life will be spent
working for the Buddhist doctrine. In addition, your writings will delight and
support scholars and become a delightful offering, the most supreme of gifts, for all
the good-natured people who encounter them. In the works of master Daṇḍin, we
find:

The kings of the past may have possessed striking physique,

Yet I have attained the mirror-like nature of speech.
While neither of us at present remain any longer,
Observe how it is I who has not faded into obscurity.

Even after you have passed away, your praiseworthy qualities and reputation for
kindness will remain behind. Your eminence as a scholar will therefore not fade on
account of everyone proclaiming and discussing [your writings] to no end. The
sūtras include the following statement:

Even if all buddha were to assiduously

Describe for millions and billions of eons
The merit of upholding the Dharma,
They would still not exhaust its qualities.

As it says here, the power derived from the immeasurable merit from upholding the
Dharma will lead one to become a great Dharma king who, in the future, will be
seated upon the mighty throne supported by four fearless lions as he rules over all
fortunate beings with the pure law that shines bright with the seals bearing the sixty
images as he perfects his mastery of the ten powers.

Postface
The moon of wise scholars and their activities
Dispels the shrouds of clouds of careless innovation.
Enveloped by the pure white light of this presentation,
The way it shines in the pond of my mind is marvelous indeed.

This message which airs such wonderful tales

Is for my companions in the teachings of the Buddha,
So that our harmonious friendship may never fade.
I have not the slightest hope of benefitting others.

Yet if those who wish to maintain the convention of the four reliances28
With respect to whatever anyone says, whether they be scholar or not,
Were to analyze it, having forgone indifference and prejudice,
Then that would certainly be a cause for joy and delight.

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As for these flocks of demonic birds overcome with bias
Claiming that this is useless as it was written by a Mongolian,
It would make sense for them to stop chirping out bad omens
And instead take some rest in their north-facing nests.

Ablaze with sharp light rays of scripture and reasoning

That instantly penetrate through the darkness of the dens
Of the gangs of the saffron clad who masquerade as scholars,
It is thus that the sun of this eloquent explanation shines ever bright.

It is possible that this discussion of exposition, debate, and composition

May fall on the deaf ears of those with biased persuasions.
Consider the ways in which the coolness of the moonlight
Causes the hungry ghosts unbearable anguish with its heat.

As my intellect is weak and my learning meagre,

While the Dharma is profound and difficult to fathom,
Any contradictions, inaccuracies, irrelevances, or repetitions
I confess within the presence of the deities and the guru.

As the messenger of this eloquent explanation who carries good news

Arrives safely on the path to the ears of fortunate beings,
He speaks only of tales that spreads goodness in the house of the heart.
May joy be thus brought to all!

Through the architectural forces of this virtuous endeavor,

May the jeweled palace of the freedoms and advantages,
Which is supported by the eight pillars of the ripened qualities,29
Be adorned at its top by the stag and doe of method and wisdom.

In this way, may the drops of pure water gathered here

Flow into the Ganges of Samantabhadra’s aspirations
To mingle as one in the ocean of the Buddha’s aspirations,
Quenching the thirst of all beings with benefit and happiness.

“The Sunlight of Eloquent Explanation: A Presentation on Exposition, Debate, and

Composition” was compiled during the Great Prayer Festival by Alaksha Ngawang
Tendar, a monk pilgrim.

| Translated by Lowell Cook, 2020.

 

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Bibliography

Tibetan Edition Used

tshogs gnyis rab rgyas (ed.), gangs can bod kyi nye rabs phul byung rtsom yig gces
bsdus. Beijing: mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 2013. p. 153–165.

ngag dbang bstan dar, “’chad rtsod rtsom gsum gyi rnam gzhag” in gsung
'bum/_bstan dar lha rams pa/. Lanzhou: kan su'u mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 2011. Vol.
2: p. 93–100.

Secondary Sources
Jamgön Kongtrul Lodrö Thayé, The Treasury of Knowledge, Book One: Myriad Worlds,
transl. the Kalu Rinpoche translation Group. Ithaca: Snow Lion, 2003.

_________ , The Treasury of Knowledge, Books Two, Three, and Four: Buddhism’s
Journey to Tibet, transl. Ngawang Zangpo. Ithaca: Snow Lion, 2010.

_________ , The Treasury of Knowledge, Book Six Parts One and Two: Indo-Tibetan
Classical Learning and Buddhist Phenonemology, transl. Gyurme Dorje. Boston and
London: 2012.

John Powers and Sonam Thakchoe, "Ngawang Tendar," Treasury of Lives, accessed
August 21, 2020, http://treasuryoflives.org/biographies/view/Ngawang-Tendar/5338.

Nor brang o rgyan (ed.), Chos rnam kun btus. Beijing: Krung go'i bod rig pa dpe
skrun khang, 2008.

1. Skt. abhidāna; Tib. mngon brjod ↩

2. Bla na med pa’i rin po che gsum gyi gtam gyi sbyor baby Tsongkhapa (1357–
1419) ↩

3. Yogācārabhūmi Viniścayasaṃgrahanī by Asaṅga (fl. 4th CE) ↩

4. Mahāyāna-sūtrālamkāra-kārikā by Buddha Maitreya via Asaṅga (fl. 4th CE) ↩

5. Abhisamayālaṅkāra by Buddha Maitreya via Asaṅga (fl. 4th CE) ↩

6. Śikṣā-samuccaya by Śāntideva (8th CE) ↩

7. Kalāpa-vyākaraṇa by Śarvavarman (c.400), translated into Tibetan as the Ka lā

pa'i mdo by Blo gros brtan pa. ↩

8. Candra-vyākaraṇa by Candragomin (c. 5th–7th CE), translated into Tibetan as

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 the Lung ston pa tsandra pa'i mdo by Shong ston lo tsA ba rdo rje rgyal mtshan
(early 13th—late 13th CE). For more on his life see: Thinlay Gyatso, "Shongton
Dorje Gyeltsen," Treasury of Lives, accessed August 18, 2020,
http://treasuryoflives.org/biographies/view/Shongton-Dorje-Gyeltsen/2029. ↩

9. Prastāra is translated by Gyurme Dorje as “a table (or representation) of

metrical variants.” ↩

10. Composed by Ratnākaraśānti and translated into Tibetan by Byang chub rtse
mo (1303-1380) and Yar lung lo tsa+a ba grags pa rgyal mtshan (1242–1346) ↩

11. Amarakośa by Amarasiṃha, (c. 375) ↩

12. Kāvyādarśa by Daṇḍin (fl. 7th–8th CE) ↩

13. Nāgānanda by king Harṣavardhana (ruled 606–648 CE) translated into Tibetan
by Shong ston lo tsA ba rdo rje rgyal mtshan (early 13th—late 13th CE). ↩

14. Lokānandanāṭaka by Candragomin (estimated to have lived c. 5th–7th CE) ↩

15. i.e., Pramāṇa-samuccaya by Dignāga (c. 480–c. 540). ↩

16. Prajñāsataka by Nāgārjuna (c. 150–250). ↩

17. Viśeṣastava by Udbhaṭasiddhasvāmin (active c. 210 CE), translated into Tibetan

as Khyad par du ’phags pa’i bstod pa by Sarvajñādeva and Rin chen mchog. ↩

18. Yogācārabhūmi-viniścayasaṃgrahanī by Asaṅga (fl. 4th CE) ↩

19. Dbu ma la ’jug pa’i rnam bshad dgongs pa rab gsal (1418) by Tsongkhapa (1357–
1419) ↩

20. Suhṛllekha by Nāgārjuna (c. 150–250 CE) ↩

21. Translated into Tibetan as ’Dul ba gzhi by Sarvajñādeva, Vidyākaraprabha,

Dharmākara, and Dpal gyi lhun po ↩

22. Karma-śataka (Tōh 340) ↩

23. Mtsho sna ba shes rab bzang po (early 13th CE—late 13th CE) was one of the
great Tibetan commentators on the Vinaya. For more on his life see: José
Cabezón, "Tsonawa Sherab Zangpo," Treasury of Lives, accessed August 18,
2020, http://treasuryoflives.org/biographies/view/Tsonawa-Sherab-
Zangpo/2791. ↩

24. Nītiśāstraprajñādaṇḍa by Nāgārjuna (c. 150–250 CE) ↩

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 25. Composed in 1669 by the great Fifth Dalai Lama, Ngag dbang blo bzang rgya
mtsho (1617-1682). For more on his life see: Alexander Gardner, "The Fifth
Dalai Lama, Ngawang Lobzang Gyatso," Treasury of Lives, accessed August 18,
2020, https://treasuryoflives.org/biographies/view/Ngawang-Lobzang-
Gyatso/6065 ↩

26. Nyāyabindu by Dharmakīrti (fl. c. 6th or 7th CE) ↩

27. Tshad ma rnam nges kyi TIk rgyal ba’i dgongs pa rab gsal is a commentary on
the Pramāṇaviniścaya by Rgyal tshab dar ma rin chen (1364–1432). For more on
his life see: Alexander Gardner, "Gyeltsabje Darma Rinchen," Treasury of Lives,
accessed August 18, 2020,
http://treasuryoflives.org/biographies/view/Gyeltsab-Darma-Rinchen/9095. ↩

28. Reliance on the meaning rather than the words, reliance on the teaching rather
than the individual, reliance on wisdom rather than concepts, and reliance on
the definitive meaning rather than the provisional meaning. ↩

29. The eight ripened qualities are longevity, excellent complexion, excellent
bloodline, excellent power, firm speech, mighty renown, being male,
possessing strength. ↩

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