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Energy and Power / Low Voltage / Protection
Smart and safe protective shutdown of LV

system with selectivity
By Edvard | October, 30th 2012 | 3 comments | Save to PDF

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selectivity
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Safety point
From the point of view of the operational safety and reliability of an entire low-voltage
installation, it is usually desirable to specifically isolate the part of a system affected by a
short-circuit in order to prevent spreading of the fault.
Smart and safe protective shutdown of LV system with selectivity (on photo: ABB MNS
low voltage switchgear – an upgrade of a production Yara plant, the leading global
fertilizer company in Porsgrunn, Norway; credit: ABB)
Selectivity is intended to ensure that the protective shutdown is as close as possible to the

location of the fault so that unaffected installation components can continue to operate
normally.
IEC 61439 standard – The new standard for low-voltage switchgear and controlgear
ASSEMBLIES – Applies to enclosures for which the rated voltage is under 1000 V AC or
1500 V DC.
This is often also desired for safety reasons and in IEC 60439-1 (low-voltage switchgear
assemblies) addressed for installations that require a high level of continuity in current
supply.
In buildings and industrial plants, radial distribution networks are the norm. In radial
distribution systems there are several protective devices in series, usually with decreasing
rated currents from the supply end to the load end.
While the operational currents decrease from the supply end to the load end, in the event of
a short-circuit the same fault current will flow through all the protective devices connected
in series.
By a cascading of the trip characteristics it must be ensured that only the respective
protective device that is closest to the location of the fault is activated and hence the fault is
selectively limited to the smallest possible part of the installation. We saw in one of the
previous technical article Simplify Downstream Installation with Cascading – that
cascading actually makes protection system cheaper by simplifying the downstream
installation (e.g. circuit breakers).
The basic prerequisite for selectivity of protective devices connected in series is that the
trip characteristic of the downstream (closer to the load) protective device is faster than
that of the upstream device. And all this taking into account all tolerances and over the
entire current range up to largest prospective short-circuit current.
Special attention should be paid to the area of high overcurrents, where the effects of
current limitation and breaking times are significant. Thus an upstream fuse does not
operate if the entire I2t of the downstream protective device (fuse, circuit breaker) is
smaller than the melting I2t the fuse. An upstream circuit breaker on the other hand does
not operate if the maximum cut-off current ID of the downstream protective device is
smaller than the activation value of its magnetic release.
In individual cases, reference to manufacture documents and frequently the technical

support of the manufacturer is required for the correct selection of devices. The basic facts
are presented below.
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Selectivity between fuses connected in series

Fuses connected in series act selectively if their time current-characteristic curves
have sufficient mutual spacing and their tolerance bands do not touch (Figure 1).
Figure 1 – Selectivity between fuses
connected in series
At high short-circuit currents the melting I2t value of the upstream fuse must be larger than
the breaking I2t value (melting and clearing time) of the smaller downstream fuse. This is
usually the case if their rated currents differ by a factor of 1.6 or more.
Selectivity of circuit breakers connected in series

Current selectivity
In distribution networks, the rated currents of the switches decrease constantly from the
transformer to the load. As the short-circuit releases normally operate at a multiple of the
rated current, their release levels decrease in the same way with distance from the supply.
As the prospective short-circuit currents also become smaller with increasing distance from
the supply point due to line damping, a so-called natural selectivity can be created via the
current magnitude.
This means that the maximum short-circuit current with a short-circuit on the load-side
of the switch 2 (Figure 2) is below the trip value of the magnetic release of switch 1.
The short-circuit currents must be known at the installation sites of the switches. Selectivity
is usually not assured with short-circuit currents above the response value of the magnetic
release of the upstream circuit breaker.
Figure 2 – Current selectivity of two circuit breakers in
series is given, if the prospective short-circuit current downstream of Circuit breaker 2 is
smaller than the trip value of the magnetic release of Switch 1
b = Overload release
s = Short-circuit release
When assessing the current selectivity the tolerance of the short-circuit trigger (+/-20 % in
accordance with IEC 60947-2) should be taken into account.
Time selectivity
If current selectivity between circuit breakers is not possible, selectivity must be achieved
by cascading of the trip times, i.e. the upstream circuit breaker operates with a short
delay to give the downstream circuit breaker time to clear the short-circuit.
If the short-circuit occurs between the two switches, then it will continue during the short
trip delay time of the switch 1 and after lapse of this time it will be switched off by the
latter (Figure 3).
Figure 3 – Time selectivity of
two circuit breakers in series
b = Overload release
s = Short-circuit release (switch 1 with short-time delay; utilization category B)
The cascading of trip times requires that Switch 1 is capable of carrying the short-circuit
current during the trip delay time. This is the case when using circuit breakers of utilization
category B.
The critical variable is the rated short-time current Icw that determines the magnitude of the
permissible short-time current during a defined period. It is usually stated as the 1s –
current and can be converted for other times with I2t = const.
Selectivity between fuse and downstream circuit breaker

Figure 4 – Selectivity between fuse and
downstream circuit breaker
1 = Circuit breaker
2 = Fuse
In the overload range selectivity is given, if the trip characteristic of the overload release
lies under the characteristic curve of the fuse (considering the tolerance band). In the short-
circuit range selectivity is given to the extent that the total breaking time (including
clearing time) of the circuit breaker is below the melting characteristic of the fuse.
Selectivity between a circuit breaker and downstream

fuse
Figure 5 – Selectivity between circuit breaker
and downstream fuse
1 = Circuit breaker
2 = Fuse
Selectivity in the tripping range of the short-circuit release of the circuit breaker is given
when the cut-off current of the fuse is smaller than its trip value.
Selectivity and undervoltage

In a short-circuit the supply voltage breaks down at the short-circuit location. The size of
the residual voltage depends on the impedance of the fault. If an electric arc is produced,
the voltage is appr. 30 V to 70 V.
As the short-circuit current flows over the entire power line up to power source, along this
line there is a voltage drop whose size is determined by the impedances lying between the
two points.
All connected electrical consumers are affected by the voltage drop and the closer they are
to the fault location the greater is this effect. Devices such as contactors or undervoltage
releases of circuit breakers may trip depending on the amount and duration of the voltage
drop.
In order to guarantee operational continuity, suitable off-delays or remaking equipment

should be provided. When short-circuits are broken by current limiting circuit breakers,
voltage break-downs are so short that no disruptions should be expected.
Resource: Allen Bradley – Low Voltage Switchgear and Controlgear

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Edvard Csanyi
Electrical engineer, programmer and founder of EEP. Highly specialized for design of
LV/MV switchgears and LV high power busbar trunking (<6300A) in power substations,
commercial buildings and industry fascilities. Professional in AutoCAD programming.
Present on Google+
3 Comments
1.
muath alsalloom
Feb 08, 2015
I’m an Electrical Engineer in position of Electrical Team Manager, I’ve read and
enjoyed learning from you site, thank you for sharing and I would like to offer my
service to and I want to contribute to the community,
Please reach me at the email above
Regards,
(reply)
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Power Substation / Protection / Transformers
Protection scheme for the substation with a

single supply from the utility
By Edvard | January, 7th 2019 | 1 comment | Save to PDF

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Home / Technical Articles / Protection scheme for the substation with a single supply from
the utility
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Single-transformer, single-bus configuration

The utility supply voltage depends on both availability and consumer requirements. The
consumer transformer is connected delta on the high-voltage side and grounded wye on the
low-voltage side.
P
rotection scheme for the substation with a single supply from the utility
A fused-disconnect switch provides three-phase switching and protection for the

transformer, as well as physical isolation of the transformer during maintenance. The
consumer voltage may range from 480 V to 34.5 kV. As stated above, power transformer is
connected delta/wye and system configuration is single-transformer / single-bus.
A normally open feeder tie switch is shown to facilitate circuit breaker maintenance.
Single supply from a remote utility substation (single-transformer / single-bus
configuration)
Contents:
1. Transformer protection
2. Transformer low-side bus and feeder protection
3. Protection of the supply line
4. Selective coordination and transformers (VIDEO)
1. Transformer protection
Several factors are involved in selecting the transformer high-side fuses.
FACTOR #1 – In general, the voltage rating of the fuse should be equal to or greater than
the system phase-to-phase voltage. Solid material expulsion-type fuses are not “voltage
critical” and may be applied on systems rated less than the voltage rating of the fuse.
In contrast, current-limiting fuses, which are available in ratings through 34.5 kV,
inherently develop an overvoltage during fault current interruption.
This overvoltage typically restricts application of current-limiting fuses to the same system
voltage class as the maximum voltage rating of the current-limiting fuse.
FACTOR #2 – The interrupting rating of the fuse should be equal to or greater than the
maximum anticipated fault
duty, including possible utility system expansion.
FACTOR #3 – The continuous current rating of the fuse should be equal to or greater than
the maximum anticipated emergency loading of the transformer.
IMPORTANT! Overload capability of power fuses may vary from 0% to 40% with
different fuse types and with different ampere ratings of the same fuse type.
FACTOR #4 – The continuous current rating and melting time-current characteristics of the
fuse should be selected to provide optimum transformer protection as well as coordination
with upstream and downstream relays or fuses, taking into account the effect of ambient
temperature and load current heating.
To achieve fast fault clearing, it may be necessary to accept fuse melting along with
tripping of the low-side breakers for close-in feeder faults. For further information, refer
to IEEE Std C37.91.
If two transformers are involved, as in Figure 2, the fuse size and relay setting or fuse
coordination should be selected based on the normal maximum loading level of both
transformers.
Coordination with the low-side breaker may be sacrificed under emergency loading
conditions with one transformer out of service.
Figure 2 – Dual supply-dual transformer (single-supply circuit breakers)
FACTOR #5 – Primary fusing as the only means of transformer protection may not be
suitable if the secondary ground fault current is limited by using resistance grounding on
the neutral.
This is because the primary current resulting from a phase-to-ground secondary fault may
not be sufficient to melt the fuse.
If low-resistance grounding is used, several relay schemes can be employed to clear a

ground fault between the transformer and feeder breakers, or beyond the feeder breakers if
one fails to open.
All of these schemes use a neutral CT and overcurrent relay (51G).

Figure 4 – Transformer neutral and zero-sequence ground relaying applications for
resistance-grounded systems
For a low-resistance-grounded system, the use of an overcurrent relay connected to a CT in

the service transformer neutral is usually the best option. This CT should have a ratio
smaller than the phase CT’s, and the relay pickup range in conjunction with the neutral CT
should allow a pickup as low as 10% of the neutral resistor rating.
For a feeder circuit downstream from the service transformer, a zero-sequence CT is

recommended, again with a ratio small enough to allow a pickup as low as 10% of the
neutral resistor rating.
When an overcurrent relay is utilized with a zero-sequence CT it is referred to as a 50G,

51G or 50/51G relay depending upon relay type used. Figure 4 shows typical arrangements
for both these applications.
This neutral overcurrent relay (51G) trip output can be connected to do one of the
following:
1. Close a high-side grounding switch to force tripping of the remote utility breaker
2. Open a high-side motor-operated switch that is rated to interrupt such faults
3. Transfer trip the remote utility breaker
Go back to contents ↑
2. Transformer low-side bus and feeder protection
The fuse provides protection for transformer high-side and low-side faults. It also provides
limited backup protection for low-side feeder faults.
Feeder phase protection is provided by non-directional instantaneous and time-

overcurrent relays. The purpose of the instantaneous relays is to provide high-speed
detection of close-in faults.
On short feeders, where the magnitude of fault current does not decrease significantly from
the bus to the end of the feeder, coordination of the instantaneous relays with downstream
protective devices may be difficult, if not impossible. The time-overcurrent relays should
coordinate with the largest protective device on the feeder.
The time current characteristics of the relays should be selected accordingly.
For coordination with branch fuses, a very inverse or extremely inverse-time characteristic
should be selected. Phase relay pickup should be greater than the expected full load current
on the feeder.
It is also important to check coordination of the time-overcurrent relay with the

transformer high-side fuse. Coordination should be reviewed when the load-side tie
switch is closed. The phase relay pickup should be high enough to carry the load of both
feeders and still provide adequate fault protection while maintaining coordination with the
high-side fuse.
Figur
e 3 – ANSI 50 and 51 overcurrent relay characteristics
Feeder ground fault protection may be provided by non-directional instantaneous and time-
overcurrent relays. A ground relay, connected in the neutral circuit, is not sensitive to
balanced three-phase load current.
Only currents resulting from an unbalanced load (on a four-wire system), or unbalanced
faults involving ground, will flow in the ground relay. Thus, the feeder full load current
need not be a directly considered when determining relay pickup.
The following are two different methods for setting ground relays:
a. Maximum coordination
b. Maximum ground fault sensitivity
a) Maximum coordination
The ground relay has a setting identical to that of the phase relays. This ensures the same
degree of coordination with downstream protective devices as the phase relay.
The ground relay will provide redundancy in the event of phase relay failure for a line-
to-ground fault.
b) Maximum ground fault sensitivity
The ground relay instantaneous and time-overcurrent pickup may be set much lower than
phase relay pickup. This provides sensitive protection for ground faults but may also
result in feeder outages for faults that would normally be cleared by downstream protective
devices.
For greater sensitivity, the ground relay may also be set with a time-overcurrent relay
pickup of about one-half that of the phase relay but with a high time-dial setting to
coordinate with downstream fuses over a reasonable range of fault current.
3. Protection of the supply line
Different supply voltage levels generally dictate different levels of utility line protection.
These systems will normally trip instantaneously for all line faults. The utility’s
instantaneous relaying may reach into the consumer’s transformer, but not completely
through it.
Ideally, transformer faults that are detected by instantaneous line relaying should also blow
the transformer fuse. This permits the line to be re-energized and the fault located.
Transformer isolation in this manner may not always be possible, particularly on utility
systems with large fuses and relatively low levels of ground fault current.
Normally, the supply line will also be protected with time-delayed relays. These relays
may reach completely through the transformer, depending on other relay setting restraints
on the utility system. If the relays do respond to low-side faults, coordination is necessary
with the transformer fuses.
If coordination between the fuses and the supply line protection is not possible, the
consumer may be required to use relay protection (connected to high-voltage CTs) for the
transformer, instead of fuses.
Failure to achieve coordination may result in nuisance tripping, additional damage to the
transformer due to supply line automatic reclosing, and an extended outage of the
supply line while maintenance personnel are trying to locate the fault.
4. Selective coordination and transformers (VIDEO)
Part 1
Calculating the required fuse ampacity ratios for selective coordination between the
primary side and secondary side of a transformer and downstream circuits.
https://youtu.be/ZrYH4he-Bbo
Part 2
Selectively coordination circuit breakers around a transformer.
https://youtu.be/HiPNLlvYu94
Part 3
Achieving selective coordination between fuses and circuit breakers when protecting
transformers.
https://youtu.be/pwVrKNPib7w
Sources:
1. IEEE Std C37.95 – IEEE Guide for Protective Relaying of Utility-Consumer

Interconnections
2. System Protection by Bill Brown at Square D Engineering Services
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One Comment
1.
dennis chee
Jan 07, 2019
I wonder why the power outtage happen all the time in my native country capital in
Ysngon, Myanmar. That why i am interesting reading power related article.
(reply)
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Energy Generation / Protection
Sizing a MV generator circuit breaker

(GCB) in terms of breaking capacity

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Home / Technical Articles / Sizing a MV generator circuit breaker (GCB) in terms of
breaking capacity
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The complex role of a generator CB

The main function of a circuit breaker is to carry the rated current of the generator and
break both the short-circuit current supplied by the generator and that supplied by the
power grid.
Sizin
g a MV generator circuit breaker (GCB) in terms of breaking capacity
Introduction to GCB circuits
The basic design of the generator circuit configuration is displayed in Figure 1. Generator
circuit-breakers (GCB) are essentially located between the generator and the step-up
transformer of the high voltage network.
In generator circuits two different faults are possible with a combination of high short-
circuit current at high asymmetrical components:
1. The system-source fault (fault on generator side, point A) and

2. on system-source fault (fault on the transformer side, point B).
In case of a “bad” synchronisation between the network and the generator circuit breaker
may close into a condition that is known as “out-of phase”. If this occurs with a phase
angle of up to 90°, the generator circuit-breaker has to interrupt short-circuit current values
nearly as high as the system source fault.
This is in contrast to the values of the short-circuit current under conditions according IEC
62271-100, which is 25 % of the rated short circuit current.
If a system-source fault occurs, the short-circuit current is established at high magnitudes

and the breaker is located close to the generator. The energy of the system feeds the fault
from the system through the transformer.
Figure 0 – Compact three phase vacuum generator circuit breaker type: VD4G-50 (15kV-
50kA-3150 … 4000A-50/60Hz)
Breaking capacity of a GCB
Requirements in terms of breaking capacity depend on the amount the installation

contributes to the fault current and the location of the actual fault itself. Figure 1 illustrates
a typical single-line diagram and two possible points of failure, i.e.:
 Fault in A – system-source fault

 Fault in B – generator-source fault
Figure 1 – Single-line diagram of a generator connection to the grid with two possible
points of failure (fault in A and B)
Regarding amplitude, fault current supplied by the grid is almost always higher than that
supplied by the generator. This is due to the lower reactance of the transformer and network
compared to the transient and sub-transient reactance of the generator.
This is also true of the X/R ratio, which is lower when the fault is supplied by the grid.
This current is therefore the requirement that determines the breaking capacity of the circuit
breaker.
However, when a circuit breaker is chosen for protecting a generator, in accordance with
the new Standard IEC/IEEE 62271-37-013 Ed. 1: High-voltage switchgear and
controlgear – Part 37-013:
Alternating current generator circuit breakers, short-circuit overcurrent is only one of the
parameters required for this specific application. One must also consider the fault in B,
supplied by the generator, characterized by higher levels of asymmetry and higher time
constants (Figure 2).
Fig
ure 2 – Fault in B supplied by generator
Circuit breakers for generators conforming to Standard IEC/IEEE 62271-37-013 are

designed to overcome these critical conditions and to withstand longer electric arc duration.
For example, the ABB’s VD4G family of generator circuit breakers includes three
apparatuses: VD4G-50, VD4G-40 and VD4G-25 for voltage ratings up to 15 kV, currents
up to 4000 A and breaking capacities of up to 50 kA for supply by generator.
Generator circuit breakers must conform to Standard IEC/IEEE 62271-37-013 “High-

voltage switchgear and controlgear – Part 37-013: Alternating-current generator
circuit breakers”.
Figure 3 – ABB’s VD4G generator circuit breaker family
The following table lists the breaking capacities of the family in the three conditions:
1. System-source,
2. Generator-source and
3. Out-of-phase conditions.
In the case of generator-source breaking capacity, the first value refers to maximum

breaking capacity with 110% asymmetry and the second to 74% breaking capacity but
130% asymmetry (called class G1 in the Standard). The same value means that the circuit
breaker is able to interrupt at maximum breaking capacity with 130% asymmetry (called
class G2 in the Standard).
In all cases, if the cause of asymmetry occurs during delays in current zero crossing, it will
be necessary to demonstrate that the circuit breaker is able to interrupt the current within
the maximum arcing time it is able to sustain.
If the arcing time resulting from the lack of current zeroes were to exceed the maximum
arcing time the circuit breaker is able to sustain, a possible solution would be to delay the
release signal of the circuit breaker so as to return below that maximum value.
This would clearly lengthen the time the installation would be exposed to short-circuit
current. For that reason, this solution must be carefully assessed and agreed with the user.
The other differences with respect to interruption of faults supplied by the grid are that the
rate of rise of the transient recovery voltage (TRV) is much steeper and there are fault
currents due to closing in out-of-phase conditions.
Current interruption due to generator-source faults is an extremely complex

phenomenon, considering the differences in the way generators behave due to different
design and construction techniques.
Since it is very difficult to reproduce these faults in test laboratories, the standard
underscores how the only way to assess the capability of a generator circuit breaker
to interrupt a short-circuit current with lack of current zero crossing is by simulation.
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Example of how a generator circuit breaker is sized
Two generators connected to the HV grid by means of a transformer with three windings
are considered in the installation proposed as an example. The starting condition will be
that of an initially no-load generator. A 1.05 voltage factor is considered for this
installation.
The main grid data are:
 Scc=2000 MVA
 X/R=10
 Vn=150 kV
Transformer with 3 windings:
V1 = 150 kV S1 = 150 MVA Vcc_12 = 11.5% at 55 MVA

V2 = 11.5 kV S2 = 75 MVA Vcc_13 = 11.1% at 55 MVA
V3 = 11.5 kV S3 = 75 MVA Vcc_23 = 21% at 55 MVA
Generators:
 Sn = 75.294 MVA
 Vn = 11.5kV
Xd = 2.26 Xq = 2.06 Td’ = 0.71 Tq’ = 0.71

Xd’ = 0.217 Xq’ = 0.26 Td’’ = 0.04 Tq’’ = 0.04
Xd’’ = 0.155 Xq’’ = 0.19 Ra = 0.001309
The reactances and resistances are given in p.u. while the values of the time constants are
given in seconds. According to Standard IEC 60034-3, the admissible tolerances can be
around ±15 %, thus all reactances are decreased by that percentage as a precaution.
We will first analyze the symmetrical current at instant t=0 (i.e. the moment that short-
circuit occurs) on the supply side and then on the load side of the generator circuit breaker
(GCB).
After this, the capability of the circuit breaker to eliminate a three-phase-earth short-
circuit in the two above-mentioned points will be assessed.
We will first consider a three-phase-earth fault between the GCB and generator G1.
Application of the MVA method allows the value of the short-circuit symmetrical current
to be assessed in just a few steps.
First, we must make sure that the Vcc_12; Vcc_13; Vcc_23 values are given according to the same
basis. After this, the values of the short-circuit impedances for each winding can be
obtained from the following relations:
Now let us suppose that the transformer with three windings is like the one in the
equivalent diagram of Figure 4:
Figure 4 – Transformer with 3 windings
The MVA method can now be applied to the circuit, as shown in Figure 5:
Figure 5 – Layout of the installation
The short-circuit current for a fault between the machine circuit breaker and generator G1
will be calculated first:
The symmetrical short-circuit current at instant t=0 can be obtained from this value.
Ik” is the symmetrical short-circuit current value at time t=0. This value acts as a reference
for successive simulation performed via computer using EMTP (Electromagnetic
Transient Program) software.
It also allows an initial estimation to be made of the size of the circuit breaker required.
The single-line diagram showing the system-source short-circuit currents for this particular
example is given in figure 6 below. Current Isff is the symmetrical short-circuit current to
which value Ik” corresponds at time t=0.
Figure
6 – Trend of short-circuit currents for a system-source fault
The trend of the short-circuit current in the time calculated with EMTP is illustrated in the
graph of figure 7.
Figure 7 – Short-circuit current for a system-source fault
The graph shows that the maximum current peak is:
Ip = 56.70 kA
while the remaining current values at instant t = 45 ms are:
Issf_sym = 21.38 kA
idc% = 53,75%
Note that the value of the symmetrical component is slightly different from the one
observed at instant t=0.
This is due to the contribution from the generator of the right-hand busbar which,
in the absence of a constant symmetrical component, also changes the total
symmetrical current value, although to a lesser extent.
The next data item to assess is the short-circuit current value in the case of a generator-
source three-phase to earth fault, considering the symmetrical component at instant t=0
and -15% tolerance on the reactance as explained previously:
Here again, short-circuit current I”kg acts as the reference value for the following
computer simulation. The single-line diagram showing the current flow for generator-
source faults (Igff) is given below.
Figure
8 – Trend of short-circuit currents for a generator-source fault
The graphs in figures 9 and 10 show the short-circuit current trend for the 90 and 0 degree
voltage phase angles, respectively (also calculated with EMTP).
Figure 9 – Short-circuit current for a generator-source fault, 90° voltage angle
The graph shows that the maximum value of the current peak is:
Ip = 80 kA
Considering a 45ms instant, the remaining current values are as follows:
Isym = 22.52 kA
idc% = 118%
Table 1 – ABB’s generator circuit breaker VD4G family
System-source Generator-source breaking Out-of-phase breaking

breakingcapacity [kA] capacity [kA] capacity [kA]
VD4G-50 50 50/37 25
VD4G-40 40 25/25 20
VD4G-25 25 16/16 12.5
This result shows that continued operation can be guaranteed by a class G1 circuit
breaker, as is for example ABB’s breaker type VD4G-50 (from above table).
Figure 10 – Short-circuit current for a generator-source fault, 0° voltage angle
Both the graphs in Figures 9 and 10 show the two asymmetry values that must be
considered when choosing the circuit breaker, as clearly suggested by the new Standard for
generator circuit breakers (IEC/IEEE 62271-37-013 Annex E).
These graphs show that the short-circuit current has a maximum peak value of 80kA and
a 22.5 kA symmetrical component.
In the case of system-source faults, thus owing to simultaneous contributions from the grid
and generator, the ratio between peak value and the real symmetrical component the instant
the contacts separate may exceed the value of 2.74 (standardized value for system-source
faults, corresponding to a 133 ms time constant of the direct component).
Checks based on the peak value mentioned above are therefore necessary when assessing
the minimum size that can be selected.
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The other limit when the MVA method is used for the calculations is that the
symmetrical component of the short-circuit current is calculated at instant t=0. However,
this value could be useful in the absence of detailed data.
As mentioned previously, the value of the symmetrical component varies over time since a
generator, whose symmetrical component is not constant during short-circuits, is involved.
This means that it is important to calculate the value of the total symmetrical component
the instant the contacts separate, which is less than that calculated with the MVA method,
i.e. at t=0, so as to avoid choosing an oversized circuit breaker.
However, to calculate the circuit breaker precisely, the exact characteristic parameters of

the generator must be known and the technician who performs the calculation must be fully
familiar with the use of EMTP software.
Faults due to out-of-phase must also be assessed if the circuit breaker can be closed in
the absence of synchronism between the grid and the generator itself, e.g. owing to faulty
operation of the parallelled system.
The fault current that occurs in this case follows the characteristic trend in Figure 11, which
mainly depends on the inertia of the rotor and relative turbine connected.
Figure 11 – Fault current due to circuit breaker closing in out-of-phase conditions at 90°
phase difference
Although it may not seem so frequent, this type of fault must still be considered since its
effects can be serious. Thus the capability of a generator circuit breaker to deal with it is of
fundamental importance.
Protection relays for generators
All or only some of the following protection functions can be used for protecting
the generator, depending on the rated power of the machine and the type of application:
 relay 87 residual current protection of the generator (sometimes called 87G);

 relay 49 thermal overload protection of stator;
 relay 51 overcurrent protection;
 relay 40 loss of field protection;
 relay 32 reverse power;
 relay 46 negative sequence overcurrent protection;
 relay 21 underimpedance protection (as an alternative to zero-sequence
overcurrent protection with voltage control when there is a unit transformer);
 relay 50V overcurrent protection with voltage control (as an alternative to
underimpedance protection when there is no unit transformer);
 relay 27 undervoltage protection;
 relay 59 overvoltage protection;
 relay 81 underfrequency and overfrequency protection;
 relay 24 maximum overflux protection;
 relay 64R rotor ground protection;
 relay 64S stator ground protection (function of the type of state of the neutral).
There are other protection functions used for high-power machines, e.g.:
 5 accidental energization;
 37 underpower relay
 49R (51R) rotor overload;
 60 voltage balance relay;
 78 ou of step.
A few typical protection system configurations are illustrated in Figure 12 as well as an

example ABB’s protection relay type REG630 which is recommended in this case.
Figure 12 – Generator with earthed neutral and isolated neutral
Generator Protection Fundamentals (VIDEO)
Sources:
1. MV switching devices – Technologies & application by ABB

2. A three-phase generator vacuum circuit breaker based on vacuum interrupter
technology has been established for the application in generator circuits up to 15
kv-50 KA by Dietmar GENTSCH and Stephan SCHOFT (ABB)
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Edvard Csanyi
Present on Google+
One Comment
1.
amin hassan
Jan 14, 2019
thanks
(reply)
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Energy and Power
What is the difference between Bonding,

Grounding and Earthing?
By jiguparmar | September, 27th 2012 | 34 comments | Save to PDF

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Home / Technical Articles / What is the difference between Bonding, Grounding and
Earthing?
Bonding, Grounding and Earthing

1. Introduction
2. Bonding
3. Earthing
4. Grounding
5. Micro Difference between Earthing and Grounding
6. Illegal Practice of interchange Purpose of Grounding and earthing wire
7. Conclusion
What is the difference between Bonding, Grounding and Earthing?
Introduction
One of the most misunderstood and confused concept is difference between Bonding,
Grounding and Earthing. Bonding is more clear word compare to Grounding and
Earthing, but there is a micro difference between Grounding and Earhing.
Earthing and Grounding are actually different terms for expressing the same concept.
Ground or earth in a mains electrical wiring system is a conductor that provides a low
impedance path to the earth to prevent hazardous voltages from appearing on equipment.
Earthing is more commonly used in Britain, European and most of the commonwealth
countries standards (IEC, IS), while Grounding is the word used in North American
standards (NEC, IEEE, ANSI, UL).
The earthing connection to switchboard
rear door (metal parts)
We understand that Earthing and Grounding are necessary and have an idea how to do it
but we don’t have crystal clear concept for that. We need to understand that there are really
two separate things we are doing for same purpose that we call Grounding or Earthing. The
Earthing is to reference our electrical source to earth (usually via connection to some kind
of rod driven into the earth or some other metal that has direct contact with the earth).
The grounded circuits of machines need to have an effective return path from the machines
to the power source in order to function properly (Here by Neutral Circuit).
In addition, non-current-carrying metallic components in a System, such as equipment

cabinets, enclosures, and structural steel, need to be electrically interconnected and earthed
properly so voltage potential cannot exist between them. However, troubles can arise when
terms like “bonding”, “grounding”, and “earthing” are interchanged or confused in certain
situations.
In TN Type Power Distribution System, in US NEC (and possibly other) usage: Equipment
is earthed to pass fault Current and to trip the protective device without electrifying the
device enclosure. Neutral is the current return path for phase. These Earthing conductor and
Neutral conductor are connected together and earthed at the distribution panel and also at
the street, but the intent is that no current flow on earthed ground, except during momentary
fault conditions.
Here we may say that Earthing and grounding are nearly same by practice.
But In the TT Type Power Distribution System (in India) Neutral is only earthed (here it is
actually called Grounding) at distribution source (at distribution transformer) and Four
wires (Neutral and Three Phase) are distributed to consumer. While at consumer side all
electrical equipment body are connected and earthed at consumer premises (here it is
called Earthing).
Consumer has no any permission to mix Neutral with earth at his premises here earthing
and grounding is the different by practice.
In both above case Earthing and Grounding are used for the same Purpose. Let’s try to
understand this terminology one by one.
Go to Content ↑
Bonding
Bonding is simply the act of joining two electrical conductors together. These may be two
wires, a wire and a pipe, or these may be two Equipments. Bonding has to be done by
connecting of all the metal parts that are not supposed to be carrying current during normal
operations to bringing them to the same electrical potential.
Bonding ensures that these two things which are bonded will be at the same electrical
potential. That means we would not get electricity building up in one equipment or between
two different equipment. No current flow can take place between two bonded bodies
because they have the same potential.
Bonding itself, does not protect anything. However, if one of those boxes is earthed there
can be no electrical energy build-up. If the grounded box is bonded to the other box, the
other box is also at zero electrical potential.
It protects equipment and person by reducing current flow between pieces of equipment at
different potentials.
The primary reason for bonding is personnel safety, so someone touching two pieces of
equipment at the same time does not receive a shock by becoming the path of equalization
if they happen to be at different potentials. The Second reason has to do with what happens
if Phase conductor may be touched an external metal part.
The bonding helps to create a low impedance path back to the source. This will force a
large current to flow, which in turn will cause the breaker to trip.
In other words, bonding is there to allow a breaker to trip and thereby to terminate a
fault.
Typical bonding connection
Bonding to electrical earth is used extensively to ensure that all conductors (person,

surface and product) are at the same electrical potential. When all conductors are at the
same potential no discharge can occur.
Go to Content ↑
Earthing
Earthing means connecting the dead part (it means the part which does not carries current
under normal condition) to the earth for example electrical equipment’s frames, enclosures,
supports etc.
The purpose of earthing is to minimize the risk of receiving an electric shock if touching
metal parts when a fault is present. Generally green wire is used for this as a nomenclature.
Under fault conditions the non-current carrying metal parts of an electrical installation such
as frames, enclosures, supports, fencing etc. may attain high potential with respect to
ground so that any person or stray animal touching these or approaching these will be
subjected to potential difference which may result in the flow of a current through the body
of the person or the animal of such a value as may prove fatal.
To avoid this non-current carrying metal parts of the electrical system are connected to the
general mass of earth by means of an earthing system comprising of earth conductors to
conduct the fault currents safely to the ground.
Earthing has been accomplished through bonding of a metallic system to earth. It is

normally achieved by inserting ground rods or other electrodes deep inside earth.
Earthing is to ensure safety or Protection of electrical equipment and Human by

discharging the electrical energy to the earth.
Go to Content ↑
Grounding
Grounding means connecting the live part (it means the part which carries current under
normal condition) to the earth for example neutral of power transformer. It is done for the
protections of power system equipment and to provide an effective return path from the
machine to the power source.
For example grounding of neutral point of a star connected transformer.
Grounding refers the current carrying part of the system such as neutral (of the transformer
or generator).
Because of lightening, line surges or unintentional contact with other high voltage lines,
dangerously high voltages can develop in the electrical distribution system wires.
Grounding provides a safe, alternate path around the electrical system of your house thus
minimizing damage from such occurrences.
Generally Black wire is used for this as a nomenclature.
All electrical/electronic circuits (AC & DC) need a reference potential (zero volts) which is
called ground in order to make possible the current flow from generator to load. Ground is
May or May not be earthed. In Electrical Power distribution it is either earthed at
distribution Point or at Consumer end but it is not earthed in Automobile( for instance all
vehicles’ electrical circuits have ground connected to the chassis and metallic body that are
insulated from earth through tires).
There may exist a neutral to ground voltage due to voltage drop in the wiring, thus neutral
does not necessarily have to be at ground potential.
Cant see this video? Click here to watch it on Youtube.

In a properly balanced system, the phase currents balance each other, so that the total
neutral current is also zero. For individual systems, this is not completely possible, but we
strive to come close in aggregate.
This balancing allows maximum efficiency of the distribution transformer’s secondary

winding.
Go to Content ↑
Micro Difference between earthing and Grounding

There is no major difference between earthing and Grounding, both means “Connecting an
electrical circuit or device to the Earth”. This serves various purposes like to drain away
unwanted currents, to provide a reference voltage for circuits needing one, to lead lightning
away from delicate equipment.
Even though there is a micro difference between grounding and earthing:
1. Difference in Terminology
In USA term Grounding is used but in UK term Earthing is used.
2. Balancing the Load Vs Safety
Ground is a source for unwanted currents and also as a return path for main current some
times. While earthing is done not for return path but only for protection of delicate
equipments. It is an alternate low resistance path for current.
When we take out the neutral for a three phase unbalanced connection and send it to
ground, it is called grounding. Grounding is done to balance unbalanced load. While
earthing is used between the equipment and earth pit so as to avoid electrical shock and
equipment damage.
3. Equipment Protection Vs Human Safety
Earthing is to protect the circuit elements whenever high voltage is passed by thunders or
by any other sources while Grounding is the common point in the circuit to maintain the
voltage levels.
Earth is used for the safety of the human body in fault conditions while Grounding (As
neutral earth) is used for the protection of equipment. Earthing is a preventive measure
while Grounding is just a return path.
The ground conductor provides a return path for fault current when a phase conductor
accidentally comes in contact with a grounded object. This is a safety feature of the wiring
system and we would never expect to see grounding conductor current flow during normal
operation.
IMPORTANT: Do not Ground the neutral second time when It is grounded either at
Distribution Transformer or at Main service panel of Consumer end. Grounding act as
neutral. But neutral cannot act as ground.
4. System Zero Potential Vs Circuit Zero Potential
Earthing and Grounding both is refer to zero potential, but the system connected to zero
potential is differ than Equipment connected to zero potential .If a neutral point of a
generator or transformer is connected to zero potential then it is known as grounding.
At the same time if the body of the transformer or generator is connected to zero potential
then it is known as earthing.
The term “Earthing means that the circuit is physically connected to the ground and it is
Zero Volt Potential to the Ground (Earth) but in case of “Grounding” the circuit is not
physically connected to ground, but its potential is zero(where the currents are algebraically
zero) with respect to other point, which is also known as “Virtual Grounding”.
Earth having zero potential whereas neutral may have some potential. That means neutral
does not always have zero potential with respect to ground. In earthing we have Zero Volt
potential references to the earth while in grounding we have local Zero Volt potential
reference to circuit. When we connect two different Power circuits in power distribution
system, we want to have the same Zero Volt reference so we connect them and grounds
together.
This common reference might be different from the earth potential.
Go to Content ↑
Illegal Practice of interchange Purpose of Grounding and

earthing wire
Neutral wire in grid connections is mandatory for safety. Imagine a person from 4th floor in
a building uses Earth wire (which is earthed in the basement at Basement) as neutral to
power his lights. Another Person from 2nd floor has a normal setup and uses neutral for the
same purpose. Neutral wire is also earthed at the ground level (as per USA practice Neutral
is Grounded (earthed) at Building and as per Indian Practice it is Grounded (earthed) at
Distribution Transformer).
However, ground wire (Neutral wire) has a much lower electrical resistance than Earth
Wire (Earthing) which results in a difference of electrical potential (i.e. voltage) between
them. This voltage is quite a hazard for anyone touching a Earth wire (Metal Body of
Equipment) as it may have several tens of volts.
The second issue is legality. Using ground wire instead of neutral makes you an energy
thief as the meter uses only the Phase and neutral for recording your energy consumption.
Many Consumers make energy theft by using Earthing wire as a Neutral wire in an Energy
meter.
Go to Content ↑
Conclusion
Ground is a source for unwanted currents and also as a return path for main current. While
earthing is done not for return path but only for protection of delicate equipments. It is an
alternate low resistance path for current.
Earth is used for the safety of the human body in fault conditions while Grounding (As
neutral earth) is used for the protection of equipment.
Go to Content ↑
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Jignesh Parmar
Jignesh Parmar has completed M.Tech (Power System Control) ,B.E(Electrical). He is

member of Institution of Engineers (MIE),India. Membership No:M-1473586.He has more
than 13 years experience in Transmission -Distribution-Electrical Energy theft detection-
Electrical Maintenance-Electrical Projects (Planning-Designing-Technical Review-
coordination -Execution). He is Presently associate with one of the leading business group
as a Deputy Manager at Ahmedabad,India.
34 Comments
1.
E.J
May 10, 2018
i connect the base of a 3phase diesel genset together with its neutral to the neutral of
the step-up tranformer then connect it to the tranformer grounding then connect it to
the the grounding rod buried 6ft.
Is it ok??
(reply)
2.
qusai
Mar 08, 2018
Hi
Greetings,,
Does the Equipotantioal bonding require separate earth pit.?
Regards,,
(reply)
3.
Eric
Dec 30, 2017

Hello Sir, i would like to ask a question. my country electrical code most of them
are copied or similar from NEC thr american standard. well the problem is in my
work i have notice that europeans always bashing american electrical standards and
they will laughing at it and they will said one of the poorest standard.most of the
jobs are confuse me.but in my experience if im compare who has the better method
or the work outputs i would say NEC is telling the correct method rather than IEC.
(reply)
4.
SANJAY RATHOD
Aug 13, 2017
Hello Jignesh,
Good Information.
As you are working on transmission line, I would like to know how to over come
the lightning stokes on 33KV OHL with porcelain insulators.Is there any method to
limit the failure of insulators.
(reply)
5.
Daud Salis
Aug 06, 2017
Great information sir,teach us more stuffs on these.As an electrical engineering

student plz update me on how to choose a topic on these for my first degree
program
(reply)
6.
Daud Salis
Aug 06, 2017

Box ks 13072
Ghana
(reply)
7.
Les Hammer
Dec 13, 2016
> Generally Black wire is used for this as a nomenclature.
This statement should not be used in any article published in the USA. Black wires
in your house are at 115V potential. The novice reader may become confused when
you speak of Black wires and ground.
(reply)
8.
farzin khaleghi
Nov 27, 2016
your definition about differences between earthing & Grounding is Totally wrong.
Both of them have same meaning.
(reply)
9.
Roger ANiez
Oct 24, 2016
new Rectifier installed in substation is not grounded… then for initial energization
the rectifier is exploded…what is the cause ??? pls advise
(reply)
10.
Tarique Anwar
Apr 28, 2016
Dear Jignesh,
During the material receiving of industrial lighting fixture, indoor and outdoor, The
lighting fixture was are totally in wet conditions happened during transportation or
in custom storage.
I would like to know the technical reason, can we use the lighting fixture yes or no,
please let me know the reason.
I am waiting for your kind responce.
(reply)
o
farhan shaikh
Dec 24, 2016
dry it out and check insulation resistance, it can be installed after that.
(reply)
11.
Ashingu
Nov 05, 2015
What do you think about grounding’s health effects on the body? Is it safe to be
grounded? Is there any possibility of danger from touching a grounding wire?
(reply)
12.
EMIL
Aug 15, 2015
Excelent this post,congrat…to all.

Good job .
(reply)
13.
sivakumar palani
May 30, 2015
Dear sir,
Is grounding wire a requirement even for the light fittings which has got metal to
metal contact with the ships structure.
(reply)
14.
AbduRahman Yusuf
Apr 26, 2015
Let me firstly thank Engr. Jignesh Parmar.
Then, how best can we sum up single phase loads (say 30 x 150W SPN @ 220V) in
a TPN @ 400V Distribution Board for the purpose of calculating/determining TPN
DB”s main CB and its 4-Core feeder Cable?
(reply)
15.
murat
Apr 14, 2015
Jignesh Parmar! Your articles make a difference for the people following this site.
Thank you for your contributions.
(reply)
16.
Ahmed
Feb 26, 2015
Great Information… thanks
(reply)
17.
Ashokkumar
Feb 03, 2015
1.Differ the earth connection to main earth grid via by exothermic welding and
normal earth connection.
2.We are having more tanks and vessels and pumps on it earthing all via Earth bar is
better or direct connection to earth grid is better.
(reply)
18.
fady samy
Oct 21, 2014
why do always keep 6 mt separate distance between earth pits???
(reply)
19.
ATAKAN CANER
Oct 16, 2014
Please see our patented high voltage protection VoltCare. VoltCare is a Low voltage
lightning arrester without discharge grounding line. You can find more details on
http://www.voltcare.net .
(reply)
20.
T.Ch.H.Rao
Oct 16, 2014
excellent article
(reply)
21.
sajid
Sep 30, 2014
Dear Sir
i have a question which software we can use for designing earthing system.
if you have any please share at portal also help to understand the designing
parameters for earthing of a system.
(reply)
22.
Amit kumar lenka
Sep 22, 2014
clear answer sir
(reply)
23.
ravi chandra
Feb 23, 2014
Wonderful explanation sir. Actually always a confusion existed, but now my

thoughts are clear. Thank you so much for the write up. Its worth reading :)
(reply)
24.
krishnajirao
Mar 19, 2013
After going through the article, I find there is non-congruence in the three
terms.grounding,earthing and bonding.If grounding is not done then earthing
becomes bonding! Is it right?
Through earthing and bonding fault current will flow?
What is the purpose of grounding and grounding electrodes if we provide an earth
bus from the neutral point to all the enclosures through out the system?
(reply)
25.
Magnito
Oct 14, 2012
Which is a more effective way for substation earthing? I work in a plant were all the
old substations have earth pits but most of the morden ones multiple earth rods
around the substation. I am new in the field. Which one is a much better my
arrangement?
(reply)
26.
richxtlc
Sep 27, 2012
The terms grounding and bonding have been misused for may years in the US. The
problem has been addressed by the NEC to clarify it.
In the US the grounding of the electrical system is accomplished at two point, at the
source transformer, (neutral point on a 3-phase wye connected winding or at the
midpoint of a single-phase transformer for local distribution and at the first
disconnecting device at the customer’s premise. The earth ground is connected to a
ground rod or other grounding electrode and then it is tied to the grounded
conductor (neutral) in the first disconnecting device.
This is done to accomplish two things, one to provide a low impedance path back to
the source for unbalanced and fault currents and in the event the grounded
conductor opens prior to the first disconnecting device the path still exists through
ground to return to the source.
The bonding of all non-current carrying metallic parts provides a low impedance
path to the first disconnecting device to provide sufficient current to operate the
OCPD and to connect to the grounded conductor (neutral) to return to the source.
The use of earth as the sole means for fault current return may not allow sufficient
current to flow as the impedance can vary greatly between tow points. The
impedance of the earth can vary with the moisture content, the type of soil (sand,
loam, gravel) and temperature. The temperature and moisture can vary with the
changes in seasons. it can therefore provide an inconsistent impedance between the
fault and the source.
The article does clarify the differences between the North American and European
methods and clarifies the terms used in each except as noted above.
(reply)
27.
Al Warner
Sep 27, 2012

Edi – With all due respect, there are many technical errors with respect to grounding
practices in the USA, etc. I would be happy to offer comment & corrections if either
you or Jiguparmar would send me an unsecured PDF of this article that I could edit
with Adobe Acrobat 8 Standard.
Al
(reply)
o
Edvard
Sep 27, 2012
Hi Al,
Thanks for the commenting. Can you name mistakes one by one here in the
comment field? Article is already published, so editing is not very
recommended, but still possible only with permission of author Jignesh
Parmar.
However you can create PDF using button PDF below article title.
I’d love to see your comments to continue the discussion.
(reply)
o
jiguparmar
Sep 27, 2012
Thanks richxtlc,
At some angle agree with You. As per my view, As per USA practice
Grounding and Earthing make combined so Can we say that for this type of
Practice Earthing and Grounding are similar word for that. and I think there
is no problem of Neutral Floating in this practice .
I write this Article on the base of Indian Practice here Earthing and
Grounding is totally separate from its source to user end and don’t mix
neutral with earth.
Can you agree for the statement that Neutral earthing to earth is called
“Grounding” and Equipment Earhitng to the earth is called “Earthing” (Not
Grounding).
Waiting for your Reply.
(reply)

richxtlc
Sep 28, 2012
In the sense that we are talking about using the European or IEC
terminology, you are correct. In the US we only tie the neutral
(grounded conducfor) to ground at the source transformer and at the
customer’s first disconnecting device (in most cases). We use an
equipment grounding conductor (either the connecting conduit, bare
copper wire, or green or green with yellow stripe) to connect the
non-current carrying metal casing to the ground bus in the first
disconnect device.
We normally never have more that one ground in any circuit as this
would create problems with getting sufficient current to flow to
operate the OCPD.
There are instances were we have ungrounded wye circuits to

prevent operation of the OCPD for a single phase-to-ground fault.
But, the protective grounding of the equipment is stilled connected in
the way described above.
(reply)

Olubunmi
Feb 02, 2017

Please is there a difference between earthing for lighting
protection and earthing/grounding of electrical panels in a
building
(reply)

N. Collins
Mar 23, 2018
No difference really, both can be connected to same

main earth Path.

Engr.Olawoyin
Oct 13, 2018
Your earthing cable must be connected to lightning

down conductor and to the earth grid. Your earthing
cable and that of earthing grid cable shall be of the
same size.
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Electric Motor / Protection
Protecting Motor From External Network

Disturbances (Unbalance, V/Hz-ratio and
Re-Energizing)
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Home / Technical Articles / Protecting Motor From External Network Disturbances (Unbalance,
V/Hz-ratio and Re-Energizing)
Unbalance Protection
Unbalance in the supply voltage is typically due to a broken phase condition somewhere in
the upstream network. This may result from single-phase fuse failure or pole discrepancy of
a circuit breaker or a disconnector.
Protecting Motor From External Network Disturbances (Unbalance, V/Hz-ratio and Re-Energizing)
(photo credit: ABB)
In addition, unequal loading of the phases causes unequal voltage drops, and thus a slight
unbalance in the supply voltage may result. Unsymmetrical faults are causes of short-term
unbalance conditions.
Unbalanced phase currents are a source of negative-sequence current in the motor,
generating a magnetic flux component rotating in the opposite direction compared to the
rotation direction of the motor shaft. The frequency of this flux component is 2-s, where s
is the slip frequency in p.u, and it induces currents of this frequency in the rotor.
This results in a slight negative torque, and especially to increased copper and eddy current
losses. Because of the high frequency of the induced currents in the rotor, the skin effect causes
the resistance of the rotor to increase compared to the corresponding DC-resistance.
Thus, one unit of negative-sequence current causes higher heating effect than one unit of
positive-sequence current.
NOTE: The current distribution between the phases depends on the cause and nature of
the unbalance and on the motor characteristics.
Figure 1 shows an example how the motor loss is increased as the supply voltage and as a
result, the phase currents become unbalanced. It has been assumed that the loss is directly
proportional to IL2 and the skin effect has been neglected (IL is the phase current). In
addition, the calculation of the average loss assumes perfect thermal conductivity between
the phases.
The results in Figure 1 have been calculated by varying the amplitude and phase angle of
each phase voltage in turn.
Figure 1 – Effect of unbalanced supply voltage on the copper loss of an HV-induction motor with |
Z1|/|Z2|=6.5. By multiplying this ratio by the negative-sequence voltage, the corresponding
negative-sequence current can be estimated. ILMAX = maximum phase current, ILMIN = minimum
phase current.
Considering the above, a separate unbalance protection is required to protect the motor
running with unbalanced supply voltage unless the heating effect of the negative-sequence
current has been adequately taken into account by the thermal model used in the overload
protection.
Unbalance also causes mechanical problems like vibration. Therefore, at least severe
unbalance should always be detected, and a dedicated unbalance protection based on, for
example,the magnitude of the negative-sequence current, is recommended.
Inverse time characteristic should be preferred and the operation time should be
selected so that the normal use of the motor is allowed, especially the starting of the
machine, when in practice some negative- sequence current may be measured.
<="" ins="" data-adsbygoogle-status="done" data-overlap-observer-io="false">
Variation in Supply Voltage and Frequency

In most cases, motors can be approximated as volt-independent loads with constant
V/Hz-ratio: A decrease in the supply voltage will be followed by an increase in the phase
current. As long as the V/Hz-ratio is nearly at a constant level, the variations in voltage and
frequency do not cause any specific harm for the motor.
In this case, undervoltage condition causes an increase in the phase current, and
overloading of the motor may take place, which is then detected by the thermal overload
protection.
Increase in the V/Hz-ratio increases the flux density in the motor, resulting in some point in
saturation effects in the normally flux carrying parts of the motor. This gives rise to excitation
current and stray fluxes flowing outside the normally flux carrying parts, which are then greatly
heated by the induced eddy currents.
Typically, protection against sustained undervoltage and overvoltage is arranged. This

protection operates in case of overvoltage in the order of 10-20%. Undervoltage protection
is set to trip in case of total loss of voltage, so that when the voltage returns, simultaneous
restart of all the motors is prevented.
ABB’s protection relay REM 54 used for the protection of a synchronous motor started with an
autotransformer. Pole slip function implemented with directional power functions.
Out-of-Phase Re-Energizing Protection

Abnormally high starting current can be produced in a motor if energized shortly after a
supply interruption. The resulting current can be higher than the normal starting current
imposing to excessive thermal and mechanical stress, which may result in direct motor
damage.
After the supply interruption, voltage and frequency measured from the motor terminals
start to decay. This decay results in the phase angle, voltage and frequency difference
between the source side and motor terminal voltages (US and UM, Figure 2). The rate of the
decay depends on the motor type and drive characteristics.
An example of this is shown in Figure 2 below:

Figure 2 – Example of difference quantities (dph, df, dU) between the source side and motor
terminal voltage during a short supply interruption. The shaded area represents the time window
possible for re-energizing.
Whether a reclosing to a single source, that is, closing the source circuit breaker, SCB in
Figure 2, can be done or not depends on how the magnitudes of the above difference
quantities develop during the interruption and on the length of the interruption.
Figure 2 shows a possible time window for the reclose to take place without a risk of motor
damage.
The example is based on the requirement that the resultant vectorial voltage difference in
per unit volts per hertz on the motor rated voltage, and the frequency base must not exceed
a value of 1.33 p.u (ANSI C50.41-2000) at the instant the reclose is completed.
In addition, the phase angle difference must not exceed 90° at the instant the reclose is
completed. It can be concluded, for example, that this motor drive can tolerate short supply
interruptions (< 0.1 second) such as a high-speed autoreclose in the incoming line.
However, in case of longer supply interruptions (up to a few seconds), this motor must be
disconnected before the supply is restored to avoid the possibility of re-energizing in out-
of- phase condition.
The detection of the loss-of-supply condition and the initiation of the tripping of the motor
feeder circuit breaker, MCB in Figure 2, when required, typically undervoltage,
underfrequency or loss-of-power functions, or a combination of these can be applied.
Reference // Distribution Automation Handbook – Motor Protection by ABB
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Edvard Csanyi
Electrical engineer, programmer and founder of EEP. Highly specialized for design of LV/MV
switchgears and LV high power busbar trunking (<6300A) in power substations, commercial
buildings and industry facilities. Professional in AutoCAD programming.
One Comment
1.
Sharifullah
Oct 14, 2018
I am Electrical Technician
I am working in international steel limited
So that is amazing calculations T/f connection and wonderful news
(reply)
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Electric Motor / Energy Efficiency
5 Factors That Mess Up Motor Efficiency

and How To Improve It
By Edvard | December, 23rd 2015 | 12 comments | Save to PDF
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Home / Technical Articles / 5 Factors That Mess Up Motor Efficiency and How To Improve It
Motor efficiency vs Energy losses

It must be emphasised that the standard electric motor is already a very efficient device
with efficiencies above 80% over most of the working range, rising to over 90% at full
load. However, because of the high energy consumption, and the very large number of
installed units, even a small increase in motor efficiency can have a major impact on
costs.
5 Factors That Mess Up Motor Efficiency and How To Improve It (on photo: Baldor M2510 Motor;
10 HP; 230/460 V; 27.2 A; 1760 RPM; 60 Hz)
The efficiency of an electric motor depends on the choice of materials used for the core
and windings, their physical arrangement and the care and precision with which they are
handled and assembled.
Losses can be categorised into two groups. Those that are relatively independent of load
(constant losses), and those that increase with load (load dependent losses).
The factors that affect efficiency are //
1. Conductor content – load dependent

2. Magnetic steel -mainly constant
3. Thermal design – mainly load dependent
4. Aerodynamic design – constant
5. Manufacture and quality control – constant
1. Conductor Content
Resistive losses in the windings increase with the square of the current (which increases
with the load) and normally account for around 35% of the total losses.
These resistive losses can be reduced by putting more copper into the windings – using a thicker
gauge wire – and improving manufacturing techniques to shorten the end windings (which do not
contribute to output power, but do contribute to loss).
Since more copper requires more space, both for the end windings and in the stator slots,
the volume of material in the magnetic circuit would be reduced, leading to earlier
saturation and increased iron losses. Consequently, it is necessary to increase the length
of the magnetic core, and sometimes the diameter as well.
Normally, the increased length is accommodated by increasing the overhang at the non-
drive end of the unit. Because copper losses are load-dependent, the benefit of increasing
the copper content is most apparent at high loading. Since the coefficient of resistance of
copper is positive, the losses increase as temperature rises.
Figure 1 – Loss against load for a typical standard motor
Go back to Motor Efficiency Factors ↑
2. Magnetic steel
Magnetic steel is the most expensive component of the motor, so any increase in the total
amount used is undesirable on cost grounds. The iron losses are of two types – hysteresis
loss and eddy current loss.
Hysteresis loss is due to the non-linearity of the flux density/magnetising force curve and is
a property of the steel itself and to minimise it two properties are required – a low energy
loss and good high field permeability, i.e. the steel must be easy to magnetise and must
not saturate at high flux densities of up to 1.8 Tesla.
This is the subject of on-going research that is making promising progress. Eddy-
current losses are due to induced current in the stator laminations and are reduced by
reducing the thickness of the laminations and by ensuring good insulation between adjacent
laminations.
Figure 2 – Magnetization and

hysteresis curves
Thinner laminations are, naturally much more expensive to produce and more difficult to
handle, so the chosen thickness is always a compromise. Magnetic losses are particularly
important when the supply is distorted by harmonics because eddy current losses increase
with the square of the frequency while hysteresis losses are proportional to frequency.
The benefit of using improved magnetic steel is a reduction in loss across the whole of
the working range, but, because it is not load dependent, it is particularly apparent at low
loadings.
3. Thermal design
New modelling techniques have allowed the production of motors with optimised cooling
flow, reduced clearances (increasing the efficiency of the magnetic circuit) and lower
copper losses. Lower losses and good thermal design result in lower operating
temperatures and hence a longer service life.
Figure
3 – Reliance high efficiency explosion-proof motor by Baldor Electric Company (photo credit:
feedandgrain.com)
4. Aerodynamics
Most electric motors are cooled by drawing air through the windings by an integral fan
and exhausting it over the externally ribbed casing. The airflow is complex and computer
modeling has been used to optimize the design of the fan and cowling to produce more
efficient cooling with a lower noise level.
Windage losses can be reduced by careful design of the rotor.
https://youtu.be/69mtuom774E
5. Manufacture and quality control
The introduction of stresses in the magnetic steel during motor assembly can increase
iron loss by up to 50%. By considering assembly techniques at the design stage and by
paying attention to handling techniques, this increase in iron loss during manufacture has
been reduced to negligible proportions. Eccentricity between the stator and rotor generates
harmonic fluxes with consequently higher losses.
The overall result of these improvements is an increase in efficiency of 3%

(corresponding to a reduction in loss of about 30%) at full load and a halving of losses at
low loads. Figure 4 shows the comparison between the efficiency of 75 kW standard and
high efficiency motors against actual load.
Fi
gure 4 – Comparison of efficiencies of standard and high efficiency motors
Because many motors spend considerable time running at low loading or idling, designers
of high efficiency units have paid great attention to reduction of the constant losses.
The result is a halving of losses at loadings less than 25% load and an efficiency
improvement of 3 to 5% at full load, a reduction in losses of about 28%. This represents
an impressive achievement.
Reference // A Good Practice Guide to Electrical Design – Copper Development

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Edvard Csanyi
12 Comments
1.
I A KHAN
Aug 08, 2019

Can any body calculate the saving of power from higher rating to lower rating ,
I have started movement to reduce the power saving and seen some motor running
higher capacity motor irrespective to load as example
On motor rating 75 kw, FL-130A SIEMENS MAKE is running on 55 amp at

voltage 410 v ac 50 hz , If I replace the same motor with 37 kw rating at same
scenario. How much power we shall be save
PL REPLY
I A khan
(reply)
2.
I A KHAN
Aug 08, 2019
WHAT WAS PARAMETER IS REQUIRED TO IMPROVED THE EFFICIENCY

OF MOTOR BESIDE THIS ANOTHER QUESTION FOR MOTOR TO
CONVERT THE DELTA TO STAR
EFIIFCIENCY MATTER
Related question the following scenario in our plant
1- Is un balance voltage at motor terminal –like R –Y phase 405 v ,B-R-420,B-Y
412V ,50HZ
2- Cooling system
3- Alignment
4- Speed
As per your opinion what was the standard parameter required for get the better
efficiency beside this or as per your view .
Delta connection to star connection

We have 250kw,960, rpm motor running load 50 kw, PF 0.27 system voltage -410
vand current 172 AMP in star-delta connection . if shall converted motor connection
converted in star same PF 0.95 ,Load 50 kw amp -102A
Can you calculate the saving is it possible or not along with advantage and
disadvantage
I A khan
(reply)
3.
VASANT N KALE
Sep 21, 2018
VERY INFORMATIVE ARTICLE

I HAVE SOME QUERY
1] AS STATED IN ARTICLE ” STEEL CORE IS MOST EXPENSIVE PART IN
MOTOR THAN COPPER”
PLEASE EXPLAIN
2] WHAT IS OPTIMUM COST EFFECTIVE RATIO COPPER & IRON CORE
3] IS THERE THUMB RULE FOR CALCULATING COPPER REQUIREMENT
FOR HP/NOS OF POLES
SQUIRREL CAGE 415/440 V THREE PHASE 50HZ MOTOR
RGDS
(reply)
4.
FERNANDO UGARTE
Sep 20, 2018
EXCELENTE APORTE ME INTERESA MUCHO ESTE TEMA,

PARTICULARMENTE ESTOY TRABAJANDO CON REDUCCIÓN Y
MEJORAMIENTO DE LA EFICIENCIA DE UN PROCESO EN GLOBAL Y
PARTE IMPORTANTE DE ELLO SON LOS MOTORES ELÉCTRICOS Y SUS
FACTORES DE POTENCIA Y PERDIDAS INTERNAS PROPIAS. GRACIAS
POR EL APORTE
(reply)
5.
yiga francis xavie
May 09, 2018
what brings about the difference in total energy measured on sub meters and that of
the main meter.
could it be that i need to change the sub meters? because the difference is too high
to take it be normal energy losses
(reply)
6.
Lee
Jan 20, 2017
The power triangle (Heineken)…nice!
(reply)
7.
john carlo
Feb 01, 2016
i think beer symbolizes the REAL POWER, REACTIVE POWER ,& APPARENT
POWER.hehe. that’s my opinion
(reply)
o
Edvard
Feb 01, 2016
Exactly :)
(reply)
8.
Don - PLC Programming
Dec 26, 2015
Well, Ed, I am the opposite of Deon. I too was curious because of the beer bottle,
and would not have clicked through to article if it was not for wondering what the
beer bottle had to do with it. I think it was a clever marketing ploy for the article, be
intentional or non-intentional. :)
(reply)
o
Edvard
Dec 27, 2015
Hehe, Don, you’re damn right :) I tought I overextend with the meaning of
the word ‘Mess’ with a beer on pic, but yes, it’s a kind of marketing trick to
attract readers. I’m bringing it back :)
Thanks for the comment!
(reply)
9.
Deon
Dec 23, 2015
Hi, I do not see any reason for the beer bottle next to the motor in the article. My
personal view is that it distract the attention from the good article.
Cheers
D
(reply)
o
Edvard
Dec 23, 2015

Well Deon, I stopped and thought about what you just said, and decided to
change the image. You were right, it’s a kind of inappropriate, thank you.
(reply)
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Energy Generation / Instrumentation / SCADA
Typical electrical distribution scheme and

SCADA system of an oil/gas production
plant
By Edvard | June, 12th 2019 | 5 comments | Save to PDF
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Home / Technical Articles / Typical electrical distribution scheme and SCADA system of an oil/gas
production plant
The power generation system

Power can be provided from mains power or from local gas turbines or diesel generator
sets. Large facilities have high power demands, from 30 MW and upwards to several
hundred MW. There is a tendency to generate electric power centrally and use electric
drives for large equipment rather than multiple gas turbines, as this decreases maintenance
and increases uptime.
Typical electrical distribution scheme and SCADA system of an oil/gas production plant (photo
credit: Trend Micro Blog)
The power generation system on a large facility is usually several gas turbines diving
electric generators, 20-40 MW each. If exhaust heat is not needed in the main process, it
can be used to drive exhaust steam turbines (dual cycle) for additional efficiency.
Voltage levels for high, medium and low voltage distribution switchboards are 13-130 kV,
2-8 kV and 300-600 V respectively. Power is generated and exchanged with mains or
other facilities on the HV distribution board.
Relays are used for various protection functions (generator, motor, transformer,
capacitor…).
High voltage is transformed to medium voltage switchboards to which large consumers are
connected. LV switchboards feed a mix of normal consumers, Motor Control Centers
(MCCs) and variable speed drives for motors up to a few hundred KW (Not necessarily
separate as shown in the figure).
Figure 1 – Typical electrical scheme of an gas/oil production facility
A separate emergency power switchboard provides power for critical equipment. It can
be powered from a local emergency generator if main power is lost. Computer systems are
fed from an Uninterruptible Power System (UPS) with batteries, connected to the main or
emergency switchboard.
A power management system is used for control of electrical switchgear and equipment. Its
function is to optimize electricity generation and usage and to prevent major
disturbances and plant outages (blackouts).
The power management system includes HV, MV and LV low voltage switchgear plus Motor
Control Centers (MCC) and emergency generator sets. Functions include prioritization of loads,
emergency load shedding (closing down of non-essential equipment) and prestart of generator
sets (e.g. when additional power to start a big crude pump is required).
Large rotating equipment and generators are driven by gas turbines or large drives. Gas
turbines for oil and gas production are generally modified aviation turbines in the 10-25
MW range.
These require quite extensive maintenance and have a relatively low overall efficiency (20-
27% depending on application).
Figure
2 – Siemens SGT-A65 gas turbine
Also, while a turbine is relatively small and light, it will usually require large and heavy
support equipment such as large gears, air coolers/ffilters, exhaust units, and sound
damping and lubrication units.
Therefore use of large variable speed drives is becoming more common. For pumps on
subsea facilities this is the only option. For use on remote facilities, High Voltage DC
transmission and HV motors can be used, from a main facility or power from shore.
This will also avoid local power generation at each facility and contribute to low
manning or remote operation.
SCADA Measurement and Flow Control

Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) is normally associated with telemetry
and wide area communications, for data gathering and control over large production sites,
pipelines, or corporate data from multiple facilities.
With telemetry, the bandwidth is often quite low and based on telephone or local radio
systems. SCADA systems are often optimized for efficient use of the available bandwidth.
Wide area communication operates with wideband services, such as optical fibers and
broadband Internet.
Remote Terminal Units (RTU) or local controls systems on wells, wellhead platforms, compressor
and pump stations, and are connected to the SCADA system by means of the available
communication media. SCADA systems have many of the same functions as the control system,
and the difference mainly comes down to data architecture and use of communications.
A typical SCADA system collects data from, and supervises control of, third-party
programmable logic controllers at pumping stations, mainline valves, and other areas where
monitoring of critical conditions takes place.
Along the entire length of the pipeline, block valves are remotely monitored and controlled
using advanced real-time SCADA processors designed to support complex remote
applications.
The communications for the system is typically over the Ethernet and fiber optic lines as
the backbone, backed up by public switched telephone networks.
F
igure 3 – SCADA structure in an oil and gas production plant
SCADA system designs vary widely, but there are elements common to all. Operational
data for production plant must be gathered from locations that could be distributed widely
across large geographical areas. Measurement transducers are polled frequently.
To efficiently perform basic functions, data must be accessible by operations personnel

located in the field and at a central control center. Operations are monitored and controlled
using SCADA systems that provide thousands of data signals to various controllers and
operators.
Some data are provided at intervals of a few seconds, other data are provided at intervals of
a few minutes, and still others on an hourly or daily basis. As data are updated, the
superseded older data are normally stored for a period of time to support system audits,
identify trends (both good and bad), and establish a historical operating record.
SCADA systems are configured with a variety of instrumentation. Electrical signals from
measurement devices are typically converted to engineering units in computers, referred to as
remote terminal units (RTUs), which are located at measurement sites.
Communication links are provided by radio, cell phone, private microwave, leased line, or
satellite. Polling frequencies can be predetermined or on-demand.
Data from a given area of operations are often concentrated in computers at field offices,
which are distributed throughout the production plant. SCADA software running on these
field computers provides operational data and control to local operations personnel.
https://youtu.be/LCptR5bISw4
Central computers located at a control center, in turn, poll field computers. SCADA
software runs on the central computers to provide controllers with displays of operational
data and remote control capabilities.
With so much data available at such high frequency, the effectiveness of the SCADA
system hinges on appropriate data presentation, analysis, and alarming.
A variety of data presentations are used to transform basic data into information. Trends,
schematics, and other graphics are used to convey large amounts of data, which vary over time, in
a concise and informative format. Often operational data is superimposed on facility and other
schematics, permitting presentation of the data in an operational context.
Alarms are used to indicate that operating conditions are approaching or have exceeded
prescribed tolerances. Attention can then be focused on problem diagnosis and appropriate
actions.
Figure
4 – RTU at the wellhead (photo credit: intechww.com)
In addition to data collection and display, SCADA systems also often include data
validation programs that seek to validate each piece of data before using it to support a
calculation or represent a condition. Frequent and, in some cases, continuous data
validation has been shown to greatly increase the sensitivity of the system while reducing
incidents of false alarms.
SCADA systems at remote control centers provide operators with complete operational
information about the pipeline system in one location.
Typical information includes:
1. Pipeline mimic/displays
The complete pipeline can be mimicked to provide the operator with instantaneous
visual feedback on the status of any portion of the pipeline, including pumps, valves,
tanks, etc.
These visual schematics include overviews of the entire pipeline system or systems and
drill-down screens that take the viewer to an individual location or piece of equipment.
Figure 5 – HMI SCADA of Real Oil Depot System
2. Pump, compressor, and other equipment status
Equipment operation can be displayed with status (on/off) and other critical parameters
associated with a piece of equipment such as flow, discharge pressure, vibration, case
temperature, etc.
3. Valve status
Valve information can be displayed with valve positions (open/throttle/closed) depicted.
4. Alarms and alerts
Alarms and other operational indications are immediately available for operator response
where complete system status is known and, in many cases, can be displayed. These can
alert the controller to an unusual or abnormal operating situation or remind the
controller about upcoming operating changes that need to be initiated.
Often, system configurations allow the operator to intervene to validate the alarm or to take the
necessary corrective actions.
When operator intervention does not occur with a prescribed time frame, the system will
automatically initiate actions that have been predetermined as being appropriate, given the
circumstances.
Figure
6 – Oil and gas production SCADA screen with alarms and notifications
5. Analytical tools
Trending history and other analytical tools and graphical aids are available to assist
personnel in their decision making under routine, abnormal, and emergency conditions.
The SCADA system is the central feature of a remote control center. Because the flow of product
in the plant or a pipeline is typically a 24-hour-a-day, 7-day-a-week operation, the remote control
centers are staffed continuously in order to monitor and maintain this round-the-clock operation.
Due to the data being transmitted from potentially many miles away, the operator
oftentimes must respond to the alarm and direct a corresponding response from the remote
control center based on the information depicted on the display provided by the SCADA
system.
However, in other cases, decisions are made in conjunction with personnel located in the
field at the affected location(s).
Sources:
1. Oil and gas production handbook – ABB

2. Overview of the Design, Construction, and Operation of Interstate Liquid Petroleum
Pipelines – Argonne National laboratory
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Edvard Csanyi
5 Comments
1.
Arif Hameed
Jul 31, 2019
Hello to all here…I been in the automation industry for more than 16 years
specialising in SCADA. I started as a project engineer and later as a commissioning
manager and later as a project manager. Most of my experience comes from turn
key projects in water, electricity and networks . I have a good experience in start to
end delivery from pre-designing to pre-testing to pre-FAT/FAT to Pre-SAT/SAT
and handover which is usually 3 months RR and sign off. What I would like to
share my experience is that you have to start up from the very bottom of the chain
before designing a SCADA system or any other system with the customer by
getting all the data. How to get all the data? Try to first understand what the
customer wants and try to match your solutions to the customer needs precisely. For
this you need to spend lot of times with your customer…namely the engineers,
operators and other users what they expect in the system. You need to collect all
these data first. Don’t ask questions to the managers when that data needs to be
collected from the operator who is using this system. Bottom line..spend time before
coming out with your solutions so this way no one is left behind and everyone
agrees this is what they want and this is what you can provide. Create a win win
situation rather then sticking your solutions to the customers without doing your
homework as I have seen many contactors rush to get the job done only realising
lately they will never get another job from this customer. Remember..provide what
the customer wants and build a good relationship with him. Once this is achieved,
the customer will open up and than you can provide other services for him as
required or as needed. A good engineering design and a good relationship with the
customer will win for you many leads and future businesses. Hope this helps
someone here..
(reply)
2.
aditya patanker
Jun 13, 2019
I m also Electrical and instrumentation Eng. I was designed scada for my company
in wincc flexible 2008
And connected with Existing PLC s7 300.
I have 10 year experience in this field in steel and port indestry. If any opportunity
in Ur indestry soo pls tell me. I am happy to join Ur company.
Thanks and regards
Aditya patanker
7381097639
(reply)
o
Nabil
Jun 15, 2019
Hello Aditya patanker,

I’m not a recruiter, just I want awake you about the landline number of your
country in your phone number.
Regards
Nabil
(reply)
3.
Virender Singh
Jun 13, 2019
This is an excellent portal to learn new skills and nourish the existing ones.
(reply)
4.
Uneeb Ur Rehman Ali
Jun 12, 2019
We can more improve this design by connecting our generator panel with large
drive separately and LV Drives, MCC, LV Switchgear with emergency generator
separately. And then interconnect all those panels with each other. In this way we
can collect more efficient data and get better performance of system.
Thanks.
Regards:
Uneeb Ur Rehman Ali
Electrical Engineer
(reply)
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Industrial Automation / Monitoring / SCADA
5 ingredients that make SCADA operation

delicious
By Edvard | February, 4th 2019 | 3 comments | Save to PDF
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Home / Technical Articles / 5 ingredients that make SCADA operation delicious
SCADA, RTUs, PLCs, servers…

To explain in very simple words, I would say that SCADA is a bunch of equipment that
provides an operator at a remote location with sufficient information to determine the status
of particular equipment/process and make actions without being physically present.
Five major SCADA components you MUST know about
SCADA implementation thus involves two major activities: data acquisition (monitoring)
of a process or equipment and the supervisory control of the process, thus leading to
complete automation.
The complete automation of a process can be achieved by automating the monitoring and
the control actions.
Automating the monitoring part translates into an operator in a control room, being able to “see”
the remote process on the operator console, complete with all the information required
displayed and updated at the appropriate time intervals.
The architecture shown in Figure 1 illustrates a typical SCADA system in terms of the
components or elements which are interconnected via a communication network.
Figure 1 – Typical SCADA system architecture
Following the illustration are more detailed explanations of each of the major components.
Let’s described in more detail these five major ingredients of a SCADA system, as listed
below:
1. Field Devices and Signals

2. Programmable Process Controllers (RTUs, PLCs)
3. SCADA Operations User Workstation
4. SCADA Server Computer
5. Communication Network
1. Field Devices and Signals
The icons in the illustration labelled ‘Device’ represent individual signals. These may be
discrete or analog, input to the PLC or output from the PLC. When designing the software
for a SCADA system, the various field signals and/or devices must be considered in terms
of what information is to be monitored and what equipment is to be controlled.
Field devices may be signal transmitters, such as level or pressure transmitters. They could be
discrete signals, such as a valve’s open or closed status, or the motor’s running status. Some
devices may actually provide multiple signals, such as a water quality unit which provides both
chlorine residual and water pH.
When designing SCADA software, all of the field signals must be identified for each
process area. As shown above, the field devices are wired into the various PLCs/RTUs,
which in turn process the signals.
All of the field devices, which are represented by discrete and analog signals, are connected
to the various input and output modules of the PLC/RTU. It processes the input signals and
effects control through the output signals, based upon the programming in the PLC/RTU
itself.
Discrete signals can be both input and output types. Such signals are two state, meaning
the signal can only be in one of two states at any time. Discrete input signals may include:
open and close limit switches, photocell sensors, pushbuttons and selector switches.
Discrete output signals may include pilot lights, motor control relays, solenoid valves and
valve controls.
Analog signals can also be both input and output types and such signals can have a
range of values between two preset limits, most often zero and some maximum value.
https://youtu.be/J_KoRp8SnoE
Analog input signals may include levels, flowrates, motor speeds, voltage and current from
power monitors, water quality signals, and temperatures and pressures. Analog output
signals may include motor speed controls for Variable Speed Drives (VSDs) on variable
speed motors, valve positioning signals for modulating valves and analog display devices.
Since field signals, such as levels, flows and pressures may be used by the program to control the
operation of the equipment, the Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) is the heart of the monitor
and control of every process area in a SCADA system.
SCADA software must consider all of the equipment and signals to be processed.
2. Programmable Process Controllers (RTUs, PLCs)

A given application for a SCADA system is divided into process areas. Each such area has
clearly defined operations to be performed.
For example, a pumping station may use two or three pumps, operating in a

lead/lag/standby mode. The automation program in the controller is configured to operate
the pumps based upon operator-entered set-points and duty assignments.
Each process area identified within a SCADA system will require its own programmable
process controller.
The PLC/RTU can be programmed so as to monitor all of the signals within the process area, and
to effect control over the process equipment, based upon the design of the program.
The software designer must allocate the various field I/O signals identified in the previous
topic to the required modules in the PLC/RTU. With the list of signals, organized into
discrete input, discrete output, analog input and analog output, a count of the number of
each type of signal can be determined.
Figure 2 – SCADA RTU

panel (photo credit: oempanels.com)
From there, the necessary input/output modules can be determined and configured for the
PLC. Depending upon the number of signals, a PLC may consist of multiple racks or
chassis of modules.
From the perspective of the application program, however, the software recognizes all
modules as though they all reside in a single long rack.
Each of the programmable controllers requires programming in one or more forms.
For example, the field controller, commonly referred to as the PLC, is typically programmed in a
language called Ladder Logic, which resembles the electrical control circuitry used before the PLC
came into being. Today, most PLCs allow for a variety of programming languages to meet the
application requirements.
For example, languages include: Function Block Diagram, Structure Text (High-

Level Programming), Sequential Function Chart, and Instruction or Statement List
(LowLevel Assembly Programming).
The programmer may choose to use one or more of these languages in a specific PLC
application program.
Figure 3 -Modern industrial SCADA automation panel (credit: plctrg.com)
RTU serves as the eyes, ears, and hands of a SCADA system. The RTU acquires all the
field data from different field devices, as the human eyes and ears monitor the
surroundings, process the data and transmit the relevant data to the master station.
At the same time, it distributes the control signals received from the master station to the
field devices, as the human hand executes instructions from the brain.
Today Intelligent Electronic Devices (IEDs) are replacing RTUs.
3. SCADA Operations User Workstation

The user operations workstations, usually referred to as the Human Machine Interface
(HMI), requires the programming of process graphic displays with animated links to many
points in a process database.
Configuration programming is also required to establish the process database, the historical

database and the communications interface to the field controllers or the PLCs.
Additional background programs, called scripts, are often used to perform ‘behind the
scenes’ operations for the application.
The SCADA workstations present the process graphic displays with operator interaction, such as
controlling equipment and requesting information. The software at this level involves the creation
of the process control displays, historical trend and historical report displays, alarm and event
summary displays, and the process database.
Hence, there are both displays which present the information and ‘behind the scenes’
programming to access the information for the requested display.
In addition, there are often background scripts or programs that are used to perform
operations associated with the displays and/or invoke commands to the PLCs, RTUs and
other equipment.
Figure 4 –
SCADA Operations User Workstation
4. SCADA Server Computer

Most SCADA systems include at least one, if not two, data server computers. These
computers maintain all of the configuration software for the SCADA system.
The server computer is at the physical centre of the Star topology. Historical data collected
over time is maintained on the server computer in the form of databases. Current system
operating data from all of the field controllers is also maintained in databases on the server
computer.
The server computer performs all of the communications with the PLCs and RTUs on
the SCADA network. Each RTU/PLC maintains and collects data pertaining to its
process areas. This data is then retrieved by the server computer to update the current
process and the historical databases.
This communications is configured to poll or otherwise collect data values from the PLCs/RTUs.
Commands and adjustments from the operations workstations are sent out to the PLCs and/or
RTUs via the server computer.
In small systems, a single workstation can perform the work of both the server and the
operations user workstation.
However, if the system has more than one or two programmable process controllers, then
the server operations are best assigned to a dedicated workstation, which could serve as
an additional user workstation if needed.
https://youtu.be/Ax1jTp2dl9M
Today, many SCADA applications use Relational DataBase Management

System (RDBMS) to store, retrieve and report information. Just as the Comma
Separated Value (CSV) file, has become a standard method of transferring data between
applications, the RDBMS can be accessed using standardized ‘SQL’ commands from
any SQL-compliant application.
Another purpose of the SCADA server computer is to provide an interface to other

facilities, typically through the Internet, using Firewalls and SQL interface calls.
It is important that the outside access cannot interfere with the internal operations of the
SCADA system, so the server computer often provides a secure interface.
Other departments and users may require data collected by the SCADA system, and so a
means of accessing this data can be provided through the SCADA server computer, with
the appropriate security measures in place.
Figure 5 – SCADA servers
5. Communication Network
The in-plant equipment, programmable process controllers and SCADA user workstations,
are typically interconnected via a Local Area Network (LAN), using Ethernet or other
high-speed communication system.
Some SCADA systems may extend outside the physical building into remote sites. These
sites require some form of communication back to the host facility also.
The illustration of the SCADA hierarchy shown previously includes modems to a remote site,

allowing remotely located controllers to operate over the same high-speed communication
network.
Let’s see the brief explanation of the types of network topology, used for SCADA systems.
There are three basic topologies as described below:
1. Bus topology
2. Star topology
3. Token ring topology
5.1 Bus Topology
The Bus Topology as shown in Figure 6, consists of a hardware/software interconnection

among all of the nodes in the system.
This architecture resembles a major roadway to and from which all other roads connect. To
travel from any one location to any other location requires getting on to this major roadway
(network) and then travelling along until an exit to the desired route is found.
All traffic or communications in the system is accomplished via this single bus-type
network.
Figure 6 – Bus topology

For increased traffic, the network can become overloaded, and the result is a slowing down
of the transfer of data from one node to another. While Ethernet over a bus network is
generally fast enough, there may be some applications in which this bus topology creates
roadblocks to efficient data.
5.2 Star topology
The Star Topology as shown in Figure 3, consists of multiple network paths out from a
single master or host node.
This master node would typically consist of one or two master SCADA workstation functioning as
masters of the system. All data collection from the various RTU/PLC nodes is done through
individual connections in a star configuration.
Update times to the host node are very fast but does require multiple paths out from the
host master node.
The transfer of data between nodes on the Star network does require that the information be
passed first from the source node, then through the host node, and then out to the
destination node.
Figure 7 – Star topology
5.3 Token ring topology
A Token Ring Topology as shown in Figure 8, works like a ring in which all nodes are
interconnected by two network connections. All nodes in the topology are of equal value,
and data is passed via this ring from one node to the next.
Duplicate rings in opposite directions provide redundancy and security. Information from any
node passes along the ring, being passed from node to node, until the data reaches the desired
destination node.
This topology is predictive in that the speed is constant and the time to transfer data is
always at a fixed rate. As the number of nodes in the network increases, the overall data
transfer rate drops since there are more nodes through which data must pass to travel from
the source node to the destination node.
One possible improvement is to use a combination of topologies in the SCADA network.
Figure 8 – Token ring topology
Remote communications traditionally used dial-up and then dedicated

modems (modulator–demodulator) to transfer data between the remote RTU/PLC and an
in-house RTU/PLC.
More and more facilities are using Digital Subscriber Lines (DSLs) and fibre optic connections. The
latter two methods provide substantially faster data transfer, and are significantly more reliable.
Which method of communication used depends upon the amount of data to be transferred, the
importance of the data and the frequency with which the data must be transferred.
Within the SCADA software, the communication aspect includes the programming and
configuration of various software drivers to allow the SCADA workstations to
communicate with the programmable process controllers (RTUs, PLCs), so as to transfer
data back and forth.
Interesting SCADA videos
SCADA System Configurations and settings
Tutorial for SCADA Real Time Configuration using wonderware intouch software
https://youtu.be/QIqjAWK8vxU
What is RTU?
RTU stands for Remote Terminal Unit, sometimes also called Remote Telemetry Unit or
Remote Telecontrol Unit. An RTU is a microprocessor-based device that monitors and
controls field devices, that then connects to plant control or SCADA (supervisory control
and data acquisition) systems.
If you do a search on the definition of an RTU, you may find many results that state an
RTU is much more powerful than a PLC as the RTU can have several inputs and outputs.
Well, as you know, so can the PLC. The RTU does have some potential benefits over the PLC, which
we will discuss.
On the price point, the winner right now is the PLC. PLCs have a lower price point but
many consider the RTU to be a much more rugged system which would lead you to believe
that spending more initially will equal out in the end.
As far as process control, the RTU is probably on equal ground with the PLC. Both
controllers can have multiple different types of I/O, different communications modules, and
programming of processes that may require little to no operator intervention.
Where the RTU is considered to have some advantages is in environment tolerances,

backup power options, and autonomy.
https://youtu.be/Ax1jTp2dl9M
Sources //
1. Designing SCADA Application Software A Practical Approach by Stuart G. McCrady

(purchase at Amazon)
2. Power system SCADA and smart grids by Mini S. Thomas (Jamia Millia Islamia at University
New Delhi, India) and John D. McDonald (GE Energy Management – Digital Energy,
Atlanta, Georgia, USA)
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Edvard Csanyi
3 Comments
1.
Femi
Jun 20, 2019
Is it a must to use multiplexer to connect remote rtu to scada host over microwave
radio
(reply)
2.
Abel Nghuushi
Feb 04, 2019
I wish to have all your information a bout this program. I would like to study further
electrical system!
(reply)
o
AbduRahman Yusuf
Feb 05, 2019
I just have to appreciate and thank you for this intellectual work of immense
impact. Please keep it up. May God be with you.
(reply)
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Electricity generation, transmission and distribution guides

Handbook on EHV overhead lines and
underground cables
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Home / Download Center / Electrical Engineering Books and Technical Guides / Electricity
generation, t&d guides / Handbook on EHV overhead lines and underground cables
Avoiding accidents and blackouts

This book is a guide to the protection regulations for extra-high-voltage (EHV) overhead
lines and underground cables for contractors, consultants, strategic partners, as well as
anyone who is working on or near DEWA’s electricity transmission network.
Handbook on EHV overhead lines and underground cables

It provides the necessary information to ensure that their projects conform to these
regulations and what information, documents and other criteria must be provided to ensure
their successful completion.
How this book will help you?
To avoid accidents and potential blackouts, and minimize risk. You can know what to do and what
is required to ensure your work can be carried out in complete safety.
Transmission lines and equipment
Types of Cables
There are two voltages for underground cable – 400kV and 132kV. Currently, DEWA uses
XLPE cables (Figure a and b), and also uses oil-filled cables (Figure c) in some areas.
Please note that power cables cannot be detected by cable detectors when shutdown or out
of service.
a. 400kV XLPE Cable

b. 132kV XLPE Cable
c. 132kV Oil Filled Cable
Transmission cable types
There are two types of communication cables:
1. Fiber-optic cable
2. Pilot cable
Note that Fiber-optic and Pilot cables cannot be detected by cable detectors, even when
live.
Transmission communication cable types
Cable Equipment
Cable Joints
Cable joints are integral parts of the Transmission underground lines system as a whole.
Note that a joint is a sensitive point in transmission cable systems. The joint area to be
maintained and protected properly to ensure reliability of power supply.
A power cable joint is normally enclosed in 2.4 metre wide concrete troughs. A few joints
are enclosed in troughs, with some access from manholes.
Joint locations are identified with red and white route markers for all types of
installation.
Title: Handbook on EHV overhead lines and underground cables – Transmission

Maintenance department; Power division; Dubai Electricity and Water
Authority
Format: PDF
Size: 4.8 MB
Pages: 91
Download: Right here | Get Download Updates | Get Premium Membership
Hand
book on EHV overhead lines and underground cables
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3 Comments
1.
Rejaneesh
Jun 06, 2019
This content is taken from DEWA hand book available in Google it is familiar isn’t
it right.
(reply)
o
Edvard
Jun 06, 2019
You are right, this is DEWA (Dubai Electricity and Water Authority) guide
as is it is stated below. This guide and every other guide at EEP can be
found by searching Google :)
(reply)
2.
kata yamuna
Jun 06, 2019
nice concept but it is difficult because already transmission lines are there but why
you want underground.
(reply)
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Energy Generation / Protection
What is negative sequence current and

how does it affect generator work
By Edvard | February, 25th 2019 | 13 comments | Save to PDF
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Home / Technical Articles / What is negative sequence current and how does it affect generator
work
Exposure to unbalanced currents…

As you know, generators and motors are supposed to operate with balanced three-phase
loading, but exposure to unbalanced currents is inevitable. Unbalances could arise from
many different sources like unbalanced loads, untransposed transmission line construction,
faults and open phases, etc.
What is negative sequence current and how does it affect generator work
These unbalances appear as negative sequence current in the generator leads. By definition,
negative-sequence quantities have a rotation opposite that of the power system. This
reversed rotating stator current induces double frequency currents in rotor structures.
The resulting heating can damage the rotor very quickly.
For decades, electromechanical negative sequence overcurrent relays have been provided as
standard unbalanced current protection for moderate and large generators. The
electromechanical technology severely limited the sensitivity of these relay. As a result, they could
provide only backup protection for uncleared phase-to-phase and ground faults.
Potentially damaging low-current conditions such as an open phase or restricted fault were
undetectable.
With the advent of solid-state and microprocessor technology, relaying is now available to
provide generator protection over a full range of unbalance conditions.

So what is negative sequence current?
The concept of negative-sequence current is rooted in symmetrical component

methodology. The basic theory of symmetrical components is that phase currents and
voltages in a three-phase power system can be represented by three single-phase
components.
These are positive-, negative- and zero-sequence components. The positive sequence
component of current or voltage has the same rotation as the power system. This
component represents balanced load.
If the generator phase currents are equal and displaced by exactly 120°, only positive-
sequence current will exist. A current or voltage unbalance between phases in magnitude
or phase angle gives rise to negative and zero-sequence components.
Figure 1 –
Symmetrical components: positive-, negative- and zero-sequence
The negative sequence component has a rotation opposite that of the power system. The
zero-sequence component represents an unbalance that causes current flow in the neutral.
The negative sequence component is similar to the positive sequence system, except that
the resulting reaction field rotates in the opposite direction to the d.c. field system. Hence, a
flux is produced which cuts the rotor at twice the rotational velocity, thereby inducing
double frequency currents in the field system and in the rotor body.
The resulting eddy currents are very large and cause severe heating of the rotor.
So severe is this effect that a single-phase load equal to the normal three-phase rated
current can quickly heat the rotor slot wedges to the softening point.
They may then be extruded under centrifugal force until they stand above the rotor surface,
when it is possible that they may strike the stator core.
A generator is assigned a continuous negative sequence rating.

For turbo-generators this rating is low – standard values of 10% and 15% of the generator
continuous rating have been adopted. The lower rating applies when the more intensive
cooling techniques are applied, for example hydrogen-cooling with gas ducts in the rotor to
facilitate direct cooling of the winding.
Short time heating is of interest during system fault conditions and it is usual in determining the
generator negative sequence withstand capability to assume that the heat dissipation during such
periods is negligible.
Using this approximation it is possible to express the heating by the law:
I22t = K
where:
 I2 = negative sequence component (per unit of maximum continuous rating)

 t = time (seconds)
 K = constant proportional to the thermal capacity of the generator rotor
For heating over a period of more than a few seconds, it is necessary to allow for the heat
dissipated. From a combination of the continuous and short time ratings, the overall heating
characteristic can be deduced to be:
where I2R is the negative phase sequence continuous rating in per unit of maximum
continuous rating (MCR)
To illustrate the derivation of these components refer to the loading on the sample system
generator shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2 –
Generator unbalanced currents
The generator loading is unbalanced and therefore, negative- and/or zero-sequence
current is present in addition to the positive-sequence current. The sequence currents can
be resolved from the phase currents when magnitude and phase angle are known.
Mathematically, positive (I1), negative (I2) and zero (I0) sequence currents in a system
with ABC rotation are defined as (Equation 1):
Substituting phase currents and angles from Figure 1 into Equation (1), the sequence
currents are found to be:
The rated current for the sample system is 4370 A. The positive-sequence current is
then 4108 A/4370 A = 0.94 pu and the negative-sequence current is 175 A/4370 A = 0.04
pu.
Zero-sequence current is the vector sum of the phase currents and must flow in the neutral or
ground.
The sample system generator is connected to the delta winding of a Generator Step Up
(GSU) transformer. With no neutral return path, zero-sequence current can not exist. The
calculated zero-sequence current is a result of measurement errors and should be considered
zero.

Effects of negative-sequence current
Rotor heating
Magnetic field in the air gap that rotates at synchronous (rotor) speed in the same direction
as the rotor. Because the rotor and the positive sequence induced rotor magnetic field move
at the same velocity and direction, the field maintains a fixed position with respect to the
rotor and no current is induced into the rotor.
Unbalanced current produces negative sequence current, which in turn produces a reverse
rotating field in the air gap. This magnetic field rotates at synchronous speed, but in a
reverse direction to the rotor.
From the perspective of a point on the rotor surface, this field appears to rotate at twice
synchronous speed. As this field sweeps across the rotor, it induces double frequency currents
into the rotor body of a cylindrical rotor machine and in the pole face of a salient pole machine.
Portions of the resulting induced current path present high electrical resistance to the
induced current. The result is rapid heating.
Damage due to loss of mechanical integrity or insulation failure can occur in seconds.
https://youtu.be/Hs8NUsA1BFo
Cylindrical Rotor Generators
A cylindrical rotor is constructed from a solid-steel forging with slots cut along its length.
Each field coil requires two slots, one for each side of the coil winding. A slot may contain
one or more coil windings.
The ridges between the slots are called teeth. Figure 3 illustrates the rotor configuration.
Figure 3 –
Salient-pole rotor
Groves are machined into the sides of each tooth to allow wedges to be forced in along the
full length of the slot. The wedges hold the field windings in the slots. In some machines,
conducting strips are installed in the slots between the wedge and the field coil.
These strips are connected at the retaining rings to provide a low-resistance path for the
induced currents. The loops formed by these strips are known as amortisseur windings.
The slot configurations of the wedge, field coil and the optional amortisseur winding are
shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4 – Slots and
wedges
At the ends of the rotor body, the retaining rings hold the ends of the field windings in
place against centrifugal force. The retaining rings are usually shrink fit to the rotor body,
but in older machines they can be free floating with random contact with the rotor body.
The rings and wedges are designed for mechanical strength, because they must restrain the large
field windings at rate generator speed. The retaining rings are the highest stress component of
the rotor.
The induced 120 Hz currents flow in loops along the body of a cylindrical rotor, as shown
in Figure 5. There are as many current loops in the rotor as there are stator poles.
When alternating current passes through a conductor, in this case the rotor body, current
densities are not uniform.
Figure 5 – Rotor
currents
The “skin effect” causes alternating current to migrate to the outer surface of the conductor.
This tendency increases with frequency.
In a cylindrical rotor, the 120 Hz induced current occupies a cross-section extending from
the surface to a depth no greater than 0.1 to 0.4 inches. This forces the induced current
into the teeth and wedges at the rotor surface. The resulting high current density
significantly increases rotor resistance for 120 Hz current over that for DC or 60 Hz
current.
Higher resistance produces higher losses and more heat per amp for the 120 Hz current than
for lower frequency current.
The induced currents produce maximum heating at the ends of the rotor body. Significant heat is
generated by contact resistance as the currents transfer from wedges to teeth in order to enter
the retaining ring and from the ring to the teeth then to the wedges on the return loop. Increased
heating is also caused by high current densities at these locations as current crowds into the teeth
to enter and exit the retaining rings at the end of the rotor.
The negative sequence tolerance of a generator is dependent on good electrical contact

being maintained between rotor structures. Low resistance minimizes heating and prevents
arcing at contact points. Designers include many features to improve conductivity.
These include the addition of amortisseur windings in the rotor slots to form low-resistance
paths across the rotor surface. The ends of the amortisseur windings are connected to the
retaining rings to provide a low-resistance bridge from the slot to the ring.
Aluminum slot wedges can also be used to reduce resistance in this current path.
Silver-plated aluminum fingers can provide a low-resistance current path from the wedges
to the retaining rings. The rotor surface at the location of the retaining ring’s shrink fit is
often silver-coated to minimize resistance and heating at the junction.
Two types of rotor failures are associated with unbalanced current.
Overheating of the slot wedges will cause annealing and a shear failure against the force
of material in the slots. The second failure would be the retaining ring. Excessive heating
can cause a shrink fit retaining ring to lift free of the rotor body. This would pose two
problems.
The retaining ring may not realign after it cools, reseating in a cocked position on the rotor
body. Vibration would result.
Also, the loss of good electrical contact while floating would result in pitting and burning at
points of intermittent or poor contact. Retaining rings that are designed to float will also
experience arc damage at points of intermittent contact or poor conductivity.
The resulting localized high temperatures can embrittle areas of the ring and lead to
cracking under the varied stress of repeated unit startup and shutdown.
The heating characteristics of various designs of generator are shown in Figure 6 below.
Figure 6 – Typical
negative phase sequence current withstand of cylindrical rotor generators
Salient Pole Generators
Salient pole generators normally have amortisseur winding in the form of conductive bars
spaced across the face of each rotor pole. The ends are brazed to form a low-resistance path
on the pole face.
There are two basic types of amortisseurs: Non-connected amortisseur windings are
isolated on each pole face. Connected amortisseurs have conducting bars that bridge
between poles to interconnect the ends of all the amortisseurs groups at each pole.
Much of the current induced in the rotor of a salient pole machine flows in the pole face
amortisseurs. Because the connections are brazed, this path does not have the contact resistance
hot spots inherent with the cylindrical rotor machine.
However, amortisseurs’ current tends to flow in the outer bars and the induced current can
cause stress damaging due to unequal expansion of the bars.
Figure
7 – Amortisseurs windings
If the amortisseurs are not connected between poles – A large portion of the current
induced in these windings flows down the pole body into the dovetail that holds the pole to
the rotor then back into the adjacent pole. The junction at the dovetail will afford resistance,
thus producing heat that can damage insulation and the rotor structure.
If the amortisseurs are connected between poles – The dovetail current is sharply
reduced, but high current will flow in the connection between poles.
Connecting the amortisseurs also has a current balancing effect on the pole face bars.
Salient-pole machines with connected amortisseurs will have a higher negative sequence
current capability than those without. The limiting components on the connected machines
are often the bars that bridge the poles.
The large induced current flowing in these bars can cause sufficient heat to anneal the bar,
resulting in mechanical failure under centrifugal force.
Figure 8 – Difference in salient pole rotor and round or cylindrical rotor
Pulsating torque
The negative-sequence current produces a reverse rotating magnetic field in the air gap.
This field produces a shaft torque pulsation at twice line frequency. The magnitude of the
torque is proportional to the per unit negative-sequence current in the stator. The pulsations
are transmitted to the stator.
If the stator is spring mounted, the pulsation will be absorbed. Without spring mountings,
the pulsation will be transmitted to the stator foundation, where they can be a design factor.
In general, problems associated with torque pulsation are secondary to rotor heating
concerns.
Sources:
1. Protective relaying for power generation systems by Donald Reimert

2. Network protection and automation guide by Alstom

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13 Comments
1.
Nareshkumar
Jul 24, 2019
Really helpful Sir.., I have been working as Electrical Engineer in power plant
sector..
(reply)
2.
Kumar Anjul
Jul 04, 2019
Your website is amazing. I am an Electrical Engineering Student and I really enjoy

reading your website. It gives me the insight into topics which are mentioned either
not mentioned anywhere or mentioned in a compact way. Your elaborate
discussions on topics like this helps clear the doubts that come into my way to fully
understand a concept. I really appreciate and request you to keep on posting the
updated content.
(reply)
3.
Cİhan Özçörekçi
Apr 13, 2019
Very clear and simple article to understand negative sequence, thanks so much
(reply)
4.
Muhammad Imran
Apr 05, 2019
Very good article. it helped me a lot to understand Negative Sequence current. In

my Power Plant generator Negative sequence arises for very short time 10 to 20
mSec and then ends. is it fatal for the generator? Also this negative sequence current
can also damage stator winding??Like flash stator winding??
(reply)
5.
Ali Vahdati
Mar 25, 2019
Thanks for great Information :)

you are the Best!
(reply)
6.
John Smith
Mar 20, 2019
This blog technical guide for utility. Thanks for sharing.
(reply)
7.
fari pratomosiwi
Feb 27, 2019
Very clear explanation!
(reply)
8.
Prabhakar Samal
Feb 26, 2019
thanks good topic.
with regards
P.samal
(reply)
9.
Mario M. Solang
Feb 26, 2019
Thanks…
A great technical guide for utility… Especially to the designers and operators.
(reply)
10.
rajabu a lumbila
Feb 26, 2019
Perfect explanation CONGRATURATION
(reply)
11.
m
Feb 25, 2019
Now or Know? Could not read past that point.
(reply)
o
Edvard
Feb 25, 2019
Typo fixed, thank you.
(reply)
12.
Julio Lima
Feb 25, 2019

Excellent technical article. Congratulations!
Julio Cesar Marques de LIma

Belo Horizonte – Brazil
(reply)
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(Protection) Relay Guides
Practical protection coordination study for

electrical substation 154kV / 34.5kV
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Home / Download Center / Electrical Engineering Books and Technical Guides / (Protection) Relay
Guides / Practical protection coordination study for electrical substation 154kV / 34.5kV
Protection coordination analysis

Adequate protection system which detects faults and disconnects elements of the power
system during a fault is an essential design subject of the power system. The protection
system cannot prevent the occurrence of the fault, but they should act immediately after the
occurrence of the fault.
Protection coordination study for electrical substations 154 kV and 34.5 kV
The protection system is an arrangement between protection equipment (like relays, fuses,
etc.) and other devices (like transformers, circuit breakers, batteries, etc.) which are vital to
accomplishing a specified function depending on the protection principles applied.
This paper is concerned with the protection coordination (ProC) study of Siddik
Kardesler Substation (SKS) which is an AIS type. The protection study is planned to be
presented in two parts (Part-1 and Part-2).
The first part is concerned with overcurrent and EFPs of the SKS. The second part is concerned
with the differential and distance protection aspects of the SKS. The components of the SKS and its
protection arrangements will be discussed in sections 2 and 3 respectively. The important
overcurrent relay characteristics will be discussed in section-4.
The overcurrent coordination study of SKS with necessary procedures will be discussed in
section-5. Finally, the EFP will be discussed in section-6.
Siddik Kardesler Substation Single Line Diagram
Substation Components
The SKS consists of 154 kV and 34.5 kV components that serve numerous purposes.
Components like circuit breakers, isolators, current transformers (CTs), surge arrestors,
power transformers, meters, control, relay equipment and etc. are shown symbolically upon
the substation’s single line diagram as shown in Figure 1.
In Figure 1 above, protection functions used in SKS are indicated by the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI) codes.
Based on the single line diagram shown in Figure 1, the protection arrangements for
the SKS are as follow:
1. For the 154 kV incoming transmission lines, distance protection (21/21N), directional OCP
(67/67N) and frequency protection (25) are implemented.
2. Differential protection (87T), overcurrent and earth fault protections (50/51/50N/51N) are
implemented for the power transformer.
3. For the MV outgoing feeders, overcurrent and earth fault protections (50/51/50N/51N)
are implemented.
4. Auxiliary Transformer is protected by MV fuse.
ABB relay RED 615 is used in this project and the setting parameters for differential relay
are determined in this work. Furthermore, the transmission line which transfers energy from
one place to another is protected by distance relay which is placed in the electrical
substation.
In this project, MiCOMho P443 relay is used and settings are calculated. The results from
the coordination study are implemented to the substation protection relays. After the
necessary test and commissioning of the protection system, the SKS is successfully
energized.
Protection coordination practice in electrical substations 154 kV and 34.5 kV

(Overcurrent, Earth Fault Protection, Differential and Distance Protection) –
Title:
Abdulfetah Shobole, Mustafa Baysal, Mohammed Wadi and Mehmet Rida Tur
at Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey
Format: PDF
Size: 1.8 MB
Pages: 35

Protec
tion coordination practice in electrical substations 154 kV and 34.5 kV

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Power Substation / Protection / Transmission and Distribution
Minimizing failure impact in distribution

systems by allowing faults to clear
themselves
By Edvard | April, 8th 2019 | 3 comments | Save to PDF
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Home / Technical Articles / Minimizing failure impact in distribution systems by allowing faults to
clear themselves
Power interruptions & what can be done

Distribution systems are basically insecure – failure of a major component always leads to
customer interruptions. So, what can be done? Reliable distribution systems minimize this
impact by allowing faults to clear themselves, by minimizing the number of customers
affected by protection device operations and by quickly restoring customers through
system reconfiguration.
Minimizing failure impact in distribution systems by allowing faults to clear themselves (on photo:
New Kyle Nova 38 reclosers recently installed at the Wall St. 12K substation in Colchester, CT. This
is a newer type vacuum insulated model, as opposed to oil-insulated. Credit: Jim via Flickr)
A clear understanding of this process is critical to understanding distribution reliability.
1. Fault on Main Feeder

2. Fuse Saving
3. Fuse Clearing
4. Recloser / Fuse Coordination
5. Automatic Sectionalizers
1. Fault on Main Feeder
(Fault on line L5)
For the system represented in Figure 1, consider a 3-phase fault occurring on line section
L5. Fault current immediately flows from subtransmission lines to the fault location,
causing a voltage drop across transformer T1 and resulting in voltage sags for customers on
L9-L12.
Customers on L2 through L4 experience sags of increasing severity and the voltages on L5

and L6 are nearly zero.
Example distribution system to illustrate system responses to various contingencies
Fault current causes breaker B1 to trip open. A reclosing relay then closes the breaker. If no
fault current is detected, the fault has successfully cleared and all customers downstream of
B1 experience a momentary interruption.
If fault current persists, B1 trips and recloses again. After several reclosing attempts, B1
will lock out (remain open) and all customers downstream of B1 will experience a
sustained interruption. After B1 sends an alarm to the system operator and customer trouble
calls are received, the on-duty system operator dispatches a crew to locate the fault.
When the fault is located, the system operator instructs the crew to open switch S15. After this is
done, the operator remotely closes B1, restoring power to customers on L2-L4. The crew
estimates that repairs will take 5 hours to complete.
Because of the long repair time, the operator instructs the crew to open S56 and close S67.
Customers on L6 are restored and are now being supplied by Substation 2 rather than
Substation 1.
The first switching step is called upstream restoration and the second switching step is
called downstream restoration. The entire switching sequence is called system
reconfiguration.
After the fault is repaired, the crew returns the system to its pre-fault state.
2. Fuse Saving
(Fault on line L4)
Now consider a fault on L4. An instantaneous relay quickly opens B1 before the fuse
element in F4 starts to melt. If the fault is cleared when B1 recloses, all customers
downstream of B1 experience a momentary interruption.
If not, a coordinated time-overcurrent relay allows F4 to blow before B1 trips again.
Customers on L4 experience a sustained interruption and customers on the rest of the

feeder experience a momentary interruption.Fuse saving is also referred to as,feeder
selective relaying.
3. Fuse Clearing
(Fault on line L4)
Fuse saving schemes temporarily interrupt an entire feeder for all faults occurring on fused
laterals. To reduce the high number of resulting customer momentary interruptions, utilities
often block breaker instantaneous relays.
Consider the same fault on L4. Instead of an instantaneous relay quickly opening B1, a
coordinated time-overcurrent relay allows F4 to clear before B1 opens.
L4 experiences a sustained interruption, and the rest of the feeder is prevented from
experiencing an interruption.
Fuse clearing does not give faults on fused laterals a chance to clear themselves. This can
significantly increase the total number of sustained interruptions and the total interruption time of
customers supplied from these laterals.
In addition, customers that are prevented from experiencing a momentary interruption will
still see a voltage sag that can have a similar impact on sensitive loads.
4. Recloser / Fuse Coordination
(Fault on line L2)
Consider a fault on L2 with fuse saving enabled. Since the fault is near the substation, the
impedance of T1 limits its magnitude. T1 has a base rating of 20 MVA at 12.47 kV and an
impedance of 10%.
This results in a fault current of:
The instantaneous relay on B1 will detect the fault in about 4 ms, but the breaker requires
about 80 ms to physically open and clear the fault.
Meanwhile, 9.26 kA of current will melt one of the slowest available fuses (200T) in about
40 ms. Since the circuit breaker cannot beat the fuse and clear the fault, customers on L2
will experience a sustained interruption and all other customers on the feeder will still
experience a momentary interruption.
The inability of utilities to coordinate the instantaneous operation of reclosers with fuses in areas
of high fault currents leads many utilities to implement fuse clearing. A viable alternative is to
block the instantaneous at the substation and install a recloser on the main feeder where fault
currents are low enough to coordinate instantaneous recloser operation with downstream fuses.
Another alternative is to use automatic sectionalizers.
5. Automatic Sectionalizers
(Fault on line L9)
Consider a fault on L9 with a magnitude of 10kA – too high to coordinate a fuse saving
strategy. As an alternative, an automatic sectionalizer AS9 is used to protect the lateral.
The automatic sectionalizer detects the fault and increments its counter to C=1. B1 opens
and recloses to allow the fault a chance to clear itself. If the fault persists, the AS9 counter
will increment to C=2. When its counter reaches a pre-set value, AS9 will automatically
open the next time B1 opens.
The fault is isolated, Bl closes a last time, and customers experience interruptions
equivalent to a fuse saving scheme.
https://youtu.be/WOez8-NNYIw
Because sectionalizers use upstream devices to interrupt faults, they can be used wherever
coordination issues become a problem.
A distribution system fault impacts many different customers in many different ways.
In general, the same fault results in voltage sags for some customers, momentary
interruptions for other customers, and varying lengths of sustained interruptions for other
customers depending on how the system is switched and how long it takes for the fault to
be repaired – all critical to distribution system reliability.
https://youtu.be/D9zLQPpnwuU
Sectionalizer enables the immediate separation of fault point in coordination with the
operation of substation CB.
Se
ctionalizer operation sequence
Sources: Electric Power Distribution Reliability Richard E. Brown

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Edvard Csanyi
3 Comments
1.
Hocine Meng Fodil
May 01, 2019
Thank you very much for this lecture i will give you back as a reminder this
following youtube video that may will be helpfull for you .https://youtu.be/-
UM3tHcb9CA?t=1426
thank you .
(reply)
2.
shivakumar C
Apr 09, 2019
helpful article.
Thank you
(reply)
o
Aye Chan Moe
Jul 03, 2019
Helpful article.
Thanks.
(reply)
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Energy and Power / Low Voltage / Medium Voltage
What do you need for short-circuit

calculations? The less you assume, the
better!
By Edvard | August, 21st 2019 | 8 comments | Save to PDF
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Home / Technical Articles / What do you need for short-circuit calculations? The less you assume,
the better!
Short-circuit in electrical systems

If you ask any electrical design engineer what is the most time consuming and critical
required in short circuit analysis, he/she would say that it’s obtaining available data. The
less data that is assumed, the better and more accurate the results. There are conditions
when most of the data may initially have to be estimated, such as when designing a new
system.
What do you need for short-circuit calculations? The less you assume, the better!
As the system becomes finalized, specific equipment data may be available and the results
are more pertinent.
On existing systems, the amount of estimated data is greatly reduced. An up-to-date single-
line diagram is needed. If one is not available, site inspection is required to determine
switchgear and load center connection points. There may be cases where no information
exists regarding the interconnection of plant loads back to the utility supply.
The lack of information is usually the result of a temporary “quick fix” that never properly became
documented and over time became permanent. A time consuming tracing of conductors is
required to identify its connection to known point.
One great value of the short-circuit study is therefore an up-to-date single-line diagram.
In the discussion in first part of this article (Utility sources), the available data used for
short-circuit calculations that can be obtained from equipment nameplates is noted by an *.
Other data required will have to be itemized and requested or gathered separately. The data
is then converted to ohms or per-unit ohms before it can be used in the analysis.
Contents:
1. Utility sources
2. Generators
3. Synchronous motors
4. Induction motors
5. Transformers
6. Reactors
7. Capacitors
8. Static regenerative drives
9. Breakers, contactors, and current transformers
10. Cables
11. Transmission lines
1. Utility sources
The equipment impedance data for the utility source must be obtained from the utility
company. When requesting the data, specify at what point the source contribution
equivalent is to be desired, form desired (per-unit, MVA, or amperes), base voltage used for
the calculation, X/R ratio at the point specified, and if data desired is for three-phase or
three-phase and line-to-ground calculations.
A single-line diagram sketch is often helpful in defining the point of the equivalent. Most
utilities do not include the industrial user as a source of short-circuit current unless in-plant
generation is present.
In addition, the equivalent source impedance will be from a complex R + jX calculation. Generally,
the source impedance from neither a separate R and X (R only and Xonly) nor first-cycle and
interrupting time calculations will be available. When one set of impedances is furnished by the
utility, it is generally assumed to be the maximum short-circuit value or the first-cycle value.
If the plant has more than one connection point, then a more complex equivalent is required
and part of the utility may have to be represented.
Typical forms of the data received from the utility is given below:
1. MVA with phase angle or X/R ratio.

(Requires voltage level at which MVA was calculated)
2. Fault current with phase angle or X/R ratio.
(Requires voltage level at which current is calculated)
3. Resistance and reactance in ohms.
(Requires voltage level at which ohms are calculated)
4. Per-unit resistance and reactance.
(Requires voltage level and MVA base, usually 100 MVA)
5. Percent resistance and reactance.
(Requires voltage level and MVA base, usually 100 MVA)
Figure 1 – MV dual fed switchboard with 2/3 type transfer
Go back to Content Table ↑
2. Generators
The data available from the machine nameplate is not significantly complete for an accurate
short-circuit calculation.
Typical data on the nameplate is as follows:
1. Manufacturer and serial number

2. Rated MVA* and voltage*
3. Rated frequency and machine speed
4. Rated current and field voltage
The machine nameplate data required for short-circuit calculations is noted by an *.
While some of the above data is useful, the machine impedances, if furnished, are supplied on a
separate data sheet. If this data sheet is not available, the manufacturer can usually provide the
data required if the serial number is available. This data may have to be recalculated or extracted
from the original drawings at a cost to the user.
On machines built in the early 1900s, the subtransient impedance was defined differently
from what it is today. A recalculation by the vendor could result in different impedance
values as compared to what was originally furnished.
The following data is required for short-circuit calculations:
1. X”dv – rated voltage (saturated) direct-axis subtransient reactance (first-cycle and

interrupting calculations)
2. X’dv – rated voltage (saturated) direct-axis transient reactance (relaying time calculations)
3. X2V – rated-voltage (saturated) negative sequence reactance (used to calculate X/R ratio,
and in unbalanced fault calculations)
4. TA3 – rated-voltage generator armature time constant in seconds, or Ra – armature
resistance, (used to calculate X/R ratio)
5. Short-circuit current decrement curve (not required, but will be useful in relaying time
calculations)
6. X0 – zero sequence reactance (used in unbalanced fault calculations for grounded
generators)
One item not supplied as part of the generator nameplate or data sheet that may be required
for relaying time calculations is the type of voltage regulator used with the generator.
Figure 2 –
Generator nameplate
3. Synchronous motors
The data required for synchronous motors is the same as that furnished for generators.
Machine nameplate data may not be sufficiently complete for an accurate short-circuit
analysis.

2. Rated MVA* and voltage*
3. Rated frequency and machine speed
4. Rated current and field voltage
The machine nameplate data required for short-circuit calculations is noted by an *.
While some of the above data is useful, the machine impedances, if available, are given on a
separate data sheet. If a data sheet is not available, the manufacturer can usually provide the data
required if the serial number is available. This data may have to be recalculated or extracted from
the original drawings at a cost to the user.
Some manufacturers may only furnish one transient or subtransient impedance for motors,
which is usually the rated voltage X”dv value that is desired for short-circuit calculations.
The following data is required for short-circuit calculations:
1.
1. X”dv – rated voltage (saturated) direct-axis subtransient reactance (first-cycle and
interrupting calculations)
2. X’dv – rated voltage (saturated) direct-axis transient reactance (relaying time
calculations)
3. X2V – rated-voltage (saturated) negative sequence reactance (used to calculate X/R
ratio and unbalanced faults)
4. TA3 – rated-voltage generator armature time constant in seconds, or R a – armature
resistance, (used to calculate X/R ratio)
5. Short-circuit current decrement curve (not required, but may be useful in relaying
time calculations)
6. X0 – zero sequence reactance (used in unbalanced fault calculations for grounded
motors. Most wye connected motors are not connected to system neutrals)
One item not supplied as part of the motor nameplate or data sheet that may be required for
relaying time calculations is the type of voltage regulator used with the motor. Most of the
present day regulators are of the potential source type and do not supply sustained short-
circuit currents.
Figure
3 – Synchronous motor nameplate
4. Induction motors
Some data required for short-circuit studies that include induction motors is on the motor
nameplate. But the nameplate data is not sufficiently complete for an accurate short-circuit
calculations.

2. Rated HP or MVA* and voltage*
3. Rated frequency and motor speed*
4. Rated current and NEMA code letter*
Data required for short-circuit calculations is noted by an *.

Machine impedances are seldom furnished on a separate data sheet. However, if a data
sheet is available, the manufacturer usually specifies the locked-rotor current that can be
used to estimate the motor subtransient impedance.
More detailed impedance data is available at a cost, but is usually not justified. Different
impedance data is furnished for the motor at both stall and running conditions and the
resistances furnished may not include the one required for short-circuit calculations.
The motor starting reactance is most often used for short-circuit calculation. However, the
resistance to be used for short-circuit calculations is lower than the starting resistance provided on
the data sheet. Unless a short-circuit resistance is provided, typical motor X/R ratio curves can be
used.
Data for smaller motors is usually estimated because the cost of obtaining this information
is not justified.
Figure
4 – Industrial motor nameplate

5. Transformers
Transformer nameplates usually provide most of the data required for short-circuit
calculations.

2. Rated MVA* and frequency
3. Rated primary and secondary voltages*
4. Rated current and taps available*
5. Transformer percent impedance*
6. Number of windings, winding connection and phase relationship* (needed for unbalanced
fault calculations)
7. Manufacturer test report.
The nameplate data required for short-circuit calculations is noted by an *.
Note that the transformer nameplate data is given as a percent impedance and not percent
reactance and is generally given on the self cooled rating unless otherwise specified.
The reactance is determined once the percent resistance is known. The transformer X/R ratio is
not on the nameplate, but can be determined from the transformer test sheet or losses, if
provided.
Some data sheets do provide the% resistance as a piece of data; otherwise, the % resistance
is determined by:
or
The standard phase relationship of a delta-wye or wye-delta transformer is that the high-
voltage side leads the low-voltage side by 30 degrees for positive phase sequence systems.
When performing unbalanced fault calculations, the positive sequence current and voltage shifts
by either +30 degrees or –30 degrees, while the negative sequence current and voltage have the
same phase shift but in the opposite direction.
Note that one side of the transformer is selected as reference. With the reference
established, the phase shift is applied following the general rule of “HV side leads LV side
for positive sequence, and HV lags LV for negative sequence.”
Example of a delta-wye transformer
As an example, suppose that a delta-wye transformer has the HV winding selected as

reference. Based on this choice of reference, the positive sequence LV side values will lag
the positive sequence HV side values, and the negative sequence LV side values will lead
the negative sequence HV side values.
The signs on the phase shifts would be exactly reversed if the LV side were selected as reference
and the HV side values were required to be shifted with respect to the LV side values.
There will be no shift of the zero sequence current since there is no path for this current
component to flow. The zero sequence voltage is determined by the zero sequence
impedance times the zero sequence current flow on each side of the transformer.
Figure
5 – Transformer nameplate

6. Reactors
The reactor nameplate usually provides most of the data required for short-circuit
calculations.
Typical data on the nameplate is:

2. Rated voltage* and frequency
3. Rated current* and taps available*
4. Reactor percent impedance*
5. Reactor ohms* (not always provided)
6. Percent voltage drop* (not always provided)
7. Manufacturer test report
The reactor X/R ratio is not on the nameplate, but can be determined from the reactor test sheet
or losses, if provided. Some data sheets do provide the reactance, the resistance, and reactor “Q”
factor as a piece of data. Not all the above * items can be used directly for a short-circuit
calculation.
For example, the percent impedance is on the “through” kVA (volts × amps) of the
reactor and for a three-phase reactor the through kVA is:
The impedance can also be determined from the voltage drop as follows:
Impedance in ohms = Volt drop in volts / IRated
The base for the percent voltage drop (when used) is line-to-line rated voltage. For a three-
phase reactor, the “self” kVA is as follows:
7. Capacitors
The inclusion of capacitor data is usually not necessary under most conditions. Knowing
capacitor contributions to short-circuit currents is important to determine the actual
extent to which capacitors will affect the first-cycle calculations.
When a fault occurs, capacitor…
A capacitor in an AC system charges and discharges in a controlled manner every half

cycle, based on the sinusoidal driving voltage and system impedances. When a fault occurs,
the system voltage is suddenly changed and the capacitor discharges at a rapid rate, with
a high discharge current. The current is greatest if the fault occurs when the capacitor is
charged to the maximum at a voltage peak. Only the impedance between the capacitor and
the fault limits the discharge current.
The current will “ring down” based on circuit resistance and reactance. The resistance
provides damping and the interaction between the system reactance and capacitor
determines the frequency of the oscillating current.
If inclusion of the capacitor data is required, the capacitors nameplate is complete for short-
circuit calculations.
The data on the nameplate will be as follows:

3. Rated kvar*
The capacitor X/R ratio is not on the nameplate, but is generally very high and can be
determined from the capacitor loss test sheet, if it is provided. If assuming the X/R ratio, a
value from 200 to 300 should be acceptable, because the series cable resistance quickly
overwhelms the capacitor resistance.
The length of cable to the capacitor bank is important and should be included.
Figure 6 – Capacitor nameplate
8. Static regenerative drives
The inclusion of static regenerative drive data will be necessary in the first-cycle
calculations. Note that non-regenerative drives are not sources of fault current and need not
be considered. The rectifier transformer and drive motor size is required.
Typical data on the drive transformer nameplate is as follows:

3. Rated primary and secondary voltages*
4. Rated current and taps available*
5. Transformer percent impedance*
6. Number of windings, winding connection and phase relationship
The drive transformer X/R ratio is not on the nameplate, but can be determined from the
transformer test sheet or losses, if provided. Some data sheets do provide the percent
resistance as a piece of data. Otherwise, the percent resistance is determined by:
or
Note that the drive transformer nameplate data is given as a percent impedance and not
percent reactance. The reactance is determined once the percent resistance is known.
The size of the driven motor load is also required to determine the short-circuit current
contribution or equivalent source impedance. The motor size may have to be extracted from
drawings.
The motor data needed is the same as given for synchronous and induction motors above.
For short-circuit calculations where the drive is modeled as an induction motor, the
equivalent drive impedance should be greater than the typical impedance of an induction
motor with the same rating.
9. Breakers, contactors, and current transformers
The inclusion of circuit breaker, contactor, or current transformer impedances is seldom

done in short-circuit calculations. These impedances are more significant in low-voltage
system analysis than for the higher-voltage systems.
The impedances of series connected trip or thermal overload devices in the power circuit on low-
voltage systems can greatly reduce the available fault current downstream from such devices and
therefore should be included when required.
For fractional horsepower motor loads, the thermal overload devices will have an
impedance magnitude in ohms as compared to cable impedances in milliohms.
Figure
7 – Low voltage circuit breaker, type Compact NSX
10. Cables
The connecting cables will not have any impedance data stamped on them. Data typically
found on the cable includes the following:
1. Manufacturer
2. Rated voltage*
3. Type of cable* and insulation type*
4. Size of conductor*
In addition, the following data is required:
5. Length
6. Type of cable construction (1/C or 3/C)
7. Number of cables in parallel and physical spacing
8. Type of cable duct used (steel, fiber, cable tray, direct burial, etc.)
Data shown on cable and required for short-circuit calculations is noted by an *.
The impedance data per unit of length must be determined from other sources such as
manufacturer’s literature or general cable impedances in texts. The cable manufactures literature
is preferred, because insulation thickness may differ between manufacturers where as most
references provide typical impedance values.
References usually provide positive sequence impedance, which is used in three-phase

faults. For unbalanced faults, the zero sequence cable data is required and not usually
provided in references.
The zero sequence impedances of cables differ from that of the positive and negative
sequence and is dependent upon the physical configuration and the impedances of the
ground return paths.
11. Transmission lines
The impedance data for connecting transmission lines should be based on the line
configuration. Drawings or sketches showing wire size, type of conductor material, and
conductor spacing are required.
In addition, circuit length, type and size of ground wire, and earth resistance must be
obtained.
Sources:
 IEEE Recommended Practice for Calculating Short-Circuit Currents in Industrial and

Commercial Power Systems
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8 Comments
1.
Nasser
Aug 27, 2019
Good morning Mr.Edvard

THANK YOU VERY FOR YOUR ACTIVITIES.
One question please : do you have any example related to any project contains the
calculations steps to calculate the short circuit.if yes please send it me.
your cooperation is highly appreciated
Best regards
Nasser
(reply)
2.
Ruben J. Dichoso
Aug 26, 2019
thanks a lot for this upgrading fault calculation,
(reply)
3.
Ashraf Hassan
Aug 23, 2019
Thanks a lot.
(reply)
4.
Electrical and electronics Engineering
Aug 23, 2019
Thanks a lot for this updated
(reply)
5.
Ahmed Safieeldin
Aug 22, 2019
Thanks a lot
(reply)
6.
SABO NAKADA DAVID
Aug 22, 2019
I am impressive with this publications. May You continue to do more. Thanks
(reply)
7.
Guruprasad R C
Aug 22, 2019
Very useful. keep updating.
(reply)
8.
Davinder Singh
Aug 21, 2019
Most advantageous.
(reply)
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Electrical engineering guides and research studies
Lightning protection in a nutshell (design,

bonding, earthing and testing – IEC
62305)
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Home / Download Center / Electrical Engineering Books and Technical Guides / Electrical
engineering guides / Lightning protection in a nutshell (design, bonding, earthing and testing – IEC
62305)
Power distribution systems with RCDs

Within a power distribution system, overcurrent and residual current devices (RCDs) are
used for the protection of human lives against shock hazard as well as to protect the
structure / equipment and occupants from fire and other hazards that could result from an
electrical fault.
Lightning protection in a nutshell (design, bonding, earthing and testing)
Similarly, surge protection devices are installed to also reduce these risks due to lightning
currents. It is important that the installation of surge protection devices does not
compromise the operation of overcurrent and residual current devices.
Where conflicts exist, priority should be given to the overcurrent and residual current
devices. Often in the case of RCDs, this resolution requires the installation of the surge
protection devices to be installed in a less favorable position.
Residual current devices (RCDs) may also be known as residual current circuit breakers (RCCBs) or
earth leakage circuit breakers (ELCBs).
The three main issues with RCDs are:
Issue #1 – Large lightning current passing through the RCD could cause damage to the
RCD, thereby inhibiting its operating and causing a safety hazard.
Issue #2 – Nuisance tripping when surge protection devices installed downstream operate
(the current flow to ground can be detected as a potentially life threatening leakage current.
Issue #3 – Nuisance tripping when large lighting currents are passed through the RCDs.
Due to small imbalances in the detection circuit, when large lightning currents are passed
and returned via the RCD the RCD may incorrectly detect an imbalance.
Generally it is desirable to install SPDs prior to RCDs to avoid situation 1. However,

some local codes may not permit SPDs to be installed prior to RCDs. It is important to
follow the local code requirement with regard to installation and selection of RCDs.
Install
ation of SPD into typical low current single phase panel with no additional back-up overcurrent
protection
In other countries, RCDs are only used on branch circuits feeding to wet areas such as
bathrooms, hence SPDs can be installed prior to RCDs.
Type “S” or “selective” RCDs are specially designed to have a higher immunity to
lightning impulses (to 3 kA 8/20 µs). Internal filtering desensitizes the detection circuits to
harmonics, inrush currents and lightning currents.
There is generally little concern with class III tested SPDs being installed downstream of
RCDs.
In fact class III tested SPDs are often only installed L-N to protect against differential mode
voltages, thus further reducing the risk of interaction with the RCD.
Lightning protection in a nutshell (design, bonding, earthing and testing) –

Title:
nVent/ERICO
Format: PDF
Size: 16.1 MB
Pages: 92
Lightn
ing protection in a nutshell (design, bonding, earthing and testing)

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3 Comments
1.
TAY ZAR WIN
Jan 29, 2019
Very useful and attractive material to study for the advance of my profession.
Thanks for your sharing knowledge and data. Best Wishes,
(reply)
2.
Andrei
Jan 28, 2019
In your practice do you usually installed SPD in a main panel or in a separate

special box?
(reply)
o
Edvard
Jan 28, 2019
I prefer more installation in the same panel. Connections are shorter.
(reply)
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Energy and Power / Low Voltage / Protection
Good practice rules for electromagnetic

compatibility (EMC) of LV conductors
By Edvard | September, 30th 2019 | 2 comments | Save to PDF
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Home / Technical Articles / Good practice rules for electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) of LV
conductors
Never underestimate EMC issues

The search for an overall optimization of the installation with regard to electromagnetic
compatibility (EMC) and its ability to function without suffering or emitting excessive
interference, comes via a set of good practices, which are often simple and based on
common sense.
Good practice rules for electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) of LV conductors (photo credit: Joop
Gijsbers)
They apply to power and to communication conductors, and to both where they have to
cohabit.
Essential components in the installation, metal cable tray and prefabricated trunking
contribute to the control of EMC in several ways. First, they constitute a common,
continuous and distributed potential reference, by integrating into the installation’s earthing
system,
They also provide an interference reduction effect by reducing couplings due to proximity
or the interposing of conductive elements,
Metal cable tray and prefabricated trunking enable the geometrical separation of
circuits and functions and also compliance with minimum cohabitation distances between
high and low currents and between polluting and sensitive circuits. It should be noted that
insulating ducts and tray also have this advantage,
Through their screening effect, they can limit the electromagnetic radiation received by
conductors or radiated into the surrounding area. this characteristic depends a great deal on the
model. Wire tray does not have any intrinsic screening qualities while prefabricated trunking is
particularly effective on this point.
Cable tray, trunking and more generally products intended for the transport and distribution
of energy and communications in installations are considered as passive elements for
EMC purposes.
This is undoubtedly a slightly simplistic view, given that conductors operate as aerials
which radiate and receive and that they are subject to multiple couplings. but at the same
time, EMC phenomena are highly complex to analyse within an overall installation The
routes taken by conductors and what they are exposed to are diverse and variable.
Table of Content:
1.
1. Electrical continuity of cable trays
1. Physical continuity of cable tray
2. Star earthing system and common mesh system
2. Reduction effects
1. Rule for grouping conductors
2. Actual HF impedance of a conductor
3. Geometric separation of conductors and circuits
1. Geometrical separation of circuits
2. Cohabitation lengths
3. Separation of certain devices
4. Electromagnetic screening of cable trays and prefabricated trunking
1. Magnetic field emissions
1. Electrical continuity of cable trays
Where it is correctly inter-connected and connected to the installation’s general

equipotential link, metal cable tray contributes to the constitution of a common distributed
potential reference, with a low impedance, which improves the quality of the installation’s
general earthing system.
Apart from contributing to safety, care taken over the continuity of runs allows the spread of (HF)
interference within the installation to be limited. Those travelling naturally to earth via the path
of least impedance, such as metal masses and conductive trunking.
Standard IEC 61537 requires electrical continuity in cable tray which is stated as being
conductive.
Maximum electrical resistance values are 5 mΩ per metre and 50 mΩ per joining
contact. Even though the first value is compatible with the right conductivity for HF
interference, the second is much too high. A maximum target value of 1 mΩ must be
sought and a value of 5 mΩ should not be exceeded under any circumstances.
1.1 Physical continuity of cable tray
Wire joins are to be avoided due to their high impedance at high frequencies. it is
recommended that continuity is produced by using appropriate items that produce much
more effective wide and flat contacts.
Physical
continuity of cable tray
1.2 Star earthing system and common mesh system
Standard EN 50174-2 gives information on three levels for producing equipotential and
earthing systems for communication installations. The search for maximum meshing
reduces the impedance of the various circuits and equipment. This star earthing system is
usually used in small installations. It only relates to distributed protection conductors, in a
star, from the installation’s origin.
Equipment items do not communicate with each other or, if they do, they only do so
locally. We then talk about a star multiple mesh system (see below).
In a common meshing system, it is the whole installation where conductive items, earths
and protective conductors are meshed.
1.2.1 Star earthing system structure
As a general rule, when equipment items, but this is also true for cable tray, are remote
from each other and are inter-connected by protective conductors, the earth network created
has a low equipotential associated with a high common impedance between the various
items.
The nature itself of the protective conductors and their cross-section has only limited
influence.
By virtue of the star structure of the installation, they are too long, which results in too high
a high-frequency impedance for the equipotential to be correct.
Star earthing
system structure
1.2.2 Structure of a common mesh earth system
In a common mesh earth system structure, metal cable trays are inter-connected to all
available elements of the building’s structure (frames, hangers, etc.). A search for the
electrical continuity of routings must also be done by adding, if necessary, a few linking
items (hangers, crossovers, cable tray sections) to provide better inter-connection.
Structure of a
common mesh earth system
1.2.3 Star earth system structure with multiple meshes (variant of the star system)
Producing a full common meshing can be difficult (extent or complexity of the site,
absence of conductive items) and it is sometimes preferable to deal with equipotential
locally (unit mesh) for networks supplying certain equipment.
In the example in the diagram below, the two distinct runs of power and communication
systems supplying a single piece of equipment are made equipotential by a connection to
accessible local earths and to the equipment itself.
Star earth
system structure with multiple meshes (variant of the star system)
Notes:
Connections between masses are preferably made by bolting on directly (paint removed,
metal/metal and restoration of the protection) or by connection systems approved by
manufacturers (joining components, couplers, penetrating devices, etc.).
Short, wide conductors (braids, straps) may be used for shorter lengths (typically 0.5-1 m)
or for complex geometrical layouts. round wire conductors should not be permitted beyond
a few dozen centimeters.
In practice, any conductive element can contribute to the equipotential of the earthing network:
protective conductors with their limits (high HF impedance), metal conduits, beams, frames, metal
structures and door frames, ironmongery, gratings, conductive floors and of course cable tray,
ducts and prefabricated trunking.
Attention is nonetheless drawn to the necessary permanence of these items, to their actual
role and possible incompatibility for integration into the overall earth network.
Some situations require a special analysis: presence of stray currents, return supply current,
presence of lightning currents or particular interference, high immunity for hospital
equipment, etc. Prior expertise is then necessary to assess the impact of the measures taken.
Cable tray
connections
2. Reduction Effects
EMc good practice rules very often recommend positioning conductors as close as
possible to masses or even pressing them against them, without however detailing the
electromagnetic forces brought into play. We talk about a coupling reduction effect. In
practice, it is especially communication conductors that can benefit from this effect.
This reduction effect has two aspects:
Aspect #1 – An inductive aspect modifying the conductors’ own impedance by reducing

the self-induction component which increases with the frequency (see next page),
Aspect #2 – A capacitive aspect reducing crosstalk with the other conductors by modifying
the capacitive coupling. The metal element introduces a third armature in the capacitors
which conductors form between each other.
Even more than for the inductive model, it is very difficult to quantify the capacitance value
which these conductive elements represent which are complex impedances (both capacitor
armatures and inductances).
2.1 Rule for grouping conductors
Too close cohabitation of conductors leads to couplings and the transmission of

interference. conversely, their being too far apart leads to poor equipotential and the
creation of high surface loops.
Rule
for grouping conductors
As a compromise, it is preferable to route all conductors supplying a single system or

devices communicating with each other relatively close together. This is particularly
important for the protective conductor which participates in the capacitive coupling
reduction effect.
In particular, it must not be separated from the active conductors by ferromagnetic

elements.
The active unit conductors must be arranged in such a way as to reduce their radiation and their
mutual influence with other conductors. They themselves are also less sensitive to external
interference, since they are coupled in common rather than differential mode.
To do this, the juxtaposed layouts (single-phase circuits) or trefoil (3-phase circuits) are
recommended. Those which are bundled for parallel conductors must follow strict rules
(see Table 1).
Table 1 – Layout of the conductors in parallel and correction coefficient as per IEC 60364
It is recommended that all types of conductor (signals, controls, power, but also
equipotential links and protective conductors) are routed as close as possible to structures,
frames, conduits, girders and other solid items, in order to benefit from a greater reduction
effect, the more effectively these solid items are linked to the equipotential system.
If multi-conductor cables are used, non-connected conductors can be linked together and
connected to the equipotential circuit. They will constitute a solid structure that will reduce
capacitive couplings.
2.2 Actual HF impedance of a conductor
This term covers two aspects:
1. The apparent impedance of the conductor and

2. The impedance of the field in which it is situated (whether or not it was generated by that
conductor).
2.2.1 Apparent impedance of the conductor
The first notion is linked only to the characteristics of the conductor: its geometry (skin
effect), the constituent conductor material (conductivity and magnetic permeability) but
also the surrounding medium (permittivity of air) which will determine its characteristic
impedance, which is a complex function of these elements but which can be simplified as:
Z = L/C at HF
For a single wire conductor, the impedance is reduced to its linear inductance and in air,
this is approximately 1μh/m (1 microhenry per meter) but it should not be forgotten that,
in fact, this value is linked to the notion of the conductor’s self-induction and that it only
exists because a current is running through the conductor.
Apparent impedance of the
conductor
Unlike an electrical field, magnetism only exists if there is a movement of charges

(Maxwell’s equations). In the diagram opposite, the induction B’ generated by the field I
induces a self-induction current I which is opposed to the current I which originated it.
Nothing prevents the selfinduction (or own mutual induction) effect. l is approximately 1
μh/m.
I’ represents the current surge on breaking which makes cutting inductive circuits difficult.
The inductance phenomenon is like a brake. the field created by the conductor generates an
induction in this same conductor which will conflict with the current that created it (Lenz’s
Law), which explains clearly why inductance retards the current (ϕ < 0).
2.2.2 Impedance of the field
The second notion is linked to the propagation of electromagnetic waves in the surrounding
medium which will have a direct influence on the self-induction of the conductor and
therefore on its inductance. If the field is modified by the propagation medium (magnetic
screen, other conductor, other field, etc.), the self-induction value will also be different
from the actual inductance value.
This is what happens when the return conductor is close to the outward conductor but also, and
more generally, close to other conductive components, wires or earthing components.
The inductance of a conductor is therefore not an absolute value but is always a positive
value. It depends largely on the reciprocal influences to which the conductor is subject.
The diagram opposite shows the mutual influence of two conductors passed through by the
same current but in the opposite direction. in a portion of the mutual influence space, the
fields generated counteract each other, the inductions B and B’ conflict, even cancel each
other out and the self-induction of the conductor is reduced.
Impedance of the field
From what we see in this diagram, we can understand clearly that the mutual effects of
induction, their own or mutual, are linked to the shape of the conductors, in particular, to
their ‘facing surfaces’ in the case of outward/return conductors.
In single phase (two conductors) circuits, it is relatively easy to maintain this favourable
arrangement, either by using cables, or by their side-by-side positioning. In multi-phase circuits,
moreover, with several conductors in parallel, it is difficult to control all the mutual effects. That
is why it is necessary to follow precise rules for their installation.
2.2.3 Reduction effect from the proximity of a metal mass
In the diagram opposite, the field H must pass around the metal obstacle (in HF, the iron
very quickly saturates and only the skin actually allows a field to pass). the magnetic circuit
(a volume of air in this case) is lengthened and its magnetic resistance increases to the same
extent.
The induction value b’ which will be coupled to the conductor will be reduced. Note,
however, that this does not mean that the value of the field generated H is modified, it is
simply the self-induction effect B’ which is counteracted.
Reduction effect from the
proximity of a metal mass
3. Geometric separation of conductors and circuits
In terms of electromagnetic compatibility, a cable tray run can be compared to the routing
of the tracks on a printed circuit board. A parallel which allows us to understand that there
are no constant, universal rules and that most often, it is necessary to take a set of,
sometimes contradictory, constraints into consideration, to determine what is the best
compromise.
In the same way that the electrical separation of the supplies would be a means of limiting
galvanic couplings between circuits with different intended uses, wide geometric separation
would be the ideal means of avoiding capacitive and inductive couplings between
conductors.
But in practice, neither one nor the other is really applicable, and in all installations,
there are a number of couplings or “common electromagnetic points”.
3.1 Geometrical separation of circuits: between theory and common sense
to the extent that it is not possible to galvanically isolate circuits at their source (the power
input is usually common) or at the point where they are used (in the example of
communicating appliances), too systematic a separation of the conductors can lead to the
creation of significant surface loops; the remedy can then be worse than the illness.
Sufficient distances should be maintained between certain circuits while following the rules
for grouping together the conductors that make up these circuits.
Conductors on cable trays are subject to a set of interferences or are themselves the
source of interference which depends on the frequency of the interference signal, the
length of the common run and the distance between the conductors.
The coupling between conductors, generally referred to as crosstalk, is the result of several
associated EMC phenomena. To this are added external phenomena such as magnetic (loop
field), electrical (wire field) and mutual radiation.
Also, the nature of the conductors has a direct influence on the coupling:
1. Twisted pair (type utP) to limit the inductive component of the coupling, screen (type FtP)
to limit the capacitive component,
2. Shielding and screen (type SFtP) to protect from external electromagnetic radiation.
Standard EN 50174-2 recommend physical separation distances for the cohabitation of power and
communication networks. these can be criticised for not taking into consideration the nature of
the cable tray support, metal or insulating, or the level of pollution from the electrical circuit.
The table below, based on experience, gives guide values for the principal installation and
electromagnetic pollution situations.
Table 2 – Minimum recommended cohabitation distances d (in mm)

Table 2 – Minimum
recommended cohabitation distances d (in mm)
3.2 Cohabitation lengths
In practice, the minimum cohabitation distance depends on the length of the shared run.
The more circuits cohabit over a long run (several dozen metres), the more it is important to
comply with this distance.
In fact, the frequency bandwidth that characterises the coupling between conductors is
directly proportional to the wavelength of the frequencies in question and therefore to the
length of the cohabitation.
For medium frequency disturbances (typically < 100Mhz), the critical cohabitation
length will be of the order of around ten meters. At a distance of 1 m it will fall to
disturbances at a frequency of 1 gigahertz. Also, high-frequency disturbances are
predominantly electrical and attenuate far less quickly (in 1/d2) than low frequency,
predominantly magnetic disturbances (in 1/d3).

3.3 Separation of certain devices
Some devices (fluorescent lighting, motors, welding sets, arc and induction furnaces, etc.)
constitute local sources of pollution and cable trays and trunking should be kept away from
them and vice versa.
Contrary to what we read in certain publications, there is no ideal separation distance.

Everything depends on the level of pollution, the sensitivity of the circuits and the
frequencies involved.
The values in bold in the Table 2 opposite may be used as a guide.
4. Electromagnetic screening of cable trays and prefabricated trunking
By its nature cable tray does not constitute an ideal Faraday cage. And it is undoubtedly
slightly ridiculous to want to guarantee electromagnetic screening performance for this type
of product. For this to be the case their metal enclosure would have to be complete and
continuous, with cable outlets themselves in continuity with the enclosure and joins
between sections completely sealed against electromagnetic leaks.
Common sense should therefore lead to the use of shielded or screened conductors where
necessary.
The nature of the support for the run then has only limited importance. in all cases, the
correct layout of the conductors with a view to limiting coupling does, of course, apply.
Cable laying
options
Metal trunking with a lid provides some protection against radiated fields but it remains
limited (approximately 40dB) and does not go beyond the area of frequencies below 100
Mhz.
It is nevertheless of value to use them for additional local protection (passing through a
polluted zone close to a machine). Except with closed conduits or metal trunking, obtaining
a constant level of screening throughout an entire installation is practically impossible.
4.1 Magnetic field emissions
Cable runs constitute sources of magnetic field emissions that become more and more
significant as the current conveyed increases. In most installations on traditional wire or
sheet metal cable tray, there is nothing that can be done to limit associated magnetic fields.
In fact, they are produced by the layout of conductors that have to comply with certain
positioning rules relating to electrical aspects (permissible current depending on mutual
inductances) or electromagnetic aspects (couplings).
In practice, we can see that these provisions are not sufficient and that they have technical
limits. The magnetic fields associated with cable tray carrying hundreds of amperes can reach
several hundred microteslas. Admittedly, these values dicrease rapidly with distance (1/d 3) but
they can remain above the thresholds fixed by the regulations in many countries.
Unlike devices or machines which have a local effect and to which access can be limited to
qualified personnel, power transport throughout buildings produces radiation along its
length, including in areas that are unprotected, even those where the public has access.
Radiated magnetic fields must now be controlled, which adds a new dimension to the
choice of equipment used to convey energy. This can be a determining factor in the use of
cable tray or prefabricated trunking.
Sources: Transport and distribution inside LV installation by Legrand
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Edvard Csanyi
2 Comments
1.
Md. Khairul Anam
Oct 02, 2019
Excellent and very helpful article .
(reply)
2.
Paulo
Oct 01, 2019
Excellent article. Congratulations Mr. Edvard.
(reply)
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Power Substation / Protection / Transmission and Distribution
Control house at HV/EHV switchyards

and substations (construction, layout and
functions)
By Edvard | March, 11th 2019 | 2 comments | Save to PDF
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Home / Technical Articles / Control house at HV/EHV switchyards and substations (construction,
layout and functions)
Control house
Nowadays, the control house is one of the main parts in every modern HV switchyard and
substation. Why? Simply, because substations have grown in complexity and equipment
such as circuit breakers, switch disconnectors, CT, VTs and others must be controlled,
monitored and protected from some common point in the field.
Control house at HV/EHV switchyards and substations (construction, layout and functions) - photo
credit: eq-house.com
Necessity for supplemental equipment such as protection relays, controls, batteries,

communications equipment, and LV distribution equipment also increases. And all that
equipment must be placed somewhere in the field.
That’s why substation needs a control house. In short.

For small distribution substations, this equipment can usually be contained in weatherproof
enclosures or control cabinets. For larger substations, separate equipment housing is
necessary.
A control house provides a weatherproof and, if required, environmentally controlled enclosure

for supplemental substation equipment. Additional space can be provided for workshops,
equipment testing and repair, storage areas, and lavatory facilities.
MV and LV switchgear can also be contained within control houses, or this equipment may
be contained within weatherproof enclosures dedicated to that purpose.
Figure 1 –
Location of control house in power substation
Contents:
1. Control house construction:

1. Foundation
2. Floor
3. Control house structure
2. Control house layout:
1. Control and relay protection panels
2. DC equipment
3. AC equipment
4. Cableways
5. Cable entrance
6. Lighting
7. Control house HVAC systems
8. Control house plumbing
9. Communications
1. Control house construction

This section discusses general aspects of the control house construction.
1.1 Foundation
The control house foundation typically consists of a spread footing with either masonry
blocks or cast-inplace walls. The footing is designed for an allowable bearing capacity
based on soil data. If soil data is not available, a maximum bearing of 48 kPa can be used.
The footings are installed below frost depth and in accordance with local building codes
and practices.
Drilled piers are an alternative to spread footings. Drilled piers are especially applicable for pre-
engineered metal buildings with structural supporting bases that can rest directly on the piers
without requiring a concrete floor slab. Soil data is necessary for determining the required depth,
diameter, and reinforcing of the piers.
Damp-proofing of foundation walls is desirable, especially if concrete block is used. If a

basement level is constructed, damp-proofing should be provided.
Footing drains are usually provided when a basement level is constructed. All foundation
walls should be insulated with a 5.1-cm (2-inch) thickness of rigid insulation for energy
conservation.
It is preferable to install the insulation on the inside of the walls, although the outside is
acceptable.
Figure
2 – New control house piers poured and cables installed before the control house arrives
1.2 Floor
The control house floor is typically a floating concrete slab 12 to 16 cm thick reinforced
with welded wire fabric, deformed steel bars, or a combination of both.
The finished floor elevation is usually 10 to 20 cm above the finished grade outside the
control house.
The base beneath the floor slab should be 10-12 cm of compacted sand or gravel,
thoroughly mixed and compacted sand or gravel, or thoroughly mixed and compacted
natural soil. A 0.15 mm thick plastic film vapor barrier should be installed between the
floor slab and the base.
The method for cable routing in the control house has to be considered before finalization
of the floor slab design. Cable trenches can be formed into the floor slab, or false floors can
be installed providing access to large areas below the finished floor.
https://youtu.be/R-npd5FWCjM
1.3 Control house structure
The control house structure must be constructed from fire-resistant, low-maintenance

building materials. Most control houses presently being designed and constructed are of the
pre-engineered metal or masonry block type.
Figure 3 show example of control building structure type.
The pre-engineered metal building is the easiest to procure and erect. The manufacturer can
design and fabricate the required building components when given the building size; wind, snow,
and ice loads; and any special requirements such as additional roof loads for suspended cable
trays or other equipment.
Masonry buildings constructed of block masonry are most economical when masonry
module dimensions are used to size the building and the building openings.
Figure
3 – Control house on the left
Two types of roof systems are commonly used for masonry buildings: pre-cast, pre-stressed
concrete panels; and steel joists and steel decks. A sloping roof is recommended for both
systems and can be obtained by pitching the roof deck or installing tapered roof insulation.
The roof membrane has to be compatible with the slope. For the slopes of 8.3 cm/m (1
in./ft) and less, built-up pitch and slab is commonly used. For greater slopes, gravel is used.
The control house should be equipped with at least one double door, possibly with a
removable transom, conveniently located to facilitate equipment entry and removal. In
certain circumstances a second exit needs to be installed in the control house.
https://youtu.be/EltwhbXaxw4
The National Electrical Safety Code (NESC) states:
If the plan of the room or space and the character and arrangement of equipment are such
that an accident would be likely to close or make inaccessible a single exit, a second exit
shall be provided.
The National Electrical Code (NEC) also defines specific requirements for a second exit.
The doors should include locking devices, astragals to prevent water from entering, and
adequate weatherstripping and hardware to permit a rapid exit from the control house.
Adequately ventilate the battery area, either by a natural or powered ventilation system, to limit
accumulation of hydrogen gas to less than an explosive mixture. A powered ventilation system
needs to be annunciated to indicate ventilation failure. Provide portable or stationary water
facilities or a neutralizing agent for rinsing eyes and skin in the battery area in addition to proper
eye protection and clothing.
Locate and mark adequate fire-extinguishing equipment in the control house. Windows
can be provided, if desired, in office and lavatory areas. Battery rooms and control and
metering areas do not need windows.
Consider adequate methods for building insulation. These methods include use of insulated
wall panels, ceiling insulation, storm doors, and windows, and weatherstripping around all
openings.
Metal buildings are shop painted and require only minor field touch-up after erection.
Masonry buildings may be left unpainted or may be painted with portland cement or latex
paint. Tint all prime coats to match the finished coat.
2. Control house layout

2.1 Control and Relay protection Panels
Most protection relaying, metering, and control equipment is mounted on fabricated control
and relay panels installed within the control house. A variety of panel types is available to
suit individual requirements.
Figures 4, 5 and 6 show examples of various panel layouts.
Figure 4 – Control and protection panels
Single vertical panels can be used, particularly for distribution circuits where space
requirements are minimal. The relaying, metering, and control equipment can all be
mounted on one panel, allocating a separate panel for each circuit. In some instances, two
circuits may share the same panel.
Double or duplex panels are commonly used for higher voltage circuits, necessitating
additional space for equipment mounting. Normally, these panels are arranged in two
parallel rows with the panel backs facing each other. In this configuration, operating,
instrumentation, and control equipment for a circuit is installed on the front of one panel,
and the corresponding relaying equipment for the same circuit is installed on the front of
the panel directly to the rear.
Figure 5 – Protection
relay panel (photo credit: pestech.com.my)
In some instances, two circuits may share the same control and relaying panels.
Some equipment such as static relaying systems and communications equipment is

available mounted in racks. Consequently, separate relay and/or control panels are not
required for this equipment.
Modern SCADA and substation automation schemes may require space for installation of a PC with
monitor and keyboard, as well as programmable logic controllers and data highway interface
modules. This equipment can often be rack-mounted or installed in control panels, as appropriate.
The trend is toward more compact equipment arrangements that often reduce overall
control house size.
Individual three-phase microprocessor relays can replace three single-phase

electromechanical relays and associated voltage, current, and power meters, all in one case.
Compact relay and programmable logic controller designs can be mounted on 48.26-cm
(19-inch) racks.
Figure 6 – Relay protection

panels in control room (photo credit: Protection Installation Services Ltd)
To facilitate operation, panels are located in an arrangement that conforms as closely as

possible to the actual equipment and circuit layout in the substation yard. To assist in circuit
location and operation, mimic buses are sometimes used on the control panels, particularly
for large complex substations.
The mimic buses identify the bus and circuit arrangements.
Figure
7 – Mimic diagram in protection relay panel (photo credit: Edvard Csanyi)
Mimic buses may be implemented on screens viewed from a PC monitor. When practical,
position meters at eye level and switches at a convenient operating level. Locate recording
meters for ease of viewing and chart replacement.
Locate relays beginning at the tops of the relay panels and working downward. Relays with glass
covers should not be located within 12 inches of the floor to avoid inadvertent breaking of the
glass. Locate operating switches at convenient heights near the center of the boards. Require
nameplates for all devices.
Provide ample space for relay installation, removal, operation, and testing. Panel
construction can include removable front plates for device mounting.
Panels may also include 19-inch rack mounting facilities. Many of the newer relays and
items of accessory equipment are designed to fit into 19-inch racks. Cover plates may cover
space reserved for future use. In this way, only a new predrilled plate is required when
changing out a device or modifying the configuration.
Cutting, drilling, or covering openings in the panels is eliminated.
Figure
8 – 19-inch rack-mounted protection relay type MICOM and test sockets (photo credit: Edvard
Csanyi)
Panel wiring is accomplished on the backs of the panels. Devices are interconnected and
wired to terminal blocks, as required, for operation and connection to devices on other
panels.
Panels can include small sections perpendicular to the main section at each end for
installation of terminal blocks, fuse blocks, or small auxiliary devices.
Cable connections from the equipment in the substation yard can be made directly to
terminal blocks mounted on the panels or to strategically placed terminal
cabinets. Interconnections between the terminal cabinets and the panels can then be made
with single conductor wire.
Figure 9 – Cabling of relay protection panels
Anchor panels to the floor in such a way as to facilitate relocation to coincide with yard
equipment and circuit relocations.
Panel arrangement in the control house should permit ready accessibility to the backs of the
panels. Some vendors of pre-engineered buildings can provide completely wired and tested
control and relay panels and auxiliary AC/DC power systems as part of the building
package.
In this case, custom-designed relay and control schematics are submitted to the building vendor.
The building vendor fabricates the panels, provides the relays and controls, wires the panels, and
tests the complete installation.
In this way, the entire panel line-up can be witness-tested in the factory. The complete
building system is shipped to the site, fully tested. Only the external wiring from the
building to the outdoor equipment has to be field-installed.
2.2 DC Equipment
Substation DC equipment located in the control house normally consists of the battery,
battery charger, monitoring and control devices, and distribution panelboard.
The battery should be located in a separate room where practical. If the battery cannot
be located in a separate room, it should be located so that electrical switching devices and
receptacles are not in the immediate vicinity, ventilation is adequate to prevent gas
accumulation, and live parts are protected from accidental contact.
The battery charger, monitoring and control devices, and distribution panelboard are
normally located in the control and relay room to facilitate cable routing and equipment
maintenance.
Detailed design requirements and procedures for the substation DC system can be found in
this technical article.
Figure 10 – Left: Battery room; right: Battery chargers
2.3 AC Equipment
A low-voltage AC system is provided in the substation for lighting, convenience outlets,

heating, ventilating, air conditioning (HVAC) equipment and miscellaneous control
functions.
Convenience outlets should be strategically located throughout the control house to provide
adequate accessibility. Also, if necessary, workshop and testing area with a high-capacity
AC source and a three-phase source should be provided.
For greater reliability, two separate sources may be provided for the AC system service.
These sources are often fed through a manual or automatic transfer switch so that ac system
power can be restored if one source fails.
Figure
11 – Substation AC Auxiliary Supply For Inessential Loads (on photo: AC auxiliary switchgear
400/230 V; credit: ZPAS Group – zpasgroup.co.uk)
2.4 Cableways
Cable routing can be accomplished by using any of several methods.
2.4.1 Cable Trenches
Cable trenches are formed into the concrete floor slab and are covered with metal plates.
The covers should be flush with the finished floor when in place.
The sizes and locations of the cable trenches are based on the quantities of cables and locations
of panels and equipment to be interconnected. Usually, a cable trench is located adjacent to the
backs of the control and relay panels to facilitate panel interconnections.
With duplex panels, it may be desirable to use the entire space between the front and rear
panels as cable trench, depending on circuit quantities.
Figure
12 – Concrete cable trenches in control house
2.4.2 False Floors
False floors are useful when large open areas are desirable for cable routing. Lightweight
removable floor panels installed on adjustable pedestals are positioned in areas requiring
extensive cable interconnections or where future plans dictate a large amount of cable
rerouting.
The top of the removable panels should be flush with the finished floor.
When cables are mounted under false floors, establish routes and paths in which cables should be
routed. This will allow the separation of circuits as required to maintain system reliability based
on duplicate circuits.
If circuits in one area are damaged, other undamaged circuits in the other parts of the
building are likely to keep the substation in service.
2.4.3 Conduits
Conduits can be used for cable routing in floors, along walls, and for cable entrance into the
control house. Conduits are available in plastic, aluminum, and steel. Each of these types
may be used in control houses for wire containment to convenience outlets, lighting
fixtures, and other control house auxiliary power equipment.
Plastic conduit is easily installed and is available in a variety of sizes. Take adequate
physical and thermal precautions when using plastic conduit to ensure safe operation.
Metallic conduits of aluminum and steel are widely used as control house cableways.
Intermediate- and heavy-walled steel conduit provide excellent physical protection.
Figure
13 – Cables in false floor of a substation control house
The installed costs, however, may be relatively high because of the extensive labor required
for installation. The installed cost of rigid aluminum conduit may be somewhat less than
that for steel.
A lower installed cost may be realized by using thin-walled steel conduit (i.e., electrical
metallic tubing) since it is less expensive and easier to install.
2.4.4 Wireways
Wireways are sheet-metal troughs used for routing groups of power circuits around a
control house to feed various branch circuits. Conduit is used between the wireway and the
devices.
Wireway offers the advantage of laying rather than pulling the cable into position and the ability
to change or reroute circuits easily. Wireway is available with hinged or removable covers in a
variety of lengths and sizes.
Select and install wireway in accordance with the National Electrical Code.
Figure
14 – Cables laid on metallic wireways in false floor
2.4.5 Cable Trays
Cable trays can be used for overhead routing of cables to and between control and relay
panels. Expanded metal or ladder-type trays provide the best facilities for conductors
entering and leaving the trays.
An advantage of cable trays is the ability to lay rather than pull in the conductors. Suspended
cable trays, however, prevent extensive use of this technique because of support locations.
A large variety of types, sizes, and fittings is available to suit individual requirements.
Cable tray should be selected and installed in accordance with the NEC and NEMA
Standards.
Figure
15 – Cables in trays entering panels
2.5 Cable Entrance
Control and power cables are brought into the control house through windows, sleeves, or
cable pits. The windows are square or rectangular openings, usually through the foundation
wall but possibly above grade.
The window openings enable many cables to be pulled without interference. To protect the
cables during pulling, the windows should have smooth surfaces and beveled or rounded
edges. After cable pulling, split sleeves can be installed around the cables and grouted into
place.
Occasionally, the windows are left open to facilitate future cable installation. Heat loss through
these openings should be considered. Provide additional windows for installation of future cables.
The windows can be constructed and bricked up to be opened when required.
Cable sleeves can be used above or below grade. The sleeves are usually cast into place
during construction of the foundation wall or installed during construction of the
superstructure.
Pitch the sleeves to drain out of the building. Provide covers over the cables. Install spare
sleeves during initial construction.
Cable pits may be cast-in-place concrete or masonry openings through the control house
foundation to permit access to the inside at floor level. Install a cover over the pit and
provide a means to drain water.
Figure
16 – Cables entries in control house
2.6 Lighting
Fluorescent lamps are generally used for lighting in control houses. The trend is toward
energy-saving lamps and energy-saving electromagnetic or electronic ballasts.
Install lighting to eliminate, as much as possible, reflection and glare from meters, relays,
and monitoring screens.
An emergency DC-operated incandescent system is recommended for most control
houses. This system can be operated in case of failure of the ac system. It can be operated
from battery-pack units or from the station battery system.
2.7 Control House HVAC Systems
To maintain the functions and accuracy of electrical equipment installed in the control
house, HVAC systems may be desirable.
In areas requiring heat only, unit electric space heaters are positioned throughout the
control house for balanced heating. If both heating and cooling are required, electric heat
pumps can be used. Several small units, or one large unit with a duct system for air
distribution, can be used. Supplemental electric resistance heating coils may be required for
heating in colder areas.
In some cases baseboard radiation heating units can be used in rooms not reached by the
main heating system. These rooms include offices, lavatories, and storage rooms.
The battery room is sometimes left unheated. However, maintenance of battery temperature
close to 32°C will prolong the life and capacity of most battery systems.
Temperature control levels may vary because of several requirements. Operating ranges of
equipment have to be considered as well as economics. It is recommended that
consideration be given to a dual control.
Figure
17 – Louvers to achieve good air circulation
Most stations will be unattended and, therefore, a normal personal comfort level is not
required. However, for maintenance reasons, comfort levels are necessary.
If the control house is to be heated only, it is usually desirable to install power ventilation
equipment for air circulation. Size the system for three to five air changes per hour. Place
power-operated, thermostatically controlled roof ventilators and manually operated wall
louvers to achieve good air circulation.
Position wall louvers so that equipment does not interfere with air circulation. Provide
fusible links to close the louvers in case of fire.
It is advisable to provide ventilation that will maintain a positive pressure within the control
house at all times to prevent dust from entering through doors and other openings, and
prevent accumulation of combustible gases.
If control house air conditioning is used to provide positive air pressure, then the vent should
remain open and fan should run continuously. This also applies if the unit is a heat pump.
The isolated battery room should be equipped with a gravity roof ventilator to remove
corrosive and combustible gases. Do not use power-operated roof ventilators.
2.8 Control House Plumbing
Control houses may require plumbing for stationary eyewash facilities. Additionally, very
large, major locations may warrant a shower, lavatory, drinking fountain, and maintenance
sink.
A water supply, when required, may be obtained from an existing system or a private well
on the substation site.
Most substations with toilet facilities will require septic tank and drain field systems.
2.9 Communications
A commercial telephone is usually installed in the control house for external

communications. Additionally, system telephones or voice channels over carrier systems
may be used for system communications.
Larger installations may include substation automation systems or SCADA for remote
control and monitoring of substation equipment.
References:
1. Design Guide for Rural Substations by United States Department of Agriculture

2. Drop-In Control House for a Large 230 kV Transmission Substation: A Case Study in
Implementation by Douglas M. Arcure (Shaw Group) and Chris Clippinger (Schweitzer
Engineering Laboratories, Inc.)
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2 Comments
1.
Sk samirul hoque
Mar 19, 2019
Hi sir,
I am SK samirul hoque, I have completed electrical engineering (B-Tech) from
India, I need to practical knowledge about the electrical construction side, ( MV/LV
substation, panel wiring, MCC, Switchgear system, Electrical control system,
testing and commissioning, etc , please give me suggestion what is better way for
me,
Thank you sir for your Care for us ,,,
(reply)
2.
Prince Clark
Mar 11, 2019
Hi, I am Prince K. Clark, from Liberia.

I studied electrical engineering. I love presentation. I need a serious practice.
I really want to be in contact with you please.
Thanks.
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Power Substation / Protection / Substation Automation
Integration of IEC 61850 in power plant

automation, control, and protection
systems
By Edvard | May, 29th 2019 | 6 comments | Save to PDF
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Home / Technical Articles / Integration of IEC 61850 in power plant automation, control, and
protection systems
The basics of IEC 61850

IEC 61850 is much more than a protocol. The general scope of the standard is designed to
support the communication of all functions being performed in a substation. Its main goal is
interoperability and this is the ability for IEDs from one or different manufacturers to
exchange information and use the information for their own functions.
IEC 61850 integration with the power plant automation, control and protection system (photo
credit: Ertugrul Saglam via Linkedin)
Providing data transfer is normally a one-way procedure with data flowing from a simple
sender to a highly sophisticated receiver, which interprets complex data. This is very often
a human being that can read and understand the data with the help of a comprehensive
background.
An example is the master-slave communication commonly used in the past, like the
information interface of protection devices according to IEC 60870-5-103.
Interoperability as provided by IEC 61850 is much more than simple data transfer, but
provides for information exchange between two or more devices of similar intelligence.
The receiver has to understand not only the structure of the data (syntax), but also its
meaning; i.e., the semantics based on the data attributes received in a communication.
Interoperability does not mean interchangeability, but it is a prerequisite for it.

Interchangeability without impacting the system behaviour would require devices of identical
functionality. This would imply the standardization of functions, which is outside the scope of IEC
61850, as it would hinder further development of functions for substation automation.
The standard separates the functionality represented by the data model and the related
communication services from the communication implementation (stack).
This makes the standard future-oriented, taking into consideration that the development in
communications technology is moving quicker than the development of the functionality in
the field of substation automation including protection.
The data model of the standard is an object-oriented one, grouping the data into the smallest
possible sets referring to the smallest possible functions to be implemented independently.
F
igure 1 – IEC 61850 modelling of hardware and functions
These smallest possible data groups or functions are named Logical Nodes (LN). The
Logical Nodes and all data and attributes contained are named according to a standardized
semantic, which is mandatory. The data model uses terminology familiar to any power
system engineer.
In addition, this part contains a device model, which describes the function allocation as
well as the properties of each physical device. Clear rules facilitate extensions in
applications.
https://youtu.be/D194LwtKtjA
The integration of third party equipment is facilitated and the use of a common language
(SCL) avoids ambiguities. Each IEC 61850-compliant IED may be configured using its
dedicated tool.
However, all these IED-tools have to be compliant with IEC 61850. This means that the reading,
handling, and writing of configuration files has to be according to the Substation Configuration
description Language (SCL) of IEC 61850 as regards the standardized data model, the data access
(services) and all communication connections.
This allows a system integrator to use understandable data from all devices (independently
of the supplier) to build a complete system and to assure data consistency.
Figure 2 – Substation Configuration description Language (SCL) describing all aspects of the
electrical system
The information according to SCL may be stored together with the system documentation
and re-used in any maintenance situation as well as in case of evolving tools or changing
responsibilities for system maintenance, if the system is compliant with IEC 61850.
Engineering data stored as SCL files can be reused, e.g., in case of extensions (additional
bays) or refurbishment.
The communication procedures are described by the seven-layer ISO/OSI model, called stack. The
selected stack is MMS (Manufacturing Message Specification) over TCP/IP and Ethernet as used
in mainstream communication technology. It is the use of mainstream means that allows
benefiting from the fast advancing communication technology.
The performance and safety requirements dedicated to substation automation are

considered.
The data model and the communication stack are linked by means of standardized mapping,
which is the only item to be adapted in case changes in communication technology are
implemented. This has no impact on the functions and databases in the system.
Figure 3 – IEC 61850 communication model
Station control and monitoring are the basic tasks of a substation automation
system. This comprises:
1. Local operation of the switchgear and other medium-/ high-voltage equipment

2. Acquisition of switchgear information and power system measurements
3. Handling of events and alarms.
This application is related to human operation of the station. The data communication for
this application is directed vertically; i.e., from station control level down to bay level
(commands of any kind from the operators place) or reverse (binary indications like
breakers or isolators position, measured values from instrument transformers and other
sensors, events, alarms).
This vertical communication (bay – station) is based on a client-server concept using

reporting, command and file transfer services.
Impact of IEC 61850 on the control system structure
Introducing IEC 61850 for integration of electrical systems leads to simplified system
structures. The Ethernet based IEC 61850 station bus replaces hardwired and serial cabling
for process communication. Besides the process communication, Ethernet allows time
synchronization, file transfer and engineering tool access on one physical cable.
Figure 4 and Figure 5 show two possible steps for introducing IEC 61850.
Figure 4 represents a configuration replacing serial protocols by IEC 61850 for vertical
communication; that is, for the communication between electronic devices and the control
system.
The communication between electronic devices (horizontal communication) remains

hardwired.
Figure 4 – Integrated system based on IEC 61850 vertical communication
IEC 61850 is designed to support horizontal communication. In that case, hardwiring

between electronic devices (e.g., for interlocking) and communication between electronic
devices and the process automation controllers (e.g., turbine control) as shown in Figure 5
are Ethernet-based as well.
Figure 5 – Integrated system based on IEC 61850 vertical and horizontal communication
Example – Generator protection using ABB’s REG670
Modern generator and generator transformer protection systems based on IEC 61850 offer
simplification, connectivity and harmonization towards partial or full integration with the
power plant automation and control system.
IEC 61850 does not define the content of an algorithm to protect a generator, motor or
transformer, but the very deep implementation of the IEC 61850 model into the device
architecture brings the best benefits to the user. This is not only in respect to communication, but
also when it comes to data consistency throughout the whole power plant.
When it comes to native implementation of the IEC 61850 model, ABB has the IED 670,
which is a control and protection platform fully designed for IEC 61850.
The REG 670 as part of this platform already has the ingredients to provide perfect support
for IEC 61850 engineering, configuration, testing and commissioning services.
Figure 6 – ABB IED REG670 generator protection relay
On hardware with Ethernet technology, it is ready to provide single, independent or

redundant communication links for various purposes. All data from configuration to
process and disturbance data will be transferred and presented according to IEC 61850
logical node definitions/attributes.
The ABB PCM 600 IED tool manager supports the user, not only for configuration and
engineering purposes but also provides testing and monitoring features.
For example, the REG 670 already incorporates the IEC 61850 definitions in the user
documentation as the following example of a pre-configured package shows. Such a configuration
is intended to be used for hydro-, gas- and pump-storage applications.
For larger applications the transformer protection can be moved to a RET 670 as shown in
Figure 7 below.
One REG 670 as main 1 and another one as main 2 protection already protects the complete
generator block including the generator transformer. It already has an in-built IEC 61850
interface to the plant control system.
All necessary data, like events, alarms, analog information and disturbance data in
Comtrade format can be accessed in System 800xA (see Figure 8).
Figure 7 – REG 670

predefined package for hydro-, gas- and pump-storage applications
For visualization and monitoring of REG 670 data, all System 800xA display capabilities,
such as freely configurable graphics, faceplates, alarm & event lists are available.
Furthermore, data can be stored in the System 800xA history database for later analysis.
Figure 8 –
ABB’s 800xA System, the industry’s most intuitive system interface, provides a consistent method
for accessing enterprise-wide data and for interacting with multiple applications from any
connected workstation in the plant or office.
Figure 9 shows the integration of the unit protection to System 800xA. The protection
systems consist of two autonomous channels. Ethernet-based IEC 61850 links connect the
IEDs to the 800xA control network and the System 800xA server.
A routing device separates the System 800xA control network and the IEC 61850 station
bus for save operation.
Figure 9 – RET 670 and REG 670 integration to ABB’s System 800xA
The consistent vertical integration from the IED up to the enterpise-system level allows the
implementation of cost efficient maintenance strategies.
Maintenance relevant information generated by the RET 670 / REG 670 self-diagnosis can
be automatically transformed to a maintenance message and transferred to the CMMS
(maintenance management system).
Digital substation system integration (VIDEO)
Hardware is only as useful as the software used to manage it. ABB’s range of software
tools offer unparalleled ease of use and utility to make deployment, operation and
maintenance of protection systems as simple, and safe, as possible.
https://youtu.be/3X1-tblz3u0
Source: Future power plant control – Integrating process & substation automation into
one system by ABB
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6 Comments
1.
Anil
Jun 19, 2019
Thanks to eep . I have learned lot from this site

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May 31, 2019
Very brillant articles How do subscribe to EEP as a member
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Dragos Minea
May 31, 2019
Thumbs up!
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DONG
May 30, 2019
GOOD
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May 29, 2019
I love this site. Just wish I could have links to downloading some materials for
better study
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May 29, 2019
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Electrical engineering.
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Energy and Power / Medium Voltage / Power Substation
Standard cubicle configurations for a

medium voltage metal-enclosed switchgear
By Edvard | October, 21st 2019 | 0 comments | Save to PDF
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Home / Technical Articles / Standard cubicle configurations for a medium voltage metal-enclosed
switchgear
MV metal-enclosed switchgear
This technical article will shed some light on the standard design of medium voltage metal-
enclosed switchgear cubicles in terms of enclosure configurations as well as the
characteristics of busbar system. Article explains the following cubicles types: incomer
feeder, direct incomer, bus coupler, bus riser and metering.
Standard
cubicle configurations for a medium voltage metal-enclosed switchgear
Metal-enclosed, medium voltage switchgear cubicles and associated apparatus, rated from 1
kV to 52 kV, are covered by IEC 62271-200 (this standard supersedes IEC 60298).
MV cubicle design and construction is determined by several key operating factors

and classifications:
 Rated voltage Ur (kV). Determines the minimum insulation level requirements

 Rated current Ir (A)
 Rated frequency ƒr (Hz)
 Short circuit power SSC (MVA). Determines elements of mechanical cubicle design and
selection of integrated switchgear apparatus
 Accessibility to cubicle compartments
 Continuation of service with main compartment open
 Necessary isolation and segregation of live parts
 Level of internal arc withstand
You should know that there are many different types of enclosure designs for medium voltage
switchgear use. However, the most commonly accepted and used style is metal-enclosed, with
segregated and insulated apparatus compartments.
Please note that in addition to basic cubicle types, there are other types such as fuse-switch
cubicle for transformer protection or motor control cubicles with contactor…
Table of content:
1. MV enclosures:
1. Incomer feeder cubicle
2. Direct incomer cubicle
3. Bus coupler cubicle
4. Bus riser cubicle
5. Metering cubicle
2. Busbar system and its characteristics
1. Medium voltage switchgear cubicles

1.1 Incomer Feeder Cubicle
Diagram:
Figure 1 – Incomer feeder diagram
Where:
1. Withdrawable circuit breaker,

2. Current transformer set,
3. Earth switch and
4. Voltage transformer (fused and withdrawable)
As the name implies, this cubicle configuration serves two purposes, as an incomer cubicle
and as a feeder cubicle.
If used as an incomer cubicle, it switches the incoming main supply onto the common
horizontal busbar system of a metal-enclosed switchgear arrangement
If used as s a feeder cubicle, it switches the main supply from the common horizontal
busbar system of a metal-enclosed switchgear arrangement onto a specific feeder circuit.
The enclosure will always have a main circuit breaker (normally withdrawable), housed in its own
compartment of the cubicle. An earth switch at the cable termination end of the circuit provides
isolation during shutdown and maintenance. Interlocking ensures that the earth switch cannot be
closed until the main circuit breaker is open and racked-out into the test position.
Current transformers are fitted to interface with a protection relay for circuit breaker trip
operation. Depending on the required function, voltage transformers can be supplied. These
can be 3-phase or single phase, either fixed or withdrawable style.
A variety of low voltage equipment is used, which is mounted in its own segregated
compartment, situated at the top-front of the enclosure assembly.
Front, side and rear view:
Figure 2 –
Incomer feeder cubicle (front, side and rear view)
1.2 Direct Incomer Cubicle
Diagram:
Figure 3 – Direct incomer diagram
Where:
1. Current transformer set

2. Earth switch
A direct incomer cubicle connects the incoming main supply onto the common horizontal
busbar system of a metal enclosed switchgear arrangement, without any primary switching
device.
An earth switch is typically provided at the cable termination end of the circuit for isolation
during shutdown and maintenance.
Access to earth switch operation must be interlocked with the supply end switchgear so that the
earth switch cannot be closed onto a live circuit.
Current and voltage transformers can be supplied as optional items, along with a variety of
low voltage equipment, which is mounted in its own segregated compartment situated at the
top-front of the enclosure assembly.
Figure 4 – Direct incomer cubicle (front, side and rear view)
1.3 Bus Coupler Cubicle
Diagram:
Figure 5 – Bus coupler diagram
Where:
1. Circuit breaker
2. Current transformer set
3. Earth switch
A bus coupler cubicle connects two adjacent horizontal busbar systems together using a
main circuit breaker (normally a withdrawable type), which is housed in its own
compartment of the cubicle. The horizontal busbar system of metal-enclosed switchgear is
usually situated towards the top of the cubicle enclosure.
NOTE: In order to physically connect two adjacent busbar systems together, a bus coupler cubicle
must be used alongside a bus riser cubicle.
A main earth switch, current and voltage transformers and low voltage equipment can all be
supplied as optional extras.

Figu
re 6 – Bus coupler cubicle (front, side and rear view)
1.4 Bus Riser Cubicle
Diagram:
Figure 7 – Bus riser diagram
Where: (1) – Voltage transformer (fused and withdrawable)
A bus riser cubicle contains a vertical 3-phase bus which connects the output of a bus
coupler cubicle at the bottom of the enclosure, to a horizontal busbar system at the top of
the enclosure.
NOTE: In order to physically connect two adjacent horizontal busbar systems together, a bus riser
cubicle must be used alongside a bus coupler cubicle.
Voltage transformers, along with low voltage equipment, can be supplied as optional
extras.

Figure 8 – Bus
Riser cubicle (front, side and rear view)
1.5 Metering Cubicle
Diagram:
Figure 9 – Metering cubicle diagram
Where:
1. Earth switch
A metering cubicle contains a primary horizontal busbar system with a bus tap-off that
drops vertically to the bottom of the enclosure. The vertical bus is connected to voltage
transformers, which can be of the fixed or withdrawable type.
Sometimes a main earth switch is supplied. Metering equipment is often contained within
the segregated low voltage compartment, located at the top-front of the enclosure.

Figure 10 – Metering cubicle (front, side and rear view)
2. Busbar Systems
Medium voltage busbar systems consist of two general arrangements. The main switchgear
distribution bus has three busbar sets (one set per phase) which run horizontally through all
the cubicles in a line-up. These distribution busbars run through a dedicated chamber
within each metal-enclosed cubicle.
Segregation of busbar chambers, between adjacent cubicles, is provided by using insulated

through-bushings. Inside the horizontal busbar chamber of each cubicle, a vertical feeder
busbar system can be tapped off the main horizontal system, for incomer, feeder, bus-
coupler, bus-riser, metering or motor starter circuit.
Figure 11 – Busbar
system of a medium voltage switchgear
2.1 Busbar Ratings
The nominal current rating (Ir) of an incomer busbar system usually matches the rating
of the main busbar system it is feeding. Likewise, bus-coupler and bus-riser systems have
the same current rating as the main busbar system they are connecting. A feeder circuit
busbar system has a nominal current rating to match the expected load.
The nominal current rating is determined by the cross sectional area, shape and
configuration of the individual phase bars.
The short-time withstand current rating (Ik) of the busbar system must be greater than
the highest expected symmetrical fault current at the point of installation. This rating is for
a short-time withstand period of 1 or 3 seconds (tk). All busbar systems installed in the
same switchgear line-up usually have the same short-time withstand current/time rating.
The nominal voltage rating (Ur) of a busbar system must be greater than the installation’s
operating voltage. This voltage rating determines the minimum phase-to-phase and phase-
to-earth busbar clearances.
The nominal frequency rating (ƒr) of a busbar system must match the installation’s
operating frequency.
NOTE! – The nominal current must be derated for high ambient temperatures (usually
above 40 °C). The nominal voltage and insulation ratings of a busbar system must be
adjusted for altitudes over 1000 metres.
Figure 12 – Medium
voltage distribution switchgears
2.2 Design
Busbar system design must consider:
1. Adequate minimum required clearance between phases and phase to earth

2. Selection of adequate busbar insulator standoffs
3. Bolting arrangements for continuous busbar connections
4. Thermal effects on busbar and insulator standoffs under normal and fault conditions
5. Electrodynamic forces applied to busbars and insulator standoffs under fault conditions
6. Avoidance of mechanical resonance under normal operating and fault conditions
2.3 Voltage ratings and clearance
IEC 62271-1 gives typical voltage ratings for busbar systems and insulator standoffs.
Table 1 – Typical voltage ratings and minimum clearances for busbar systems and insulator
standoffs
Power frequency Lightning impulse Recommended

Rated Voltage
withstand voltage withstand voltage clearance
Ur (kV)
Ud (kV) Up (kV) P-P and P-E (mm)
7.2 20 60 70~90
12 28 75 120
17.5 38 95 160
24 50 125 220
36 70 170 320
Source: derived from IEC 62271-1
2.4 Current ratings and dimensions
The nominal current rating of a busbar is determined by the type of material, shape and
cross sectional area of the bar and the maximum permissible temperature rise of the
material. If the busbar is carrying AC current, the operating frequency has a slight effect on
the busbar rating due to magnetic skin effect.
A busbar system has a short-time withstand current rating. The temperature rise in the event
of a short circuit condition must not exceed the thermal limits of busbar standoffs.
Table 2 – Typical current ratings and nominal dimensions for medium voltage busbar
systems
Bar dimensions – per Rated short-time Rated short-time

Rated Current
phase withstand current* withstand period*
(A)
W×D (mm) Ik (kA) tk (seconds)
630 50×6
1250 80×10
1600 100×10 12.5/16/20/25/

0.5/1/2/3
2000 100×6 (2 bars) 31.5/40/50
2500 100×10 (2 bars)
3150 100×3 (3 bars)
Source: current rating information is derived from IEC 62271-1
* Most medium voltage switchgear including busbar systems have short-time withstand
ratings of 16 kA, 20 kA, 25 kA or 31.5 kA for 3 seconds.
NOTE! – Dimensions should be used as a guideline only and may vary. The dimensions
stated in this table are based on bare copper at ambient temperature of 40 °C, maximum
permissible temperature rise of 50 °C, operating at 50 Hz.
2.5 Temperature rise
During short circuit conditions the busbar will rise in temperature, depending on the level
of short circuit current and time duration. This temperature rise must not exceed the thermal
limits of any equipment in contact with the busbar.
Table 3 – Maximum permissible temperature rise for bolt-connected devices, including

busbars
Maximum permissible Temperature rise above

Material and dielectric medium temperature 40 °C ambient
(°C) (°C)
Bare copper, bare copper alloy or bare aluminium alloy
• In air 90 50
• In sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) 115 75
• In oil 100 60
Silver or nickel coated
• In air 115 75

• In oil 100 60
Tin-coated
• In air 105 65
• In oil 100 60
Source: derived from IEC 62271-1
NOTE: – When engaging parts with different coatings, or where one part is of bare
material, the permissible temperature and temperature rise shall be those of the surface
material having the lowest permitted value.
2.6 Electrodynamic withstand
During short circuit conditions, the peak current associated with the first loop of the fault
current produces electrodynamic forces which stress the busbar and insulator standoff
supports.
Stress on the busbars must not exceed the limits of the material used. Bending forces must
not exceed the mechanical limits of the insulator standoffs.
Figure 13 – Electrodynamic forces in medium voltage busbars
Where:
 d – Distance between phases (cm)
 l – Distance between insulators on a single phase (cm)
 F1 – Force on busbar centre of gravity (daN)
 Ip – Peak value of short circuit current (kA)
 H – Insulator height
 h – Distance from head of insulator to busbar centre of gravity
 F – Force on head of insulator stand-off (daN)
NOTE: 1 daN (dekanewton) is equal to 10 newtons.
2.7 Resonant frequency
The busbar system must be checked for potential resonance under normal operating
conditions and fault conditions. This is done by calculating the natural resonant frequency
of the system, which must meet the following criteria:
 50 Hz supply: not within the ranges 48 Hz to 52 Hz and 96 Hz to 104 Hz

 60 Hz supply: not within the ranges 58 Hz to 62 Hz and 116 Hz to 124 Hz
2.8 Calculation requirements
Busbar systems are subjected to thermal and electrodynamic stresses under normal
operating conditions, but more so under short circuit fault conditions.
It is important to ensure the busbar system will function safely under all known conditions. When
checking the design, the most important considerations are the nominal operating current,
expected fault current at the point of installation, average ambient temperature and the
altitude of the installation.
To check the safety of a busbar system:
1. Check that the current rating of the busbar system (I r) exceeds the expected nominal
current. Main factors affecting the busbar rating are busbar material and configuration,
ambient temperature and maximum permissible temperature rise.
2. Check the maximum expected temperature rise of the busbar during a short circuit fault.
In the event of short circuit current flow (I th), the surface temperature of a busbar must
not exceed the thermal limits of any material coming in contact with it (ie insulator
standoffs).
3. Check the maximum expected electrodynamic forces imparted on the busbars and
insulator standoffs, due to the peak short circuit fault current (I dyn). Do not exceed the
mechanical limitations of the material.
4. Check that the busbar system will not resonate under normal operating and fault
conditions.
Sources:
1. Medium Voltage Application Guide by Aucom

2. IEC 62271-200 – High-voltage switchgear and controlgear – Part 200: AC metal-enclosed
switchgear and controlgear for rated voltages above 1 kV and up to and including 52 kV
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The Essentials Of Voltage Transformers

(Advanced Theory and Practice)
By Edvard | December, 19th 2018 | 2 comments | Save to PDF

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Home / Technical Articles / The Essentials Of Voltage Transformers (Advanced Theory
and Practice)
Irreplaceable in Power Circuits

The most common voltage sources for power system measurements and protections are
either wound transformers (voltage transformers) or capacitive divider devices (capacitor
voltage transformers or bushing potential devices). Some new applications of resistor
dividers and magneto-optic technologies are also becoming available.
The Essentials Of Voltage Transformers (Advanced Theory and Practice)
All provide scaled replicas of their high-voltage potential. They are characterized by their
ratio, load capability, and phase-angle response. Wound potential transformers (PTs)
provide the best performance with ratio and phase-angle errors suitable for revenue
measurements.
Even protection-type voltage transformers can provide revenue-metering performance if the

burden is carefully controlled.
VTs are usually capable of supplying large potential circuit loads without degradation,
provided their secondary wiring is of adequate size.
For substation automation purposes, VTs are unaffected by changes in load or temperature.
They are the preferred source for measuring potential.
This technical article will explain all important aspects of voltage transformers in MV and
HV measurement and protection applications.
Contents:
1. Simple equivalent circuit of voltage transformer
2. Electromagnetic Voltage Transformers
1. Ratio and phase errors
2. Voltage Factors
3. Secondary Leads
4. Protection of Voltage Transformers
5. Construction of Voltage Transformers
6. Residually connected Voltage Transformers
7. Transient Performance
8. Cascade Voltage Transformer
3. Capacitor Voltage Transformers (CVT)
1. Voltage Protection of Auxiliary Capacitor
2. Transient Behaviour of Capacitor Voltage Transformers
3. Ferro-Resonance
1. Simple equivalent circuit of voltage transformer
Voltage transformer can be represented by the equivalent circuit of Figure 1, where all
quantities are referred to the secondary side.
Figure 1 –
Equivalent circuit of transformer
When voltage transformer is not 1/1 ratio, this condition can be represented by energizing
the equivalent circuit with an ideal transformer of the given ratio but having no losses.
Voltage transformers behave similar to small power transformers, with difference only in
details of design that control ratio accuracy over the specified range of output.
2. Electromagnetic Voltage Transformers

In the shunt mode, the system voltage is applied across the input terminals of the equivalent
circuit of Figure 1. The vector diagram for this circuit is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2 – Vector diagram of voltage transformer
The secondary output voltage Vs is required to be an accurate scaled replica of the input

voltage Vp over a specified range of output.
Therefore the winding voltage drops are made small and the normal flux density in the core
is designed to be well below the saturation density, so the exciting current can be low and
the exciting impedance substantially constant with a variation of applied voltage over the
desired operating range including some degree of overvoltage.
These limitations in design result in a VT for a given burden being much larger than a
typical power transformer of similar rating. Consequently the exciting current is not as
small, relative to the rated burden, as it would be for a typical power transformer.
2.1 Ratio and Phase Errors
The ratio and phase errors of the transformer can be calculated using the vector diagram of
Figure 2 above. The ratio error is defined as:
where:
 Kn is the nominal ratio

 Vp is the primary voltage
 Vs is the secondary voltage
If the error is positive, the secondary voltage is greater than the nominal value. If the error
is negative, the secondary voltage is less than the nominal value.
The turns ratio of the transformer need not be equal to the nominal ratio and a small
turns compensation is usually used so the error is positive for low burdens and negative for
high burdens.
The phase error is the phase difference between the reversed secondary and the primary
voltage vectors. It is positive when the reversed secondary voltage leads the primary vector.
Requirements in this respect are set out in IEC 60044-2. All voltage transformers are
required to comply with one of the classes in Table 1.
Table 1 – Measuring Voltage Transformer error limits
0.8 – 1.2 × rated voltage

0.25 – 1.0 × rated burden at 0.8pf
Accuracy class
Phase displacement
voltage ratio (%)
(minutes)
0.1 +/- 0.1 +/- 5
0.2 +/- 0.2 +/- 10
0.5 +/- 0.5 +/- 20
1.0 +/- 1.0 +/- 40
3.0 +/- 3.0 not specified
For protection purposes, accuracy of voltage measurement may be important during fault

conditions, as the system voltage might be reduced by the fault to a low value.
Voltage transformers for such types of service must comply with the extended range of
requirements set out in Table 2.
Table 1 – Additional limits for protection Voltage Transformers
0.25 – 1.2 × rated voltage

0.05 – Vf × rated primary voltage
Accuracy class
Phase displacement
voltage ratio (%)
(minutes)
3P +/- 3.0 +/- 120
6P +/- 6.0 +/- 240
2.2 Voltage Factors
The quantity Vf in Table 2 is an upper limit of operating voltage, expressed in per unit of

rated voltage. This is important for correct relay operation and operation under unbalanced
fault conditions on unearthed or impedance earthed systems, resulting in a rise in the
voltage on the healthy phases.
Table 3 – Voltage transformers permissible duration of maximum voltage
Voltage
Time rating Primary winding connection/system earthing conditions
factor Vf
Between lines in any network
1.2 continuous
Between transformer star point and earth in any network
1.2 continuous
Between line and earth in an effectively earthed network
1.5 30 sec.
1.2 continuous Between line and earth in a non-effectively earthed neutral
1.9 30 sec. system with automatic earth fault tripping
1.2 continuous Between line and earth in an isolated neutral system without
automatic earth fault tripping, or in a resonant earthed system
1.9 8 hours without automatic earth fault tripping
2.3 Secondary Leads
Voltage transformers are designed to maintain the specified accuracy in voltage output at

their secondary terminals. To maintain this if long secondary leads are required,
a distribution box can be fitted close to the VT to supply relay and metering burdens
over separate leads.
If necessary, allowance can be made for the resistance of the leads to individual burdens
when the particular equipment is calibrated.
2.4 Protection of Voltage Transformers
Voltage Transformers can be protected by High Rupturing Capacity (H.R.C.) fuses on

the primary side for voltages up to 66kV. Fuses do not usually have a sufficient
interrupting capacity for use with higher voltages. Practice varies, and in some cases
protection on the primary is omitted.
The secondary of a Voltage Transformer should always be protected by fuses or a

miniature circuit breaker (MCB). The device should be located as near to the transformer
as possible.
A short circuit on the secondary circuit wiring produces a current of many times the rated
output and causes excessive heating. Even where primary fuses can be fitted, these usually
do not clear a secondary side short circuit because of the low value of primary current and
the minimum practicable fuse rating.
2.5 Construction of Voltage Transformers

The construction of a voltage transformer differs from that of a power transformer in that
different emphasis is placed on cooling, insulation and mechanical design. The rated
output seldom exceeds a few hundred VA and therefore the heat generated normally
presents no problem.
The size of a VT is largely determined by the system voltage and the insulation of the
primary winding often exceeds the winding in volume.
A VT should be insulated to withstand overvoltages, including impulse voltages, of a

level equal to the withstand value of the switchgear and the high voltage system. To
achieve this in a compact design the voltage must be distributed uniformly across the
winding, which requires uniform distribution of the winding capacitance or the application
of electrostatic shields.
Voltage transformers are commonly used with switchgear so the physical design must be
compact and adapted for mounting in or near to the switchgear. Three-phase units
are common up to 36kV but for higher voltages single-phase units are usual.
Voltage transformers for medium voltage circuits have dry type insulation, but high and
extra high voltage systems still use oil immersed units.
Figure 3 shows an Alstom OTEF 36.5kV to 765kV high voltage

electromagnetic transformer.
Figure 3
– Alstom OTEF electromagnetic 36.6kV to 765kV high voltage transformer
2.6 Residually connected Voltage Transformers
The three voltages of a balanced system summate to zero, but this is not so when the
system is subject to a single-phase earth fault. The residual voltage of a system is
measured by connecting the secondary windings of a VT in ‘broken delta’ as shown in
Figure 4.
Figure 4 – Residual
voltage connection
The output of the secondary windings connected in broken delta is zero when balanced
sinusoidal voltages are applied, but under conditions of imbalance a residual voltage equal
to three times the zero sequence voltage of the system is developed.
To measure this component it is necessary for a zero sequence flux to be set up in the
VT, and for this to be possible there must be a return path for the resultant summated
flux.
The VT core must have one or more unwound limbs linking the yokes in addition to the
limbs carrying windings. Usually the core is made symmetrically, with five limbs, the two
outermost ones being unwound. Alternatively, three single-phase units can be used.
It is equally necessary for the primary winding neutral to be earthed, for without an earth,
zero sequence exciting current cannot flow.
A VT should be rated to have an appropriate voltage factor as described in Section 1.2

and Table 3, to cater for the voltage rise on healthy phases during earth faults.
Voltage transformers are often provided with a normal star-connected secondary

winding and a broken-delta connected ‘tertiary’ winding.
Alternatively the residual voltage can be extracted by using a star/broken-delta connected
group of auxiliary voltage transformers energized from the secondary winding of the main
unit, providing the main voltage transformer fulfills all the requirements for handling a
zero sequence voltage as previously described.
The auxiliary VT must also be suitable for the appropriate voltage factor. It should be noted
that third harmonics in the primary voltage wave, which are of zero sequence, summate in
the broken-delta winding.
2.7 Transient Performance
Transient errors cause few difficulties in the use of conventional voltage transformers
although some do occur. Errors are generally limited to short time periods following
the sudden application or removal of voltage from the VT primary.
If a voltage is suddenly applied, an inrush transient occurs, as with power transformers.

However, the effect is less severe than for power transformers because of the lower flux
density for which the VT is designed. If the VT is rated to have a fairly high voltage factor,
there is little inrush effect.
An error appears in the first few cycles of the output current in proportion to the inrush
transient that occurs.
When the supply to a voltage transformer is interrupted, the core flux does not
immediately collapse. The secondary winding maintains the magnetizing force to sustain
this flux and circulates a current through the burden, which decays more or less
exponentially. There may also be a superimposed audio-frequency oscillation due to the
capacitance of the winding.
If the exciting quantity in ampere-turns exceeds the burden, the transient current may be
significant.
2.8 Cascade Voltage Transformer
The capacitor VT (described in next section) was developed because of the high cost of
conventional electromagnetic voltage transformers but, as shown in Section 2.2 above, the
frequency and transient responses are less satisfactory than those of the orthodox voltage
transformers.
Another solution to the problem is the cascade VT shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5 – Schematic diagram of typical

cascade voltage transformer
The conventional type of VT has a single primary winding, the insulation of which presents
a problem for voltages above about 132kV. The cascade VT avoids these difficulties
by breaking down the primary voltage in several distinct and separate stages.
The complete VT is made up of several individual transformers, the primary windings of

which are connected in series as shown in Figure 5.
 Each magnetic core has primary windings (P) on two opposite sides.

 The secondary winding (S) consists of a single winding on the last stage only.
 Coupling windings (C ) connected in pairs between stages, provide low impedance
circuits for the transfer of load ampere-turns between stages and ensure that the
power frequency voltage is equally distributed over the several primary windings.
The potentials of the cores and coupling windings are fixed at definite values by connecting
them to selected points on the primary windings. The insulation of each winding is
sufficient for the voltage developed in that winding, which is a fraction of the total
according to the number of stages.
The individual transformers are mounted on a structure built of insulating material, which

provides the interstage insulation, accumulating to a value able to withstand the full
system voltage across the complete height of the stack.
The entire assembly is contained in a hollow cylindrical porcelain housing with external

weather-sheds; the housing is filled with oil and sealed, an expansion bellows being
included to maintain hermetic sealing and to permit expansion with temperature change.
3. Capacitor Voltage Transformers (CVTs)
The size of electromagnetic voltage transformers for the higher voltages is largely

proportional to the rated voltage. The cost tends to increase at a disproportionate rate.
The capacitor voltage transformer (CVT) is often more economic. This device is basically

a capacitance potential divider. As with resistance-type potential dividers, the output
voltage is seriously affected by load at the tapping point.
The capacitance divider differs in that its equivalent source impedance is capacitive and

can therefore be compensated by a reactor connected in series with the tapping point. With
an ideal reactor, such an arrangement would have no regulation and could supply any value
of output.
A reactor possesses some resistance, which limits the output that can be obtained. For a
secondary output voltage of 110V, the capacitors would have to be very large to provide a
useful output while keeping errors within the usual limits. The solution is to use a high
secondary voltage and further transform the output to the normal value using a
relatively inexpensive electromagnetic transformer.
The successive stages of this reasoning are shown in Figure 6 below.

Figure 6 – Development of
capacitor voltage transformer
There are numerous variations of this basic circuit. The inductance L may be a separate
unit or it may be incorporated in the form of leakage reactance in the transformer T.
Capacitors C1 and C2 cannot conveniently be made to close tolerances, so tappings are
provided for ratio adjustment, either on the transformer T, or on a separate auto-
transformer in the secondary circuit.
Adjustment of the tuning inductance L is also needed. This can be done with tappings, a
separate tapped inductor in the secondary circuit, by adjustment of gaps in the iron cores, or
by shunting with variable capacitance.
A simplified equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 7 below.

Figure 7 –
Simplified equivalent circuit of capacitor voltage transformer
The main difference between Figure 7 and Figure 1 is the presence of C and L. At normal
frequency when C and L resonate and therefore cancel, the circuit behaves in a similar way
to a conventional VT.
However, at other frequencies a reactive component exists which modifies the errors.
Figure 8 – Section view of an Alstom OTCF 72.5kV to 765kV coupling capacitor voltage
transformer
Standards generally require a CVT used for protection to conform to accuracy requirements
of Table 2 within a frequency range of 97-103% of nominal.
The corresponding frequency range of measurement CVTs is much less, 99%-101%, as

reductions in accuracy for frequency deviations outside this range are less important than
for protection applications.
https://youtu.be/sl10j7eIFDs
3.1 Voltage Protection of Auxiliary Capacitor
If the burden impedance of a CVT is short-circuited, the rise in the reactor voltage is
limited only by the reactor losses and possible saturation to:
Q × E2
where
 E2 is the no-load tapping point voltage and

 Q is the amplification factor of the resonant circuit.
This value would be excessive and is therefore limited by a spark gap connected across the
auxiliary capacitor. The voltage on the auxiliary capacitor is higher at full rated output than
at no load, and the capacitor is rated for continuous service at this raised value.
The spark gap is set to flash over at about twice the full load voltage. The spark gap
limits the short-circuit current which the VT delivers and fuse protection of the secondary
circuit is carefully designed with this in mind.
Usually the tapping point can be earthed either manually or automatically before making
any adjustments to tappings or connections.
3.2 Transient Behaviour of Capacitor Voltage Transformers
A CVT is a series resonant circuit. The introduction of the electromagnetic transformer

between the intermediate voltage and the output makes further resonance possible
involving the exciting impedance of this unit and the capacitance of the divider stack.
When a sudden voltage step is applied, oscillations in line with these different modes take
place and persist for a period governed by the total resistive damping that is present. Any
increase in resistive burden reduces the time constant of a transient oscillation, although the
chance of a large initial amplitude is increased.
For very high-speed protection, transient oscillations must be minimized. Modern

capacitor voltage transformers are much better in this respect than their earlier counterparts.
However, high performance protection schemes may still be adversely affected unless their

algorithms and filters have been specifically designed with care.
3.3 Ferro-Resonance
The exciting impedance Ze of the auxiliary transformer T and the capacitance of the

potential divider together form a resonant circuit that usually oscillates at a sub-
normal frequency. If this circuit is subjected to a voltage impulse, the resulting oscillation
may pass through a range of frequencies.
If the basic frequency of this circuit is slightly less than one-third of the system frequency,
it is possible for energy to be absorbed from the system and cause the oscillation to build
up.
The increasing flux density in the transformer core reduces the inductance, bringing the
resonant frequency nearer to the one-third value of the system frequency.
The result is a progressive build-up until the oscillation stabilizes as a third sub-

harmonic of the system, which can be maintained indefinitely.
Depending on the values of components, oscillations at fundamental frequency or at other

sub-harmonics or multiples of the supply frequency are possible but the third subharmonic
is the one most likely to be encountered. The principal manifestation of such an oscillation
is a rise in output voltage, the r.m.s. value being perhaps 25% to 50% above the normal
value.
The output waveform would generally be of the form shown in Figure 9.
Figure 9 –
Typical secondary voltage waveform with third subharmonic oscillation
Such oscillations are less likely to occur when the circuit losses are high, as is the case with
a resistive burden, and can be prevented by increasing the resistive burden.
Special antiferro-resonance devices that use a parallel-tuned circuit are sometimes built
into the VT. Although such arrangements help to suppress ferro-resonance, they tend to
impair the transient response, so that the design is a matter of compromise.
Correct design prevents a CVT that supplies a resistive burden from exhibiting this effect,
but it is possible for non-linear inductive burdens, such as auxiliary voltage transformers,
to induce ferro-resonance.
Auxiliary voltage transformers for use with capacitor voltage transformers should be

designed with a low value of flux density that prevents transient voltages from causing
core saturation, which in turn would bring high exciting currents.
Sources:
1. Network protection and automation guide by (ex) Alstom Grid, now General
Electric
2. Electric Power Substations Engineering By James C. Burke
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commercial buildings and industry facilities. Professional in AutoCAD programming.
2 Comments
1.
Sowndarya
Dec 20, 2018
Very useful tqq u so much
(reply)
2.
marco tulio mercadal p
Dec 19, 2018
good job
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Energy and Power
Synchronizing Generator To The Grid

By Edvard | October, 2nd 2015 | 11 comments | Save to PDF
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Home / Technical Articles / Synchronizing Generator To The Grid
Synchronizing generator
The physical method
Having discussed the principles of synchronizing generator to the grid, we will look briefly
on the physical method of accomplishing it.
Old generator synchroscope used for matching the speed and phase angle of a generator before
connecting it to the power grid (photo credit: Alex Luyckx via Flickr)
In theory, there are at least two simple measurements or indications, which can be used for
synchronizing generator to a grid.
When two voltages satisfy the conditions of being equal in magnitude, have the same
frequency and an angle of zero between them, then around the voltage loop they add to
be zero at each and every instant of time on the sine waves.
Consequently voltmeters connected across each of the synchronizing breaker contacts will
both read zero. Lights placed in the same position will also be totally out when all the
synchronizing conditions are satisfied.
In practice, we need information which the voltmeters and light will not give us in order to
synchronize a generator to the grid. During the actual physical process of synchronizing, we want
to know whether the generator or the grid is fastand by how much.
The instrument, which will provide this information, is the synchroscope. Figure 1 shows
the connection of a synchroscope between the generator being synchronized and the grid.
Figure
1 – Synchroscope checking Angle and Frequency
We will still need to use two voltmeters to check that the generator and the grid voltage are
the same (noting that these two voltmeters are not the ones referred to above, since those
ones were placed across the synchronizing breaker contacts).
The position of the synchroscope pointer indicates the difference in angle between the
generator voltage and the grid voltage. When there is a zero angle between the two
voltages, the synchroscope pointer is in the vertical or 12 o’clock, position.
Old
generator synchroscope (photo credit: Andreas Metz via Flickr)
The speed of rotation of the pointer indicates the difference in frequency of the two
voltages. The pointer will rotate in the Slow or counter clockwise, direction when the
generator frequency is below the grid frequency. The pointer will rotate in the Fast or
clockwise, direction when the generator frequency is greater than the grid frequency.
It should be pointed out that the synchroscope will only rotate for small differences in frequency
of up to 2 Hz. With larger frequency differences, the synchroscope is designed to not rotate.
The last two paragraphsindicate that when:
1. The pointer is vertical or at 12 o’clock,

2. The pointer is steady, not rotating; then the two voltages are in phase and the frequencies
of the generator and grid are equal.
In practice the synchronizing breakers are closed when the generator is just slightly fast and
at about the 5 minutes to 12 position moving toward 12 o’clock. This allows a little bit
of time for closing the synchronizing breakers and it assures that the generator will not act
as a motor once the synchronizing breaker is closed.
It is important to check the correct operation of the synchroscope before each

synchronizing is attempted.
To do this, the generator is operated at less than synchronous speed and the synchroscope
must rotate in the slow direction. Similarly when the generator is operated at a speed
greater than synchronous, the synchroscope must rotate in the Fast direction.
Diesel generators synchronizing with mains (VIDEO)
Diesel generators synchronizing with mains on ‘peak lopping mode‘ and on ‘no-break
transfer mode‘.
https://youtu.be/NC5OusavOME
Generator synchronization (VIDEO)
A Cat trying to sync to the utility 11kv network.
https://youtu.be/XtbWM7anzeU
Synchronization VEM generator (VIDEO)
https://youtu.be/vQQ4yR_Gmvo
Reference // Science and Reactor Fundamentals – Electrical CNSC Technical Training

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11 Comments
1.
Abderrahmane
May 12, 2017
once we close gen CB to the grid, how does the gen start producing current , while
they are running on the same speed
Reply
2.
Abderrahmane
May 12, 2017
at the moment of connecting a generator to the grid, how dose it start producing
current
while Fgen=Fgrid Vgen=Vgrid
Reply
3.
PANEL LISTRIK
Apr 21, 2017

Interesting articles and remind me when synchronizing low-voltage electrical panels
using manual synchronization at palm oil mill in Synchronization VEM generator
(VIDEO).
Reply
4.
noman
Oct 16, 2015
Everything explained above tells what should be done when paralleing generator to
grid but my question is what parameters of generator are changed to match
voltage,phase sequence and specially frequency.. Syncscope will tell frequency is
different but how to remove that difference?
Reply
Arpon karmaker
Feb 19, 2016
what is most important small gennerator with capacitor connaction ?
Reply
TROY
Mar 21, 2018
Similar question to this:
I can see that you may be adjusting the frequency output on your generator
via some dial – but how do you ensure the frequency is in phase?
Reply
5.
gaurav vishnoi
Oct 02, 2015
sir we have 80 MW captive power plant. we have GTCB and SENDING breaker
(export to grid) in series. and between this we have one tapping to our sister
companies. when there is any problem in sending breaker than our plant doesn’t
came on home load. our plant was tripped on overfluxing and than it will giving
tripped command to turbine and our plant was blackout.
for example if our generation is 70 MW and our sister companies load is 40 MW
and we export to grid is 25 MW . due to grid fault if our sending bay breaker open
than around 45 MW load available. but within 4 sec our plant tripped on overluxing.
sir can you please give possible reason for that.
Reply
Amit Maurya
Oct 03, 2015
Chek CT winding and ratio
Reply
6.
Kimberly King
Oct 02, 2015
The Diesel generators synchronizing with mains video needs better close-ups of
what is occurring in the readout displays; captions were appreciated, tho. The
second video Generator synchronization was better, but once cannot distinguish
what the parameters are on the face plate. Altho wobbly, the Synchronization VEM
generator was the best demonstration of synchronization.
Reply
Edvard
Oct 02, 2015
I agree Kimberly! I couldn’t find better videos, so choice was these three.
I’ll try to digg better videos.
Reply
Aman nautiyal
Oct 19, 2015
I learn a lot frm these articles…thanks eep…keep doing ur get wrk
Reply
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Industrial Automation / SCADA / Transmission and Distribution
The Basics of Hardware and Software for

SCADA Systems You Should Know About
By Edvard | October, 2nd 2017 | 6 comments | Save to PDF
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Home / Technical Articles / The Basics of Hardware and Software for SCADA Systems You Should
Know About
What are SCADA systems able to do?

As it is known, the SCADA systems are able to measure and monitor different
parameters and variables, such as: the level of liquids, the volume of the gases, the
volumetric flow rate, the mass of liquids and gases, the pressure, the temperature, the
humidity, the viscosity, the position and the moving, etc.
The Basics of Hardware and Software for SCADA Systems You Should Know About
For this, some signals must be acquired based on the appropriate sensors and transducers
from different electrical and electronic devices, before to be processed and analyzed by
SCADA system. These data can be used for supervision of remote processes.
For this, the data are processed and analyzed to generate reports which will be transmitted
to control the processes parameters within certain limits.
The SCADA applications have two basic levels:
1. The customer level, which will be performed the human-machine interaction;

2. The data server level which will control the entire process.
Thus, the data server sends these data to the customer level via remote equipment such as
PLCs (connected to the database server either directly or via a communications network,
using various communication protocols).
The developed protocols can be property of a company (e.g. Siemens H1) or of open type
(Modbus, Profibus etc.). Database servers can be fully connected to each other and also to the
customer stations through Local Area Network (LAN) networks based on Ethernet technology.
The SCADA systems may be relatively simple or very complex, depending of the
dimension and complexity of the process monitored. These systems operate in real-time
using a database system named Real Time Data Base (RTDB), which can be found on one
of servers.
Hardware Architectures
The servers are responsible for the acquisition and management of data for a set of
parameters. Is it possible to have dedicated servers for certain tasks (for example, if the
objective is to develop the process servers), servers dealing with the handling of alarms, or
file servers.
A SCADA server will be connected directly to the PLC via an Open Platform Communications (OPC)
or a RTU, which both collects and consolidates data from and from PLC-uri (Figure 1). The SCADA
takes on request the data from indicator reading appliances and equipment condition.
The OPC and RTU work as a data concentrator. The data is structured using a man-
machine interface (HMI) in a convenient format for the operator in order to be able to take
any decisions that would optimize the communication between the equipment.
Figure 1 –
SCADA hardware
RTU performs the following:

1. The connection with supervised equipment;
2. Reading of equipment status (such as open/closed position of the valve or relay);
3. Acquisition of measured signals, such as the pressure, flow, voltage or current;
4. The control of equipment by sending command signals, such as the closing of a valve or
relay or setting the speed of a pump;
5. Reading the digital or analog signals, and sending the commands using both
digital or analog signals.
https://youtu.be/LUmCluoPwGM
The PLC contains a microprocessor used for the automatization of processes. A PLC is
provided with input/output sensors and relays. PLC is less expensive alter to old systems
which used tens or hundreds of relays and timers. The PLC is programmed using the
structured programming languages and elementary logic operations.
The term “Supervisory Station” refers to the servers and software responsible for the
communication with the equipment (RTUs, PLCs, etc.) and HMI software which run on
master-station in the control room or elsewhere.
The master station may be composed of one PC in small SCADA system. In large SCADA
systems, the master station may include multiple servers, distributed software applications,
and disaster recovery strategies.
To increase the integrity of the system, the multiple servers will be often configured in a
dual-redundant or hot-standby topology, providing control and monitoring even in
the event of a server failure.
Software Architectures
The SCADA applications are implemented based on the software architecture (Figure 2
below). SCADA software architecture has at least two components:
1. The SCADA server application;

2. The SCADA client application;
Figure 2 – SCADA software architecture
Figure 3 – SCADA systems
SCADA server and SCADA client
The SCADA server application is multi-tasking being responsible for storing the SCADA
client applications in a database. The SCADA client application receives data via serial
port using RS232 and MODBUS RTU protocols.
In many cases the SCADA applications shall be addressed to and remove the users who
have not an Internet connection. In this case it is necessary a new software component on a
Web server. A Web server is used for generating dynamic Web pages, which are supplied
to customers decrease.
https://youtu.be/QvdUnFzTcnY
The Web SCADA clients can benefit to real-time access (in a manner similar to regular SCADA
clients) to the lists of parameters, the lists of events and the list of alarms via a simple browser.
But, the Web SCADA clients do not receive the same level of graphical user interfaces and
have the same HMI features as the regular SCADA clients. The regular SCADA clients are
accustomed to running specific applications as opposed to The Web SCADA clients who
view the Web pages provided by Web SCADA server.
In order to reduce as much difference between the regular SCADA clients and Web
SCADA clients some drives, services and virtual instruments are implemented in HMI.
Visualization software used for monitoring and control of industrial process is called
“software” HMI or “SCADA software”.
HMI as it is called generically, means any switch, interface through which you can control a device.
The term “automation” refers to the graphical interfaces implemented through interaction with
the mouse and/or the keyboard or by touch.
HMI/SCADA appeared as a terminal dedicated for users from the system implemented with
PLC units. A PLC is programmed to automatically control a process. Because the PLC
units are distributed in a large system, the data from PLC are stored and then transmitted.
HMI/SCADA has the role to gather and combine the data from the PLC using a specific
protocol.
HMI software can be connected to a database in order:to fulfill the charts and
diagrams in real time:
 To analyze the PLC data;

 To treat the planned maintenance;
 To drill the schemes for a particular sensor or machine;
 To apply the troubleshooting methods of the system.
Figure
4 – SCADA energy management system
The basic SCADA protocol is MODBUS, which is designed to send data to the master
station even when the master interrogates the RTU station. MODBUS is based on a master-
slave architecture known also as client-server architecture.
The protocol is designed to be used by Modicon in own PLCs. Now, it became a

standard of communication for the industry and is currently the most widely used to
connect all the industrial devices. The protocols contain extensions to operate over
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP/IP).
In practice, it is suggested to avoid the security of Internet connection in order to
reduce risks of cyber-attacks.
This protocol has the following features:
1. It is an open protocol with available documentation;

2. It can be quickly implemented (in few days, not months);
3. It works with bits and bytes, so no particular requirements on implementation.
MODBUS allows the management of the network devices, which gives new features to the
SCADA system related to flexibility, reliability and safety in operation at high
performance.
Reference // SCADA Applications for Electric Power System by Naser Mahdavi

Tabatabaei, Ali Jafari Aghbolaghi
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Edvard Csanyi
6 Comments
1.
MATTHEW MASHUA
May 16, 2019
hi how can i get quotations on scada hardware i need
Reply
2.
santhosh pani
Aug 27, 2018
Hi ,
we are using scada application – what is Master server and remote servers and
customer servers in SCADA – what is role of OPC server and toolbox
Reply
3.
NARESH
Jun 07, 2018
NICE DEVICE TO USE AND PROGRAM IS NICE AND LESS MAINTANCE
Reply
4.
Rafa El-Mukassabi
Feb 11, 2018
Hi Dear, There is a need for SCADA system for one company in Libya. Can you
please advise who is the best in SCADA systems, and where to find our request?
Best regards
Rafa
Reply
Mushtaq
Mar 25, 2018
I like to suggest you low cost and reliable solution from eu named
mikronika,poland.
If you required anu further plz let me know i will share with you the contact
derails.
Reply
Bhavin Patel
Dec 20, 2018
Hi,
SCADA System will have many solutions based on your requirements, Its
custom designed, We suggest to go for fourth Generation from Any Make,
Its with IoT & you can have data access anywhere through any device,
For further information, you can write to bhavin.patel@eledea.in
Reply
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Energy and Power / Power Quality
9 Recommended Practices for Grounding
By Edvard | March, 6th 2015 | 22 comments | Save to PDF
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Home / Technical Articles / 9 Recommended Practices for Grounding
Basis for safety and power quality

Grounding and bonding are the basis upon which safety and power quality are built. The
grounding system provides a low-impedance path for fault current and limits the
voltage rise on the normally non-current-carrying metallic components of the electrical
distribution system.
9 Recommended Practices for Grounding (photo credit: ag0n.net)
During fault conditions, low impedance results in high fault current flow, causing
overcurrent protective devices to operate, clearing the fault quickly and safely. The
grounding system also allows transients such as lightning to be safely diverted to earth.
Bonding is the intentional joining of normally non-current-carrying metallic components to

form an electrically conductive path. This helps ensure that these metallic components are
at the same potential, limiting potentially dangerous voltage differences.
Careful consideration should be given to installing a grounding system that exceeds

the minimum NEC requirements for improved safety and power quality.
Recommended practices for grounding //
1. Equipment Grounding Conductors

2. Isolated Grounding System
3. Branch–Circuit Grounding
4. Ground Resistance
5. Ground Rods
6. Ground Ring
7. Grounding Electrode System
8. Lightning Protection System
9. Surge Protection Devices (SPD) (formerly called TVSS)
1. Equipment Grounding Conductors
The IEEE Emerald Book recommends the use of equipment-grounding conductors in all
circuits, not relying on a raceway system alone for equipment grounding. Use equipment
grounding conductors sized equal to the phase conductors to decrease circuit impedance
and improve the clearing time of overcurrent protective devices.
Equipment
grounding conductor
Bond all metal enclosures, raceways, boxes, and equipment grounding conductors into one
electrically continuous system. Consider the installation of an equipment grounding
conductor of the wire type as a supplement to a conduit-only equipment grounding
conductor for especially sensitive equipment.
The minimum size the equipment grounding conductor for safety is provided in NEC
250.122, but a full-size grounding conductor is recommended for power quality
considerations.
Go back to Index ↑
2. Isolated Grounding System
As permitted by NEC 250.146(D) and NEC 408.40 Exception, consider installing an

isolated grounding system to provide a clean signal reference for the proper operation of
sensitive electronic equipment.
Isolated grounding system for branch
circuits (photo credit: iaeimagazine.org)
Isolated grounding is a technique that attempts to reduce the chances of “noise” entering the
sensitive equipment through the equipment grounding conductor. The grounding pin is not
electrically connected to the device yoke, and, so, not connected to the metallic outlet box. It is
therefore “isolated” from the green wire ground.
A separate conductor, green with a yellow stripe, is run to the panelboard with the rest of
the circuit conductors, but it is usually not connected to the metallic enclosure. Instead it is
insulated from the enclosure, and run all the way through to the ground bus of the service
equipment or the ground connection of a separately derived system. Isolated grounding
systems sometimes eliminate ground loop circulating currents.
Note that the NEC prefers the term isolated ground, while the IEEE prefers the term
insulated ground.
3. Branch-Circuit Grounding
Replace branch circuits that do not contain an equipment ground with branch circuits with
an equipment ground. Sensitive electronic equipment, such as computers and computer-
controlled equipment, require the reference to ground provided by an equipment grounding
conductor for proper operation and for protection from static electricity and power surges.
Failure to utilize an equipment grounding conductor may cause current flow through low-voltage
control or communication circuits, which are susceptible to malfunction and damage, or the earth.
Surge Protection Devices (SPDs) must have connection to an equipment grounding

conductor.
4. Ground Resistance
Measure the resistance of the grounding electrode system to ground.
Take reasonable measures to ensure that the resistance to ground is 25 ohms or less for
typical loads. In many industrial cases, particularly where electronic loads are present,
there are requirements which need values as low as 5 ohms or less many times as low as 1
ohm.
Measuring earth
resistance with fall of potential method (photo credit: eblogbd.com)
For these special cases, establish a maintenance program for sensitive electronic loads to
measure ground resistance semi-annually, initially, using a ground resistance meter.
Ground resistance should be measured at least annually thereafter.
When conducting these measurements, appropriate safety precautions should be taken to reduce
the risk of electrical shock.
Record the results for future reference. Investigate significant changes in ground resistance
measurements compared with historical data, and correct deficiencies with the grounding
system. Consult an electrical design professional for recommendations to reduce ground
resistance where required.
5. Ground Rods
The NEC permits ground rods to be spaced as little as 6 feet apart, but spheres-of-
influence of the rods verlar.
Recommended practice is to space multiple ground rods a minimum of twice the length of
the rod apart. Install deep-driven or chemically-enhanced ground rods in mountainous or
rocky terrain, and where soil conditions are poor. Detailed design of grounding systems are
beyond the scope of this document.
Earthing electrode
6. Ground Ring
In some cases, it may be advisable to install a copper ground ring, supplemented by

driven ground rods, for new commercial and industrial construction in addition to metal
water piping, structural building steel, and concrete-encased electrodes, as required by
Code.
Grounding rings provide a convenient place to bond multiple electrodes of a grounding system,
such as multiple Ufer grounds, lightning down-conductors, multiple vertical electrodes, etc.
Install ground rings completely around buildings and structures and below the frost line in a
trench offset a few feet from the footprint of the building or structure. Where low, ground
impedance is essential, supplement the ground ring with driven ground rods in a triplex
configuration at each corner of the building or structure, and at the mid-point of each side.
The emergency generator connected to the

ring-ground, and additionally grounded to reinforcing rods in its concrete pad (photo credit:
psihq.com)
The NEC-minimum conductor size for a ground ring is 2 AWG, but sizes as large as
500 kcmil are more frequently used. The larger the conductor and the longer the conductor,
the more surface area is in contact with the earth, and the lower the resistance to earth.
7. Grounding Electrode System

Grounding electrode system
bus (photo credit: electrical-contractor.net)
Bond all grounding electrodes that are present, including metal underground water piping,
structural building steel, concrete-encased electrodes, pipe and rod electrodes, plate
electrodes, and the ground ring and all underground metal piping systems that cross the
ground ring, to the grounding electrode system.
Bond the grounding electrodes of separate buildings in a campus environment together to

create one grounding electrode system.
Bond all electrical systems, such as power, cable television, satellite television, and
telephone systems, to the grounding electrode system. Bond outdoor metallic structures,
such as antennas, radio towers, etc. to the grounding electrode system. Bond lightning
protection down-conductors to the grounding electrode system.
8. Lightning Protection System

Copper lightning protection systems may be superior to other metals in both corrosion
and maintenance factors. NFPA 780 (Standard for the Installation of Lightning Protection
Systems) should be considered as a minimum design standard.
Building lightning
protection system (photo credit: Schneider Electric)
A lightning protection system should only be connected to a high quality, low impedance,
and robust grounding electrode system.
9. Surge Protection Devices (SPD) (formerly called TVSS)
The use of surge protection devices is highly recommended. Consult IEEE Standard 1100
(The Emerald Book) for design considerations. A surge protection system should only be
connected to a high quality, low impedance, and robust grounding electrode system.
Surge
protection device – Single line diagram (credit: Schneider Electric)
Generally, a surge protection device should not be installed downstream from an

uninterruptible power supply (UPS). Consult manufacturers’ guidelines.
Reference // Recommended Practices for Designing and Installing Copper Building Wire
Systems – Copper Development Association Inc.
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22 Comments
1.
Mohammed
Mar 28, 2018
Really I’m thankful to you for this useful article.
Reply
2.
Sergio Miranda
Feb 21, 2018
Estimado Edvar,
muchas gracias por compartir tan buena y didáctica información, ojala pudiera
considerar junto a los miembros que la componen, incluir mas literatura en español
Reciba Uds un gran saludo desde Chile.
Atentantamente,
Sergio Miranda.
Reply
3.
Abdelkawy Almasry
Dec 04, 2017

Realy its very interesting and useful Site.For young and Old engineers.and
Reply
4.
bala maijamaa
Nov 27, 2017
Hi Edward, your articles are always fantastic and educative. Need more on
transmission and distribution power lines construction, operation and maintenance.
Reply
5.
Nathalie Claveria
May 09, 2017
I am from a water utility company. A railway system is to be constructed between

the locations of our steel pipelines. As per the comment of the Contractor of the
railway system, they will be installing ground rods to every column of their railway
system. These ground rod may affect the life span of our steel pipes.
What would be the minimum clearance between the ground rod and steel pipes to
avoid this situation, if any? Or any method on how to protect our steel pipes life
span?
I hope someone can answer my query.
Reply
6.
Rick Blackmon
May 02, 2017

I have a concern working on a grounding project — the grounding drawing are
revision 4 okay — the problem is I notice a air termianal(Lightning protection on
Rev 4) then I referenced to the Lightning Protection drawing and what shocked me
is the Lightning Air Terminal is not located on this certain structure ( oh its LNG
Plant ground up) then notice Revision 0 “on the Lightning Protection Drawing.
Correct me if I am wrong Lightning Protection goes to the ground right — then why
was not the Lightning Protection Drawing up date as for as the Grounding — are
does it matter.
I though that when never you up a revision on grounding and if the air terminals are
to be tied in to the ground ring — should there a revision on the Lightning
Protection also.
Please correct me if I am wrong – thank you
Reply
7.
Cindy haycock
Feb 08, 2017
I always dislike AC power and wiring system. I have some experience with D.C.
And AC. That’s all I have to comment.
Reply
8.
ZUBER KHAN
Sep 05, 2016
Powerlines are running parallel to Buried Cross Country Coated Pipelines and are
experiencing effect of aC induce votlage interference. We are installing copper
grounding conductors of 25 sq mm cross section in carborneous coke backfill upto
150m long to get grounding resistance below 1 Ohms depending upon soil
resistivity and connecting the two ends of copper grounding conductor ring to a
cross country buried pipelines through a polarization cell to ground the buried
coated pipeline to mitigate the effects of induce AC voltage on buried coated
pipeline. After few months of installation we have found that the grounding copper
conductor has oxidized and turning into green powder and copper ring got into
various pieces. Please advice if copper is reacting with carbon backfill or high
current discharge through grounding system is oxidizing the copper grounding ring.
Reply
9.
kamal
Aug 01, 2016
that my job and i have more idea in this thank u
Reply
10.
Ian A. Casey
Jul 29, 2016
Excellent article!
So IG goes from isolated receptacle ground without bonding to anything back to

service panel and connects to its own insulated, non bonded ground bus and the to
independante grounding rod?
SG is ground for all the mechanal bonds at receptacle, conduits, structure, neutral-
ground and es to its separate ground rod so that both IG and SG never physically,
mecanically bond?
Correct?
Reply
11.
Ian A. Casey
Jul 29, 2016
As always, Edvard, another informative article!
Am I correct to understand that for IG the ground pin is totally isolated at the
receptacle and that conductor runs directly to the service panel?
The SG conductor bonds/connects all metal parts/strutures and electrically connects
at the service panel.
That at the service panel there would be two grounding buses:
a. One that bonds nuetral-ground-metal parts, etc and the SG conductor then will go
to a grounding electrode.
b. The other would be completely be isolated from metal parts, the grounded neutral
and will bond the IG to its independant grouding electrodes.
Therefore, there would not be a physical, a mechanical bond of these two grounds,
correct?
Would such cabling of L-N-G-IG conducters be applicable or necessary in an

office, bank, or school?
I see the sense in hospital and some industrial applications.
Thanks
Reply
12.
Daniel
Nov 12, 2015
Señor Edvar, no soy Ingeniero, en mi país existe también un titulo menor y es de

Tecnologo Eléctrico, desde hace un par de semanas que encontré su blog sigo y
estudio de cerca sus aportes son muy bien explicados ademas de ajustados a la
experiencia en campo, gracias por sus aportes son claros y me han despejado dudas.
Saludos desde Sur America
Reply
13.
Karma Tenzin
Aug 30, 2015
I will read all the articles of Edvard hereon.
Reply
14.
CEPRO
May 28, 2015
Thanks for the insight.
Reply
15.
gilbert l. florida
Apr 06, 2015
Edvard,
You are great ! I like all your EE articles issued. I am certainly sure that these helps
engineers, professors,students, practitioner, EE project management team in the
world .
I am an experienced electrical engineer too and there are informative articles i read
and even down load them for references.
Sir Edvard appreciate If you could issue ieee standard 1100 ( the emerald book ) as
well I think this would give more information to all ee practitioners.
Man you are great! and more power for you. You help many people…
Thanks a lot …
Reply
16.
Hossein
Mar 26, 2015
hi
I am electrical power eng.
I like your work and am intresting to have your technical subjects please.
Reply
17.
Bedekar Prakash
Mar 12, 2015
Please specify whether any special earthing is required for tuned filters and active
filters in harmonic mitigation system. Can this earthing be connected to common
grid earthing?
Reply
18.
Bob Kohli
Mar 11, 2015
Picture 4 could you have used the term fall of potential & talked about how you use
Ohm law to teach the reason you use this way of of testing younger generation only
learn what us older ones make them aware of just my thought kohli
Reply
o
John James Stockton
Mar 23, 2015
Mr. Kohli, if he used the term fall of potential would you think that
everyone else will know meaning of that term. I think he explained it in a
simple way so anyone can understand and that is a start. The reader will do
his own research later on. This is still an informative and helpful site.
Reply
19.
Bob Kohli
Mar 11, 2015
In the picture with # 5 you use a green with yellow that is O K But why did you use
a picture with a coiled conductor if by chance the voltage applied
to this conductor was above , 600v or less than the current could be of a maganatude
that some counter E M F could cause the voltage to rise on the other part of the
system & not let the earthing / grounding do what it is to do just my thought B kohli
at orkohli@tds.net
Reply
20.
hamdy anwar
Mar 09, 2015
in other subject (bonding earthing and grounding) you explain the difference bet.
grounding and earthing.
grounding is related to powr system common zero point which can be neutral in star
connection.
but earthing is for dead parts connection to the earth
here you use term grounding for lightening system which is not power system or
neutral point.
thanks in advanc
hamdy anwar
Reply
Abdelkawy Almasry
Dec 04, 2017
Some of earthing Activity give us the standard value for each earthing
resistance standard value,
1- Medium voltage switchgear.
2- power transformer.
3- light current equipments.
and there is other values.
Abdelkawy Almasry.
Reply
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Power Substation / Transmission and Distribution

The essentials of radial distribution system
and its subtransmission circuits
By Edvard | May, 15th 2019 | 0 comments | Save to PDF
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Home / Technical Articles / The essentials of radial distribution system and its subtransmission
circuits
Distribution system in general

Electric distribution system is all of that part of an electric power system between the bulk
power source or sources and the consumers’ service switches. The bulk power sources are
located in or near the load area to be served by the distribution system and may be either
generating stations or power substations supplied over transmission lines.
The essentials of radial distribution system and its subtransmission circuits (photo credit: Merko)
Distribution systems can, in general, be divided into six parts, namely: subtransmission
circuits, distribution substations, distribution or primary feeders, distribution transformers,
secondary circuits or secondaries, and consumers’ service connections and meters or
consumers’ services.
Figure 1 is a schematic diagram of a typical distribution system showing these parts.
The subtransmission circuits extend from the bulk power source or sources to the various
distribution substations located in the load area. They may be radial circuits connected to a bulk
power source at only one end or loop and ring circuits connected to one or more bulk power
sources at both ends.
The subtransmission circuits consist of underground cable, aerial cable, or overhead

open-wire conductors carried on poles, or some combination of them. The subtransmission
voltage is usually between 11kV and 33kV, inclusive.
Figure 1 –
Typical distribution system and its components
Each distribution substation normally serves its own load area, which is a subdivision of the
area served by the distribution system. At the distribution substation the subtransmission
voltage is reduced for general distribution throughout the area.
The substation consists of one or more power-transformer banks together with the
necessary voltage regulating equipment, buses, and switchgear.
Now, let’s have a discussion about radial distribution networks and their characteristics,
flexibility and layouts.
 Radial system in general

 Subtransmission
The Radial System

The radial type of distribution system, a simple form of which is shown in Figure 2, is the
most common. It is used extensively to serve the light- and medium-density load areas
where the primary and secondary circuits are usually carried overhead on poles.
The distribution substation or substations can be supplied from the bulk-power source over
radial or loop subtransmission circuits or over a subtransmission grid or network.
The radial system gets its name from the fact that the primary feeders radiate from the
distribution substations and branch into subfeeders and laterals which extend into all parts of the
area served.
The distribution transformers are connected to the primary feeders, subfeeders, and
laterals, usually through fused cutouts, and supply the radial secondary circuits to which
the consumers’ services are connected.
Oil circuit breakers arranged for overcurrent tripping are used to connect the radial-primary
feeders to the low-voltage bus of their associated substation.
Figure 2 –
Simple form of radial-type distribution system
When a short-circuit occurs on a feeder its station breaker opens and interrupts the service
to all consumers supplied by the feeder.
Manually-operated sectionalizing switches are often installed at the junction of the
subfeeders and the main feeder.
When trouble on a subfeeder has been located the faulty section can be isolated by opening the
proper switch, and service can be restored to the remainder of the feeder before repairs are
made.
The purpose of the fuses in the primary leads of the distribution transformers is to open the
circuit in case of trouble in a transformer or on its associated secondary lines and prevent a
possible shutdown of a considerable portion of the feeder or the entire feeder on such faults.
The subfeeders and laterals are sometimes fused to prevent tripping the feeder breaker at
the substation and thus reduce the extent of the outage when a fault occurs on one of them.
The fuse cutout (photo
credit: Olinsys Electric)
Obviously, the transformer fuses, branch fuses, and feeder breaker should be properly
coordinated so that the circuit will be opened at the proper point to keep the outage to
a minimum. When a fault that is not self clearing develops on any section of the feeder, in
one of its associated distribution transformers, or on one of its secondary circuits, a number
of the consumers will be without service for a considerable period.
All consumers connected to the feeder will, of course, be affected if the fault is located so
as to cause the feeder breaker at the substation to open.
Experience with faults on open-wire circuits has shown that deenergizing the circuits causes the
faults to clear themselves in most cases. For this reason the feeder breakers are often made to
reclose automatically.
The reclosing equipment provides one, two, or three reclosures before the breaker is locked
open.
https://youtu.be/H8fgbr5qT40
Fundamentally the advantages of the radial distribution system are simplicity and low first
cost. These result from a straightforward circuit arrangement, where a sin-gle or radial path
is provided from the distribution substation, and sometimes from the hulk power source, to
the consumer.
With such a circuit arrangement the amount of switching equipment is small and the
protective relaying is simple.
Although simplicity and low first cost account for the widespread use of the radial system they are
not present in all forms of the system. The lack of continuity of service is the principal defect of
the radial system of distribution. Attempts to overcome this defect have resulted in many forms
and arrangements of the radial system.
Frequently the system is radial only from the distribution substations to the distribution
transformers. Because of the many system arrangements encountered it is sometimes
difficult to determine in what major type a system should be classified.
To aid in such classification and to follow more readily the discussion of radial systems, it
should be remembered that:
A radial system is a system having a single path over which current may flow for a part
or all of the way from the distribution substation or substations to the primary of any
distribution transformer.
Subtransmission
Power is transmitted from the bulk power source or sources to the distribution substations
over the subtransmission circuits. These circuits may be simple radial circuits, parallel or
loop circuits, or a number of interconnected circuits forming a subtransmission grid or
network.
Several factors influence the selection of the subtransmission arrangement for supplying
distribution substations in a radial system. Two of the most important are cost and reliability of
power supply to distribution substations.
A radial arrangement of subtransmission circuits such as that shown in Figure 3 results in

the lowest first cost.
Figure 3 –
Simple form of radial type subtransmission circuits
This form of subtransmission is not usually employed because of the poor service reliability
it provides. A fault on a radial subtransmission circuit results in a service interruption to all
loads fed over it.
The economical use of subtransmission circuits and associated circuit breakers dictates that
each subtransmission circuit carry a relatively large block of load.
Thus a fault on a radial subtransmission circuit results in the loss of considerable load, which
usually means that a large area and many consumers are without service.
An improved form of radial subtransmission is shown in Figure 4 below. Each radial

subtransmission circuit serves as a normal feed to certain distribution substation
transformers and as an emergency feed to others.
This arrangement permits quick restoration of service when a radial subtransmission
circuit is faulted.
Figure 4 –
Improved form of radial type subtransmission circuits
The substation transformers normally fed from the faulty circuit are each provided with an
emergency circuit to which they can be switched either manually or automatically. This
arrangement does not prevent an extensive service interruption for a short time and
requires spare capacity to be built into the radial subtransmission circuits.
Because extensive service interruptions cannot often be tolerated, the subtransmission for
a radial system usually takes the form of parallel or loop circuits or of a
subtransmission grid.
Whether a loop or a grid arrangement of subtransmission circuits is preferable will depend
largely on conditions in the particular load area, such as the load distribution, the
topography, and the number and location of the bulk power sources.
A parallel- or loop-circuit subtransmission layout is shown in Figure 5, on which no single

fault on any circuit will interrupt service to a distribution substation.
Figure 5 – A
parallel- or loop-circuit subtransmission layout
All circuits must be designed so that they will not be overloaded when any one circuit is
out of service. Two parallel circuits are considered to be a sectionalized loop supplying one
distribution substation.
However, two parallel circuits running over the same right-of-way are not nearly as
reliable as two circuits following different routes. A fault on one circuit may involve the
other if the two circuits arc closely adjacent. This is not as likely to result, however, with
cable circuits as with open-wire circuits.
The term “loop” as used here should not be confused with the term “ring”. By loop is meant a
circuit which starts from a power-supply point or bus and after running through an area returns to
the same point or bus; where-as a ring is a circuit or circuits which start from a power-supply point
or bus, tie together a number of power-sup-ply points or buses, and return to the starting point or
bus.
In other words, a ring is a loop from which substations can be supplied and into which
power is fed at more than one point.
The ring arrangement is quite often used for subtransmission. It is a simple form of
subtransmission network, and as the system grows it very often develops into a grid.
The network form of subtransmission is flexible in that it can readily be extended to supply
additional distribution substations in the area it covers with a relatively small amount of
new circuit construction. It requires a large number of circuit breakers, however, and is
difficult and costly to relay.
The network or grid form of subtransmission shown in Figure 6 provides greater service
reliability to the distribution substations than the radial and loop forms of
subtransmission.
Figure 6 –
Network or grid form of subtransmission
This is true particularly when the distribution system is supplied from two or more bulk
power sources, because it is possible for power to flow from any bulk power source to any
distribution substation.
This paralleling of bulk power sources through the subtransmission circuits also has the
advantage of tending to equalize the load on the bulk power sources. In a large distribution
system any two or even all of the above forms of subtransmission may be employed
between the bulk power sources and the various distribution substations, depending upon
the service requirement of the different substations and economic considerations.
The form of subtransmission employed is also influenced by the design of the distribution
substations used.
https://youtu.be/l53NrBvlorQ
Source: Distribution systems by John S. Parsons and H. G. Parnett (ABB)
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Energy and Power / Low Voltage / Protection

Smart and safe protective shutdown of LV

By Edvard | October, 30th 2012 | 3 comments | Save to PDF

Selectivity is intended to ensure that the protective shutdown is as close as possible to the

In individual cases, reference to manufacture documents and frequently the technical

Selectivity between fuses connected in series

Selectivity of circuit breakers connected in series

Selectivity between fuse and downstream circuit breaker

Selectivity between a circuit breaker and downstream

Selectivity and undervoltage

In order to guarantee operational continuity, suitable off-delays or remaking equipment

Resource: Allen Bradley – Low Voltage Switchgear and Controlgear

Feb 08, 2015

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Power Substation / Protection / Transformers

Protection scheme for the substation with a

By Edvard | January, 7th 2019 | 1 comment | Save to PDF

Single-transformer, single-bus configuration

A fused-disconnect switch provides three-phase switching and protection for the

Several factors are involved in selecting the transformer high-side fuses.

If low-resistance grounding is used, several relay schemes can be employed to clear a

All of these schemes use a neutral CT and overcurrent relay (51G).

For a low-resistance-grounded system, the use of an overcurrent relay connected to a CT in

For a feeder circuit downstream from the service transformer, a zero-sequence CT is

When an overcurrent relay is utilized with a zero-sequence CT it is referred to as a 50G,

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2. Transformer low-side bus and feeder protection

Feeder phase protection is provided by non-directional instantaneous and time-

The time current characteristics of the relays should be selected accordingly.

It is also important to check coordination of the time-overcurrent relay with the

b) Maximum ground fault sensitivity

3. Protection of the supply line

4. Selective coordination and transformers (VIDEO)

Selectively coordination circuit breakers around a transformer.

1. IEEE Std C37.95 – IEEE Guide for Protective Relaying of Utility-Consumer

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Energy Generation / Protection

Sizing a MV generator circuit breaker

By Edvard | January, 14th 2019 | 1 comment | Save to PDF

The complex role of a generator CB

Introduction to GCB circuits

1. The system-source fault (fault on generator side, point A) and

If a system-source fault occurs, the short-circuit current is established at high magnitudes

Breaking capacity of a GCB

Requirements in terms of breaking capacity depend on the amount the installation

 Fault in A – system-source fault

Circuit breakers for generators conforming to Standard IEC/IEEE 62271-37-013 are

Generator circuit breakers must conform to Standard IEC/IEEE 62271-37-013 “High-

In the case of generator-source breaking capacity, the first value refers to maximum

Current interruption due to generator-source faults is an extremely complex

Example of how a generator circuit breaker is sized

The main grid data are:

Transformer with 3 windings:

V1 = 150 kV S1 = 150 MVA Vcc_12 = 11.5% at 55 MVA

Xd = 2.26 Xq = 2.06 Td’ = 0.71 Tq’ = 0.71

Figure 4 – Transformer with 3 windings

The graph shows that the maximum current peak is:

while the remaining current values at instant t = 45 ms are:

Considering a 45ms instant, the remaining current values are as follows:

Table 1 – ABB’s generator circuit breaker VD4G family