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Raj Paroda, S. Dasgupta, Bhag Mal, S.S. Singh, M.L. Jat
and Gyanendra Singh
Citation : R
aj Paroda, S. Dasgupta, Bhag Mal, S.S. Singh, M.L. Jat and Gyanendra
Singh. 2013. Proceedings of the Regional Consultation on Improving Wheat
Productivity in Asia, Bangkok, Thailand; 26-27 April, 2012. 224 p.
The Organizers
Foreword vii
Executive Summary xv
Introduction 1
Inaugural Session 4
Plenary Session 30
Recommendations 32
20. WHEAT: Global Alliance for Improving Food Security and the
Livelihoods of the Resource-poor in the Developing World 172
Hans-Joachim Braun
26. Current Status and Future Strategy for Seed Production in Asia 204
H.S. Gupta
Annexures 207
In Asia, rice and wheat are the two major staple foods ensuring the food security of
almost 57 per cent of world's population and livelihood of 80 per cent of small holder
farmers of the world. Recent concerns about food security and food price volatility
have highlighted the critical role of cereals for both food and nutrition security of the
poor and vulnerable. In Asia, attention has remained focused predominantly on rice
as the region produces almost 80 percent of global rice. However, the importance
of wheat in Asia - which supports the livelihoods and provides assured income to a
large number of poor, small-scale farmers - has largely been overlooked.
World will need around 1090 million tons of wheat by 2050 to meet the growing
needs from its current production level of 680 million tons. To meet this demand,
developing countries should increase their wheat production substantially and more
than 80 per cent of production increase in developing countries should come
from vertical expansion. The production target has to be achieved especially when
productivity growth in wheat has slowed down and the average productivity of Asia
is even lower than global average.
The consultation covered five technical sessions: i) strategy for increasing wheat
productivity, ii) national/regional wheat scenario, iii) managing wheat diseases, iv)
stakeholder dialogue, and v) addressing emerging challenges. In addition, two Working
Groups on: a) research priorities and need assessment, and b) development initiative
x Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
for inclusive growth were held to identify policy, research and development needs.
The in-depth discussions helped in bringing out key recommendations to overcome
(he challenges and enhance wheat production and productivity in the region.
CA Conservation Agriculture
DG Director General
GH Grain Hardness
GM Genetically Modified
xiv Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
GR Green Revolution
HI Harvest Index
LR Lert Runt
ME Mega Environments
MT Million Ton
PD Project Director
SI Strategic Initiative
SR Stem Rust
YR Yellow Rust
ZT Zero Tillage
Executive Summary
Wheat is the second largest food security crop in Asia. Recent estimates indicate
that world will need around 1090 million tons of wheat by 2050 from its current
production level of 680 million tons. To meet this demand, developing countries
should increase their wheat production by 77 per cent and more than 80 per cent
of demand should come from vertical expansion.
Taking the above facts in view, FAO and APAARI in collaboration with CIMMYT, ICARDA
and JIRCAS organized a “Regional Consultation on Improving Wheat Productivity in
Asia” on 26-27 April, 2012 in Bangkok, Thailand to apprise the member countries on
the current status of wheat research and development, share experiences, and develop
strategies to enhance wheat production to meet the projected demand by 2050. The
countries that participated in the regional consultation included Afghanistan, Australia,
Bangladesh, China, DPR Korea, India, Iran, Mongolia, Nepal, Pakistan, Thailand and
Uzbekistan. A total of 53 participants including the representatives of CIMMYT, ICARDA,
JIRCAS, APAARI, FAO, regional NARS, NGOs, CSOs, farmers and the private sector
attended. The two day consultation was divided into inaugural session, five technical
sessions, two working group discussions and a plenary session.
A total of 26 scientific papers were presented which pertained to five thematic areas:
i) strategy for increasing wheat productivity, ii) national and regional wheat scenario,
iii) managing wheat diseases, iv) stakeholders dialogue on CRP 3.1 (Wheat), and v)
addressing emerging challenges. Besides, two working groups were formed to discuss
both research and development related issues.
The presentations on strategy for increasing wheat productivity addressed the major
research efforts made for breaking yield barriers through germplasm sharing, pre-
breeding, conventional breeding, collaborative/ regional testing, and use of new tools
and techniques like precision phenotyping, biotechnology, etc. In order to address the
emerging climate change scenario, greater focus was stressed on developing biotic
and abiotic stress tolerant varieties and resilient management practices for wheat
production system. The need to explore new opportunities of GM and hybrid wheat
with more than 30 per cent heterosis was also highlighted.
The technical session on national/regional wheat scenario mostly covered the
importance of exchange of germplasm with specific traits (biotic, abiotic stress
tolerance) and their collective evaluation and sharing of results. For this, a need was
felt to establish a regional platform/alliance for advancement and sharing of new
xx Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
knowledge, germplasm, tools, techniques and practices, for example, stress tolerant
germplasm, conservation agriculture based practices, use of small farm machinery,
and capacity building, etc.
The disease management strategies were also discussed elaborately. It was highlighted
that diseases are not confined within the borders of a particular country and hence,
it was considered important to take collective and coordinated action at the regional
level for survey, surveillance and early warning. It was also cautioned that emerging
diseases are a concern which require institutions like FAO to take lead in terms of
awareness that can mobilize resources to tackle the problem.
The session on stakeholders dialogue on CGIAR Research Program on CRP 3.1
(Wheat) which was officially launched in January 2012, was led by CIMMYT. It was
pointed out that through the new CRP, an opportunity for collaboration and sharing
research strategies and knowledge has emerged. As 50 per cent of wheat is grown
in Asia-Pacific region, major support from this program should come to this region.
A strong partnership around this program was recommended in order to reap the
maximum benefits through involvement of all stakeholders.
In the last session on addressing emerging challenges, the resource persons advocated
promotion of conservation agriculture (CA) and highlighted major issues under the
conventional tillage based production systems and how CA can help in addressing
these issues. Also, issues of adaptation and mitigation to climate change were discussed
in detail.
The key highlights of regional consultation on wheat were summarized in the
concluding session. Three major areas highlighted for focussed attention included
policy, research and development for enhancing productivity of wheat in Asia. It
was emphasized that there is a need to develop and popularize wheat cultivars that
can withstand the adversaries of weather and soil. The global, regional and country
specific research needs would require higher investments, close regional collaboration
and mutual understanding to address future threats and constraints in order to ensure
food security. Long-term research and development needs must also be kept in
view. It was emphasized that food and nutritional security for the people of Asian
region could be addressed through increased production of wheat and rice. There
is also a need for enhanced focus on the use of alien species, hybrid technology
and biotechnology. Environmentally sustainable small farm mechanization requiring
support from all the stakeholders also needs to be given due attention. Therefore,
regional cooperation among FAO, APAARI, CG Centers like CIMMYT and ICARDA,
ASEAN and SAARC is extremely necessary to exchange ideas and learn from each
other’s experiences.
Various action points and recommendations pertaining to the establishment of a
Regional Alliance on Wheat (RAW) through facilitation by FAO, APAARI and CIMMYT
and to develop a Road Map for future directions for research, development and
policy issues emerged. These proceedings cover the details of various deliberations
and recommendations emanating from the regional consultation on wheat.
Regional Consultation on Improving
Wheat Productivity in Asia
of low genetic enhancement, natural breaking the yield barriers in wheat. With
resource depletion, emerging biotic and the projected climate change effects on
abiotic stresses, volatile input costs and biotic stresses and new crop management
climate change effects. This emphasizes scenarios, genetically modified (GM)
on the need to produce more from less wheat may play important role in future
favourable environments, on less and productivity gains and needs attention
inferior quality land, and with less water of researchers and policy makers for
and energy resources. developing effective strategy for research
on GM wheat.
This warrants new thinking, direction and
strategy for innovations in agricultural To cope with emerging challenges of
research for development (AR4D). For natural resource degradation, escalating
attaining major productivity gains while input costs and declining farm profits
addressing the emerging challenges to while improving the productivity, the new
keep pace with population growth, the agronomic management practices based on
“Three Pillar Strategy” that includes genetic the elements of conservation agriculture
enhancement, agronomic management and precision farming have shown promise
and enabling policies, will have to play under different production systems in
a critical role. diverse ecologies and farming situations.
However, there has been significant
The genetic variability is the very basis genotype × management interaction
of any crop improvement program and which many times limits potential gains
the wild relatives, landraces and genetic of either of components (genotype and
stocks are the important sources for management), if they are not compatible.
new genetic diversity. However, with Therefore, tailoring genotypes for different
the use of conventional breeding tools crop management scenario and production
and approaches, the genetic potential systems should also find place while
of available germplasm resources though reorienting breeding strategies to capture
exploited but the yield gains were less genotype x management interactions.
due to low investment. Hence, there Though seed is a basic and critical resource
has not been any quantum yield gain in for crop production but despite the major
the new varieties. Moreover, the current efforts on developing new genotypes/
efforts on research for developing wheat cultivars, the efficient and region-specific
hybrids are rather limited and without seed systems of these genotypes are lacking
much success. This warrants reorientation in most of the developing countries of
of the wheat improvement strategies with the region. Hence, farmers do not have
greater emphasis on developing high timely access to quality seed. Therefore, a
yielding, stable, superior grain quality suitable mechanism for region-specific seed
and more resilient genotypes through systems needs to be in place to ensure
integrating conventional breeding and good seed replacement rates and avoid
biotechnological tools. Hybrid technology any pest/disease out-break due to use of
has paid dividends in several crops age-old and susceptible genotypes.
including self-pollinated crops like rice
which has led to rice revolution in Several region specific technologies
many parts of the world. Hence, hybrid and innovations are in advance stages
technology is one potential option for of experimentation but the lack of a
Regional Consultation on Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia 3
regional common platform for sharing Productivity in Asia" was jointly organized
these technological advancements and by the Food and Agriculture Organization
information and lack of trained human of the United Nations (FAO) and the
resources at different levels and scales are Asia-Pacific Association of Research
the major deterrent in accelerating the pace Institutions (APAARI), in collaboration
of adoption of new technologies for their with the International Maize and Wheat
impact on enhancing wheat productivity Improvement Center (CIMMYT), the
in the region. Hence, greater partnerships International Center for Agricultural
for regional learnings, information and Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA)
technology sharing (for example, CRP and the Japan International Research
3.1 on Wheat) are a must for harnesssing Center for Agricultural Sciences (JIRCAS)
potential benefits of the technologies at Bangkok, Thailand on 26-27 April,
in the homologous ecologies/regions. 2012. The consultation was attended
Also, there is need for a complete shift by 53 participants representing national
in our approach from R&D to R4D as agricultural research systems (NARS)
there exists large gaps between research from Afghanistan, Australia, Bangladesh,
and development and hence we need DPR Korea, India, Iran, Mongolia, Nepal,
to effectively translate research into Pakistan, Thailand and Uzbekistan, CGIAR
appropriate technology packages that are Centers, FAO, APAARI, non-governmental
adaptable to local situations and production organizations, farmer organizations and the
systems. Technology development per se private sector. The consultation provided a
will not be able to make transformations platform for all the stakeholders to share
if a mechanism is not in place for knowledge and experiences, learn from
enabling policy environment, effective lessons, assess future trends and prepare
communication, extension and capacity a road map to accelerate the overall
building for greater uptake and farm level production and productivity of wheat,
impact of these technologies. Information taking into consideration the impacts of
Communication Technologies (ICTs), for climate change and the already limited
example, cell phone based SMS services natural resource base.
with quality and farmer friendly information
The consultation was organized into five
can help in real time access to information
technical sessions: i) strategy for increasing
by the large number of farmers. Innovation
wheat productivity, ii) national/regional
systems and pathways for participatory
wheat scenario, iii) managing wheat
adaptation of technologies should form the
diseases, iv) stakeholder dialogue, and
integral part of technology development
v) addressing emerging challenges. In
and delivery process to develop consensus
addition, two Working Group sessions: 1)
a m o n g d i f f e re n t s t a k e h o l d e r s a n d
research priorities and need assessment,
define recommendation domains of the
and 2) development initiative for inclusive
technologies. Also, enabling policies for
growth were held to identify policy,
resilient practices and environmental
re s e a rc h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t n e e d s .
services to farmers should find a place
The in-depth discussions were held in
in new AR4D agenda.
different sessions and the outcomes of
Against this background, a "Regional the discussions were summarized in the
Consultation on Improving Wheat plenary session.
4 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
(CA) based management practices have the developed countries are the cause of
paid dividends in wheat systems of Asia concern to all of us. He also highlighted
and are getting attention of farmers and that fertilizer use efficiency and value chain
policy makers and planners. But, the components in wheat systems are to be
breeding strategies are still commodity addressed adequately to meet future food
focused and under conventional tillage demand in the region.
based practices due to which the full
D r. T h o m a s L u m p k i n , D i re c t o r
potential of these technologies is not
General, International Maize and Wheat
realized. The breeding strategies, therefore,
Improvement Center (CIMMYT) in his
need to be reoriented to capture genotype
chairman’s remarks presented the scenario
× management interactions. The CA based
of wheat crop in India, pattern of cereal
technologies which are currently being
consumption in Asia and China vis-
adopted on nearly 2 million hectares
à-vis per capita consumption in both
can be adopted on atleast 12 million
developing and developed countries. He
hectares to address the challenges of
highlighted that wheat trade by 2050 will
deteriorating soil health, declining water
be primarily controlled by US, Canada,
tables, labour and energy shortages.
Australia, Black Sea region, China and
However, local adaptation through
Argentina. The global changes would
participatory approaches, innovation
networks, capacity building and knowledge require researchers to look at water,
sharing mechanism needs to be in energy, climate change, food demand,
place for accelerated adoption of these diversity and nutrient efficiency in a holistic
knowledge intensive technologies by the manner. Dr. Lumpkin said that large yield
smallholder farmers. Therefore, to meet gaps in wheat in Eastern Gangetic Plains
the growing wheat demand for the ever of South Asia need special attention to
increasing population on a sustainable produce additional wheat with available
basis in the region while adapting to technological options. He concluded
climate change effects, not only the his remarks by the statement that the
technology development but also efforts biodiversity, tolerance to abiotic and biotic
on convergence, partnerships and enabling stresses, photosynthetic efficiency, decision
policy environments are critical. support tools, small farm mechanization
and precision farming, and supply of good
Dr. Masa Iwanaga, President, Japan quality seed at right time and place will
International Research Center for Agricultural give solutions to many of the present day
Sciences (JIRCAS), Japan, in his special constraints. Dr. Lumpkin further added
address mentioned that wheat is a widely that the Borlaug Institute for South Asia
grown crop covering diverse climates, soil (BISA) has been jointly established by
types, and production conditions and is Indian Council of Agricultural Research
an integral part of food chain in Asia (ICAR) and CIMMYT and this institute will
due to its history and product use. He have research focus on these issues.
further emphasized that wheat crop is
sensitive to climate change and is also Mr. Hiroyuki Konuma, FAO Assistant
vulnerable to diseases like rusts, etc. The Director General and Regional Representative
stagnating yields, regional yield gaps, and for Asia and the Pacific, in his inaugural
shrinking profitability that exist even in address, highlighted that wheat and rice are
6 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
the staple food crops and main source of view of changing climatic scenario. The
energy globally particularly for vegetarian task of fulfilling the increasing demand
population. He emphasized that growing for food in general and for wheat in
concerns for production and productivity particular is very challenging under
gain in major wheat growing countries the current scenario of climate change,
are to be addressed locally as well as productivity stagnation and emergence of
regionally, since many of the problems are new diseases and insect-pests. Mitigating
common across countries. The enhanced these challenges requires understanding of
production has to come from less water, the reasons associated, options available
less lands and less chemicals by promoting and designing an effective strategy with
ecologically sustainable approaches for new technologies, enabling policies
different production systems. There are and establishment of new networks
many challenges due to climate change, and collaborations. In view of this, it is
soil degradation, fertilizer cost, heat and necessary to put more concerted efforts
drought, productivity stagnation and for the improvement of wheat production
emerging new biological threats. There and productivity and thus calls for an
is a slow down in productivity growth urgent action to review the current scenario
in whole Asia except China. Against this of wheat production and to develop
backdrop, this regional consultation is strategies to enhance productivity for
very important and timely. Dr. Konuma sustained food and nutritional security.
was of the opinion that there exists a vast Dr. Konuma further emphasized that
potential of achieving the target production close partnership, regional efforts, FAO’s
of wheat, provided that the research and priority for Asia’s food production and
developmental efforts are carried forward representation of various wheat growing
in right direction. countries in this consultation will be very
helpful in ensuring the food and nutritional
Dr. Konuma showed a concern that
security of Asia.
increasing temperature is a major threat and
hence, breeding strategies will have to be Subash Dasgupta, Senior Plant Production
reoriented to develop wheat varieties which Officer, FAO Regional Office for Asia and
are tolerant to temperature fluctuations and the Pacific delivered the vote of thanks.
have resistance to new virulent diseases
and pests. Therefore, concerted efforts on
the part of researchers, extension workers, Technical Sessions
farmers and policy makers are needed to
improve soil health, input use efficiency Technical Session I. Strategy for
and the yield potential of wheat crop in Increasing Wheat Productivity
the region.
Chair: Dr. S. Nagarajan
He concluded that we have a good Co-Chair: Mr. Mirdad Panjsheri
opportunity during the next two days
Rapporteur: Dr. Gyanendra Singh
to review and discuss major issues for
increasing productivity and production in In this session, five presentations covering
different countries in Asia with emphasis the global and regional perspectives on
on managing biotic and abiotic stresses in strategies for increasing wheat productivity
Regional Consultation on Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia 7
were made by the representatives from hybrid wheat, improved agronomy, disease
Consultative Group on International resistance and enabling policies. He also
Agricultural Research (CGIAR), National emphasized the challenges in wheat quality
Agricultural Research Systems (NARS) and improvement and value addition under
private sector organizations. Brief summary the global climate change scenarios. He
of the presentations and major highlights highlighted that future productivity gains
of the session are given below: will come through systems approach
and it is high time to develop and
Dr. Hans J. Braun, Director, Global
provide a good gene package of high
Wheat Program, CIMMYT while making
yield, stability, wide adaptation, disease
his presentation on regional scenario of resistance and quality. He stressed that
wheat in Asia, highlighted that Asia is the high yield potential and drought tolerance
largest producer of wheat (280 m t) but for improved water use efficiency need
has highly variable national yields ranging more attention. There is a need to have
from 1.4 tons per hectare in Kazakhstan to network of phenotypic platforms to
5.6 tons per hectare in Saudi Arabia. He generate reliable and repeatable data,
further mentioned that major Asian wheat and better understanding of heat and
producing countries that were involved drought tolerance. While concluding his
in the green revolution are today self- presentation, Dr. Braun emphasized on
sufficient in wheat production with a few higher investments by both private and
exceptions. But, meeting the projected 60 public sectors on wheat research and
per cent higher wheat demand by 2050 development.
in the developing world (mostly in Asia),
where yield growths during 1995-2006 Dr. R.C. Sharma, International Center
remained around 1 per cent, is a major for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas
challenge as this will lead to short fall in (ICARDA), on behalf of Dr. S. Rajaram,
the needed 25 per cent increase to keep presented the strategy for increasing wheat
prices at the current level. He further productivity highlighting the projections
emphasized that the climate-change- of wheat for Central and West Asia and
induced heat and water stresses and North Africa (CWANA) and South Asia
natural resource degradation are estimated in the light of global production. While
to reduce wheat production in developing highlighting the importance of wheat in
countries where 60 per cent wheat is the developing countries, he stressed that
produced. In this regard, he highlighted small shortage in wheat supply can cause
the need for new studies on consumption big price shocks particularly in developing
patterns, forecasting production statistics countries and make market highly volatile.
and also demand supply issues. Dr. Braun He further mentioned that genetic gain in
talked about the stagnating yields and wheat during the last thirty years has been
developing strategies to enhance yield about 1.5 per cent per year. However,
gains through germplasm enhancement to meet the growing demand, this needs
and sharing, international testing, parental to be raised to at least 2.0 per cent per
characterization, conventional breeding, annum. The major challenge of yield
exploitation of distant gene pools, double barriers is to be tackled through hybrid
haploids, genomic selections, synthetics, wheat, exploitation of alien gene pool,
application of physiology, developing improved water use efficiency, enhanced
8 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
heat and drought tolerance, application in wheat using both GM and non-GM
of genomics, transgenics, and developing approaches. It was pointed out that for
new wheat genotypes using new tools and such studies, several cycles of testing are
advanced technologies. required before the product is ready for
commercialization.
Dr. K.C. Bansal, Director, National Bureau
of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), Dr. A.K. Joshi, CIMMYT, Nepal presented
ICAR, India made a presentation on the status of regional collaboration for wheat
germplasm conservation through use research in Asia. He pointed out that for
and role of biotechnology in wheat livelihood security, wheat in Asia is very
improvement and covered various issues crucial as each 1.0 per cent growth in
to make better use of available and new wheat can reduce poverty by 0.5-1.0 per
germplasm. He expressed that it is time cent. However, for attaining this growth in
to initiate pre-breeding activities across wheat while addressing the serious issues of
institutions to address the constraints for resurgence of super races and germplasm
wheat productivity. Dr. Bansal said that exchange, regional collaborations are
a paradigm shift in the functional model, critical. Citing the example of Mexico-Kenya
genome wide selection studies, trait-based shuttle breeding program for managing
reference collections, variability assessment stem rust problem, he stressed on the
for specific traits and providing value added need for creating such networks at regional
germplasm to breeders are some of the level through regional and international
options that are to be adopted using an collaboration. He further, highlighted
integrated and holistic approach. that in view of emerging challenges
(climate change, new pathotypes, post-
Dr. Usha Barwale Zehr, Mahyco,
harvest losses, socioeconomic issues) and
India presented the progress of work on
opportunities (hybrid wheat, biotechnology,
hybrid wheat and herbicide tolerance at
conservation agriculture, etc.), the regional
Mahyco and shared the status of hybrid
collaboration is very critical not only for
wheat research, constraints, challenges,
sharing germplasm but also for knowledge
opportunities and options to make use
and capacity enhancement.
of hybrid wheat technology for increasing
productivity. Dr. Barwale informed that
Mahyco is currently marketing one Key Highlights
hybrid in Central and Peninsular India
and many more are in the pipeline. She zz For enhancing wheat productivity,
further mentioned that for commercial major research efforts need to be made
cultivation of hybrid wheat, there is a need on breaking yield barriers through
of economically viable level of heterosis. pre-breeding, conventional breeding,
Though, there are many challenges for the germplasm sharing, collaborative
hybrid wheat production but it appears regional testing, and new tools
to be economically viable for small scale and techniques like phenotyping,
farmers. It was highlighted that herbicide biotechnology, etc.
resistance against some weeds is reported zz To address the emerging climate
and a team of scientists is working change effects, greater focus should
on introducing glyphosate tolerance be on developing biotic and abiotic
Regional Consultation on Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia 9
wheat crop and in the past 50 years, it has crop rotation. There is a great loss in
released 28 varieties of which the recently production due to less water availability
released varieties are high yielding with at critical crop growth stages and also
tolerance/resistance to biotic and abiotic water logging due to rains at seedling
stresses. Emphasis is now being laid on stage causing stunted growth. Spike sterility
industrial quality and two varieties, BARI due to boron deficiency and soil acidity
Gom22 and BARI Gom24, possessing high in north-western part of Bangladesh are
gluten content were released in 2005. BARI also responsible for significant yield losses.
Gom27 was found to have adult plant In southern region, high salinity at sowing
resistance to Ug99. Resistance to leaf rust time is causing problem in the expansion
in high yielding varieties is governed by of wheat area.
seven major genes including adult plant
resistance gene Lr34. The good level of To address the challenges including climate
tolerance to spot blotch has been observed change, Dr. Uddin suggested for developing
in new varieties. Dr. Uddin also informed high yielding varieties with tolerance to
that good research work is in progress abiotic stresses, resistance to biotic stresses
in soil and crop management including and possessing high input use efficiency.
optimization of fertilizer requirement and There is a need for maintaining continuity
its placement options. Acid soils are being for survey and monitoring of new diseases
amended through application of dolomite and new pathotypes. He emphasized
lime and other aspects of soil management on strengthening conventional breeding
such as nitrogen use efficiency (NUE), programs through the use of molecular
straw and soil fertility have also been tools, ensuring crop management for
taken care of. Conservation agriculture enhancing productivity, conservation
is becoming a reality due to adoption of agriculture, participatory varietal selection
machines by farmers such as power tiller and quality seed production and its
operated seeder, power tiller operated horizontal spread to farmers’ fields
bed planter and zero till drill which save for enhancing wheat productivity. He
time, energy, water and seed and reduce informed that productivity of wheat
the production cost. crop in Bangladesh can be enhanced in
future through vertical increase in yield
Dr. Uddin mentioned that there exists a huge
by developing new varieties, quality
gap in yield mainly due to late planting
seed, timely seeding, recommended doses
of wheat in rice-wheat cropping system,
of fertilizers and irrigation, and use of
sterility due to micronutrient deficiency
improved management technologies.
and depletion of organic matter, etc. Leaf
blight is the major disease of wheat in Dr. Uddin further mentioned that in order
Bangladesh followed by leaf rust, head to sustain and increase wheat production
blight and black point. Rodents and birds in Bangladesh, more efforts should be
are the other major biotic constraints in made to expand wheat area where annual
wheat production. Among the abiotic precipitation is reducing due to global
stresses, high temperature at the time of climate change. Simultaneously, artificial
grain filling is the most damaging as 50 recharge of ground water table should
per cent wheat area is planted late due be done. There is scope for increasing
to late harvesting of rice in rice-wheat 0.3-0.4 million hectare area in southern
Regional Consultation on Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia 11
varieties of wheat (377) and triticale (5) semi-arid climate. Three types of wheat,
for commercial cultivation. There are many viz., winter, facultative and spring are
constraints in increasing the yield gain being grown in both irrigated and rainfed
which includes narrow genetic base of the situations under different agroclimatic
available germplasm, increase in ambient zones. There are 28 agroclimatic zones
temperature due to climate change, water of which 50 per cent receive less than
availability at critical stages in some area, 250 mm rainfall every year, while drought
changing pest dynamics, high cropping and intense cold are always a limiting
intensity resulting in delayed planting of factor in wheat production. Stripe rust
wheat crop, etc. However, the efforts are and Sunn pest are major diseases and
being made to enhance productivity through pests, respectively. Russian wheat aphid is
hybrid wheat research, changing plant becoming a problem in cold areas, while
architecture for high biomass with greater common aphid has become a problem
physiological efficiency and stabilizing in temperate and warmer areas. Other
production through incorporation of genes diseases like Fusarium head blight and
and their combinations for resistance to Septoria are also gaining importance.
diseases especially rusts in newly developed The stem rust race Ug99 was reported
varieties. Molecular markers are being used in 2007 from Broujerd and Hamadan.
in breeding programs at some cooperating However, several newly released wheat
centers in the country. The perfection varieties are found to be resistant to
of conservation technology in wheat Ug99. The conservation agriculture has
production has resulted in wide utilization not been given due importance in Iran.
of zero-tillage, furrow irrigated raised bed However, zero-till drills which are less in
technology, rotavator, happy seeder and number are being used as minimum tillage
laser land leveller by the farmers, thereby options. Priorities for increasing wheat
achieving record production continuously production are conservation agriculture,
for the last three years. The concerted early maturing varieties, disease and pest
efforts are also being made to develop resistant varieties particularly Sunn pest
varieties rich in micronutrients such as resistant, use of marker aided selection
beta carotene, zinc, iron, etc., and better in breeding programs and dissemination
grain quality for end use products. The of new technologies to the farmers. The
quality seed availability to farmers is a major emphasis is needed in developing
major task to harness genetic potential of good agronomic practices.
new varieties and also to narrow down
Dr. Dhurba Bahadur Thapa, presented
the yield gaps in different agro-climatic
an insight into the wheat scenario of Nepal
zones of the country.
on behalf of Dr. Dil Bahadur Gurung. He
Dr. Abdolali Ghaffari presented the indicated that Nepal has wide diversity
status report on wheat in Iran and in landscape, altitude, topography and
mentioned that the area covered under temperature. Temperature and rainfall
wheat crop in 2011 was 6.7 million hectares are the main factors affecting agriculture.
of which 2.7 million hectares is irrigated Wheat ranks third after rice and maize
and 4.0 million hectares is rainfed with in area and production in the country.
total production of 13.5 million tons in The average productivity of wheat is
2011. Iran is generally known for arid and 2.30 tons per hectare. Its contribution
Regional Consultation on Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia 13
to national food security is about 25 per with tolerance to abiotic stresses such
cent and consumption rate has increased as drought, heat and salt, tolerance
at a rate of 2 per cent per annum since to biotic stresses (rusts and powdery
1972. The major factors for increasing mildew), earliness and good grain quality.
wheat production are development of high The zero-tillage is becoming common in
yielding varieties with resistance to biotic rice-wheat system, while relay cropping
and abiotic stresses along with availability is being undertaken in cotton-wheat
of quality seeds. During 2010-11, Nepal cropping system. There is also increased
produced 1.75 million tons of wheat use of biotechnology in wheat research in
from an area of 0.76 million hectares. order to reduce time frame in developing
Dr. Thapa further mentioned that 33 varieties, genetic transformation for drought
varieties have been released since 1962 and salt tolerance using simple sequence
including 13 varieties introduced from repeat (SSR) markers and deoxyribonucleic
India and Mexico. Due to climate change, acid (DNA) finger printing of traditional
the major constraints in enhancement and improved cultivars. He informed
of productivity are water and fertilizer that public, private and informal seed
application, temperature during grain filling sectors are involved in seed production
and disease incidence. To cope up with and its distribution. Several collaborative
the emerging challenges, wheat research projects with international organizations
program has been strengthened with the are also in place for wheat research and
objective to breed varieties resistant to biotic development of which Pak-China Phase
and abiotic stresses in addition to higher II Project is focussing on development of
yield in collaboration with regional and hybrid wheat.
global institutions. Also, emphasis has been
Ms. Tuul Dooshin presented the
laid on developing suitable conservation
country report of Mongolia on behalf
and crop management technologies, use
of Dr. Baryartulga L. Khagvasuren. She
of molecular tools and public-private-
highlighted the impact of climate in
partnership (PPP) in technology generation
Mongolia which is continental in nature
and dissemination.
with an average rainfall between 200-400
Dr. M. Shahid Masood in his presentation mm and average temperature ranging from
on country report of Pakistan mentioned -30°C to +30°C. Therefore, the growing
that among cereals, wheat was grown on season is short with low irrigation and
the largest area of 8.90 million hectares high evaporation rate. During 2011, wheat
with production of 25 million tons and production was 0.45 million tons from an
productivity of 28 tons per hectare during area of 0.30 million hectares with average
2010-11. About 70 per cent area is productivity of 1.53 tons per hectare.
irrigated and 76 per cent of the total wheat Focus of Mongolian Government is on
production comes from Punjab province. production and supply of high quality
The wheat research was strengthened by seeds of high yielding varieties adapted to
the Pakistan Agricultural Research Council arid climate. The concept of new varieties
(PARC) through effective linkages among and seed policy is always a significant
26 national and 3 international centers. issue for the crop sector development and
He mentioned that major priorities of its efficiency. During the past 50 years,
wheat research are breeding varieties 81 wheat varieties including 9 of durum
14 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
Technical Session III. Managing in Kenya and Ethiopia. Data are very
Wheat Diseases fragmented and needs to be analyzed. It
serves as a toolbox for rust monitoring.
Chair: Dr. Ronnie Coffman
Dr. S. Nagarajan made a presentation
Co-Chair: Dr. Robert Park
on wheat diseases and climate change in
Rapporteur: Dr. Etienne Duveiller Asia and emphasized the role of Central
Six presentations covering primarily the Asia on rust survival and distribution after
disease scenario and their management the shift in crops, namely, the reduction of
in Asia were presented in this session. area grown under cotton and the increase
The brief summary and key highlights in spring wheat which is more efficient in
of the discussions during the session are water use. Climate change is affecting the
given as under: disease scenarios through changes in crop
sequences. He also showed that some genes
Dr. Ronnie Coffman made a presentation may lead to increased severity with higher
on ‘Borlaug Global Rust Initiative (BGRI) temperatures whereas other genes will be
for Managing Wheat Rusts’ which involves affected by lower temperatures.
more than 20 centers world-wide. Rust
Dr. Robert Park in his presentation on
surveillance had been very effective since
managing wheat rusts by using minor
2008 and gene discovery including from
genes highlighted that the genes tend to
wild relatives has led to the identification
be durable and there is a need for more
of 32 new resistance genes. Marker assisted detailed studies to understand how minor
techniques progressed in recent years genes operate. Dr. Park underlined that past
and marker assisted selection (MAS) is durability does not guarantee durability
increasingly used by breeders. Breeding forever. Thus, pre-breeding efforts need
efforts based on minor genes had been to continue. Gene pyramiding is very
very effective under the leadership of important and needs greater thrust. There
CIMMYT. The seed multiplication and are also exceptions and some genes i.e.
delivery needs to be given priority Sr.12 behaves like minor genes, which
attention as the old and obsolete varieties should be kept in view.
need to be replaced with the new high
yielding varieties. Therefore, donors also Dr. E. Duveiller presented a paper on
should come forward to make sure that management of wheat diseases in Asia
quality seed reaches the farmers. The and highlighted the revised priorities for
‘Durable Wheat Rust Research’ community wheat disease resistance and control in
shares information through the BGRI the Asian context. The three rusts are
global diseases that need to be addressed
website which may be consulted for
on priority but foliar blight is the most
more details.
difficult disease to be resolved in South
Dr. K. Vijayaraghavan supplemented Asia. Fusarium head blight is important in
the information and presented the progress China where the awareness for food safety
of work in South Asia. He talked about (less mycotoxin) needs to be enhanced.
gene pyramiding and deployment and Wheat blast recently reported only in
illustrated the efficiency of screening in South America is an emerging disease.
early generations in aggressive hot spots However, risk awareness and attention
Regional Consultation on Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia 17
the launch of CRPs due to part of CGIAR Dr. Braun also explained that the document
change management process, there are more on 'CRP 3.1 on Wheat' was developed
opportunities for collaboration and sharing in a transparent way, the feedback was
new research strategies and knowledge. received from 340 institutions and there
The feedback of stakeholders that involves were consultations with major wheat
participants from public, private, NGOs, producing countries. He informed that
farmers, CGIAR, and Agricultural Research there are 10 strategic initiatives (SIs)
Institutes (ARIs) will be immensely helpful to be taken-up in this program. SI 1
not only in developing the work plan for is technology targeting for impact. This
AR4D but also in convergence of investments will target to increase the effectiveness
and resources among the wheat community, and impact of wheat research on food
Dr. Paroda expressed satisfaction that many security, poverty reduction and gender
countries and institutions were represented equity. The approach and outputs include
in the meeting including farmers and NGOs gender audit of wheat strategy, strategic
from South Asia. analysis and targeting of new wheat specific
technologies, institutional innovations and
Dr. Hans Braun, spoke on objectives,
policy focus on the poor. Other important
strategies and stakeholders involvement in issues are special tools like rust mapper
CRP 3.1 (Wheat). He informed that CRP and wheat atlas. Future of wheat in Sub-
3.1 was officially launched in January Saharan Africa will also be attended since
2012 in a meeting at Mexico in which wheat consumption in this region is going
around 300 stakeholders from all over up but wheat production is not increasing.
the world participated. He explained the SI 2 is on sustainable wheat based system.
objectives and expectations from this It will ensure transfer of technology, and
program and informed that in the next address the yield gaps. This initiative
few weeks, the partners and stakeholders involves the hub concept – innovation
in different countries will be contacted for network, benchmark site for research on
getting their feedback on priorities and the impacts of conservation agriculture
collaboration interest. He further informed (CA) and focal point for regional capacity
that through this program, CIMMYT is building. The structure to work together
looking for greater impact on poverty has to be based with farmers. Hubs will
reduction. There is a big challenge to be used to test the best-bet technology,
boost farm level productivity and hence, demonstration platfor m, trainings/
we need to act urgently. Therefore, there demonstrations, platform for relevant
is a need for much better coordination research, to integrate the production chain
and avoiding duplication by ensuring that around a common objective and will
all partners complement each-other. It is work as feedback loop to researchers. It
important to know where wheat is grown will engage in strategic research – value
in developing countries and where wheat chain analysis, productivity, soil quality,
is really consumed. This will complement water use efficiency, carbon and nitrogen
middle to high income country investments cycling, trace gas emissions, crop growth
in national wheat research. There are 2.5 and development, phytopathology – soil
billion poor wheat consumers and 1.2 born diseases, tan spot and Septoria.
billion wheat dependent consumers in the There are 7 hubs in rice – wheat and
world that are to be targeted. 2 in cotton-wheat areas. New multi-
Regional Consultation on Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia 19
is for tackling the black box of genetic mostly for maize Program. BRAC has a
resources. Very few world collections have large seed system and covers about 30
been utilized so far. Mexican Government per cent hybrid market of maize. Unless
is extending support of 5 million dollars wheat productivity is increased, chance
annually for global food security. Mexico of increasing its area in Bangladesh is
wants to publish what is in store in very less. A comparative advantage study
germplasm so that it can be used for indicated that import is cheaper than
public good. All available accessions increasing production. If wheat yield is
with CIMMYT will be sequenced and increased upto 3.5-4.0 tons per hectare,
after careful analysis will look for more then wheat can compete with other crops.
variation. Priority traits are heat drought, He highlighted the role of BRAC in seed
wheat blast, tan spot, spot blotch, stripe system, farmer participatory work and
rust, stem rust, Karnal bunt, Sunn pest, also women involvement. Also, the CRP
etc. SI 9 is for strengthening the capacity 3.1 (Wheat) must address climate change
of developing world – wheat institutions effects. Dr. Paroda suggested that BRAC
and specialists. The time has come when can help in testing new varieties, and their
the perception about agriculture and wheat seed production and assessment.
needs to be changed. There is a need for
Ms. Sonali Bisht, heading an NGO
advocacy to make it attractive. Agriculture
is not the problem, but it is solution. A called Institute of Himalayan Environmental
new generation of wheat professionals and Research and Education (INHERE) working
farmers will be created. In SI 10, wheat will in the Himalayas (Uttarakhand, India),
focus on high quality partners – research informed that their focus is on livelihood
and development - having common values. and food security, seed production,
The presentation was followed by in-depth processing of produce, capacity building
discussion. and other human resource development
programs. They had been trying to engage
Dr. Raj Paroda briefly summarized the communities with field trials, climate change
highlights of presentation and opened adaptation trials and seed production.
the floor for discussion. He invited all She wanted to know the kind of NGOs
stakeholders and farmers for participation selected and their role in CRP. Dr. Hans
in the discussion. Dr. Mahboob Hossain, Braun informed that the role of NGOs will
Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of BRAC, vary according to countries and activities
Bangladesh, one of the largest NGO in in different countries. CIMMYT works in
the world, informed about his organization
Afghanistan for seed production. CIMMYT
and its programs and activities. He
is very open and will be interested in
informed that BRAC has 9 Programs in
working with any NGO.
Bangladesh including agriculture, climate
change and food security. This NGO Mr. Manoj Munjal, a farmer from
also collaborates with CGIAR and other Haryana, India informed that most of the
International Centers, namely, International area in Karnal district of Haryana State
Rice Research Institute (IRRI), International is under rice-wheat system. The farmers
Potato Center (CIP), WorldFish and The need training program and new improved
World Vegetable Center (AVRDC) and seeds. They also want solution of stripe
has informal relationship with CIMMYT rust, which is the main problem now. In
Regional Consultation on Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia 21
view of rise in average temperature, heat sharing. Dr. Paroda commented that
tolerant varieties are also required. He also a policy issue has emerged which is
shared his experience on conservation part of SI 1. Dr. Mirdad Panjsheri from
agriculture in wheat systems that helped Afghanistan informed that in his country,
them not only in increasing productivity drought is the major problem. In addition,
and reducing cost of production but also farmers need machinery, subsidy for seed
in adapting to climate change effects industry development and other technical
(terminal heat in wheat) and for this, good assistance as being given by FAO. They
farm machinery will also be of great help also need seed certification training for
to farmers. better quality control of seed. Dr. Paroda
mentioned that there is great potential
Mr. Ram Ji, a farmer from Nepal,
for increasing wheat production through
informed that wheat planting is often late
regional collaboration. CIMMYT can help
in Terai of Nepal. So the farmers need
through the development of new varieties
varieties that can give high grain yield
and pre-breeding programs. Duplication of
even if planted late. Participatory variety
efforts needs to be avoided since FAO is
selection (PVS) approach has proved very
also doing a lot in seed sector. International
helpful and this approach needs greater
Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry
emphasis.
Areas (ICARDA) is also working in some
Mr. Hasraf Sarker, a farmer from countries. Therefore, there is a need to have
Bangladesh, informed that 30 per cent of a holistic approach in a complimentary
wheat in the country is grown in Rajshahi. mode. Dr. Hans Braun informed that
He further informed that he gets wheat CIMMYT has a good collaboration with
yields up to 5 tons per hectare, produces FAO and ICARDA.
seed and has been practicing conservation
Dr. Rafiqul Islam Mondal, Director
agriculture which can be a model to other
General, Bangladesh Agricultural Research
farmers of the region. Dr. Paroda suggested
Institute (BARI) informed that scope of
that outscaling of conservation agriculture
expansion of wheat in Bangladesh is limited
(CA) is needed which is evident from the
due to strong competition with other crops.
impressive yield obtained by a farmer in
There is some scope of expansion in coastal
Bangladesh. In addition, there is a need
areas and other vacant lands having high
to look for good niche areas and exchange
pH. Also, the Government is discouraging
visits of farmers between the countries for
boro rice in north-west Bangladesh due
sharing their experiences.
to declining water table and this area
Mr. Usman, a farmer from Pakistan can be put under wheat cultivation. Seed
mentioned that farmers in Pakistan production is another important issue
have lot of talent but they get very little since, compared to rice, wheat needs
support from the Government. Inputs are higher quantity of seed. Farmers face the
costly or not available and electricity is shortage of seed availability at the time
very costly. Water is scarce and running of planting. There is a need to strengthen
tube wells is not easy. Subsidy has also seed production and capacity building of
been stopped by the Government. So, in farmers and other stakeholders so that
addition to input availability, the farmers they can produce and save good quality
need capacity building and knowledge seed. High yielding wheat varieties with
22 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
heat tolerance are crucial to sustain wheat highly successful. Certification is sometimes
production. Bangladesh has strong linkages a problem and so truthfully labelled seed
with CIMMYT for wheat research but the (TLS) can be used. Use of ICTs in seed
collaboration needs to be strengthened with production systems and proper seed storage
other centers for other crops. Dr. Jaim, were also considered important issues.
Director of Research, BRAC, Bangladesh, Dr. Masa Iwanaga, President, JIRCAS,
informed that in CRP 3.1 (Wheat), the wanted to know the procedure for joining
main focus is on improving food security one or more initiatives of wheat program.
but not improving livelihood of farmers Dr. Hans Braun clarified that survey is
which needs to be given greater attention. going on to analyze the priorities which
He stressed that livelihood of small will be reviewed by a committee and the
farmers must be attended urgently. Seed procedure will be known very soon. Dr.
problem is a serious issue and women’s M.L. Jat, CIMMYT suggested that system
involvement in seed storage also needs research is important keeping in view the
attention. Linking farmers to market is needs of farmers. Also, there is a need
important and should be appropriately to bring out ‘Wheat Systems Atlas’ as the
addressed. Dissemination of knowledge research on wheat crop alone will not be
and market intelligence needs to be given able to provide complete solution.
due attention. There is also a need to
Dr. Raj Paroda, informed that in Northern
catalyze the policy makers.
India, growing wheat after December in
Ms. Sonali Bisht from Institute of sugarcane systems is not paying more
Himalayan Environment Research and and we have better options available, for
Education (INHERE) suggested that example, spring maize that gives up to 7
besides linkage with market, the backward tons grain yield per hectare.
linkage is also important which relates to
Dr. N.C.D. Barma from Bangladesh
affordability and accessibility of inputs to informed that incidence of wheat rust
farmers. There is need to have foresight was quite high in the crop season during
for supply-demand scenario which has 2011-12 and stripe rust was seen for
implications for tomorrow. Dr. Paroda the first time in Bangladesh. They need
informed that Malaysia is a good example help from CIMMYT and BGRI for rust
to demonstrate that importing food grains screening in India and to reorganize their
is not a good strategy. They shifted from hybridization program. Seed system is
grain production to the production of being strengthened in Bangladesh and
rubber and date palm but now shifted they are giving preference to farmers’
back to food grain production. seed production as truthfully labelled
seed. Dr. Paroda suggested that FAO
Dr. R.R. Hanchinal highlighted that
can support seed program through their
seed system needs strong attention since
technical program which is also linked
availability of seed at right price, time
with CRP. Mr Fazil from FAO agreed
and place is very important. He informed
to extend FAO’s full support for wheat
about the good model of participatory seed
research programs.
production developed at the University of
Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, India and Dr. Hans J. Braun summarized the
suggested that seed village program was major issues as follows:
Regional Consultation on Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia 23
zz Seed production of suitable varieties The Chair, Dr. Raj Paroda concluded that
needs urgent attention. Dissemination this is a good opportunity for all of us
of Ug99 resistant varieties through to build strong partnership. Asia-Pacific
United States Agency for International region grows 50 per cent of wheat and,
Development (USAID) project is a therefore, major share of funds from
good example. Seed replacement CRP 3.1 should come to this region. The
takes time and therefore, pre-release initiatives that are already there must get
seed multiplication is important. Policy partnership in the program so that there
makers were convinced about the pre- is greater synergy for outputs. Policy
release seed multiplication. The project issue is important for future of wheat
got real cooperation in six countries in some countries. For resource poor
to allow pre-release multiplication. farmers, supply-demand scenario has to
Many countries were not doing it be kept in view and institutional support
before as seed multiplication was in the region should be available e.g.
used to be done after the varieties National Center for Agricultural Economics
are released. This is costly exercise and Policy (NCAP) in India and IFPRI.
as there could be drop outs, but was APAARI has earlier endorsed this program.
highly successful. Partnership for research in wheat should
also be developed with advanced research
zz For wheat rusts, there is a need for
centers like JIRCAS and Sydney University
organizing one more meeting. A good
where there is good leadership. Breaking
monitoring system exists but policy
the yield barrier will be a challenge and
makers are difficult to be convinced to
seed has to be given a high priority.
stop multiplying susceptible varieties.
Syria was hit by wheat rust for two Capacity building is equally important and
years in a row due to cultivation of partners have to be involved effectively.
susceptible varieties. Now susceptible Addressing the concern of climate change
varieties are being stopped. Likewise, must find high priority. The stakeholders
Ethiopia is also now releasing only should come forward to be partners who
rust resistant varieties. help in many ways but there is a need to
zz Bangladesh has areas where rice–rice identify right partners. There is good scope
cropping system is followed with 90 of deploying participatory approach in
days gap. For such areas, there is need many countries. There are important policy
for super early wheat varieties. issues such as - investments to support
wheat research in different countries so
zz In Afghanistan, the seed sector is that we know how much is being spent
now being increasingly addressed in wheat research and development in
and a few new projects are under different countries. This data can make
consideration. the case for countries that are spending
zz One of the most important objectives less on wheat compared to others. Dr.
is to address the issues of resource Paroda further suggested that effective
poor farmers. There is impact targeting partners are important and hoped that
and value chain analysis; Hubs will there will be good representation from
also play significant role in their Asia-Pacific region on the management
own way. committee of this CRP.
24 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
growth and development of grains. He also with thermal stress tolerance, their influence
emphasized on understanding the target on grain yield and combining quantitative
environments which is vital for designing trait loci (QTLs) through combination of
wheat for high temperature environment conventional breeding approaches and
as adaptation of genotypes is often molecular tools are needed. He emphasized
location specific. Genotype × management on understanding the complex mechanism,
interaction has to play key role in thermal and developing appropriate strategy and
tolerance. Taking into consideration the suitable resource management practices
underlying complexities in mechanisms to enhance yield potential of future wheat
of tolerance to high temperatures and genotypes to mitigate possible impacts of
individual contribution of several traits so far climate change.
reported, an appropriate strategy should be
Dr. R.K. Gupta made a presentation
developed to identify the genes and stack
on improving quality traits and informed
them in suitable genetic background that
that with the diversified uses of wheat
matches with the target environment and
for industrial purposes, systematic efforts
resource management practices. There is a
should be made for breeding wheat cultivars
need to intensify food production systems
for quality traits by selecting parents and
through establishing and strengthening
advancement of generations and target
technology and input delivery systems
and linking farmers with market. Also, them in different regions in accordance
there is a need to promote conservation with product specific quality requirements of
agriculture based crop management that region. The projected climate change
technologies for improved land and will have effects on the quality of wheat.
water management, improved resource For example, gluten strength has less
use efficiency and adaptation to climatic influence by the elevated CO2 but protein
extremes. He was of the opinion that the content for flour decreases significantly
time has come to develop suitable policies with increased CO2 concentration. Also in
to provide incentives to farmers for resource general, there is some increase in protein
conservation and use efficiency, pricing of content at high temperature, but there is
resources, and giving credit for transition change in the glutenin/gliadin ratio and
to adaptation technologies. thus adversely affects quality. Therefore,
new breeding strategies should have these
Dr. J. Rane, in his presentation on considerations in view in addition to climate
developing terminal heat tolerant wheat, resilience and yield.
highlighted various areas that can have
possible influence on wheat yields under Dr. H.S. Gupta made a presentation on
changing climate. Dr. Rane highlighted the current status and future strategies for seed
precision phenotyping and its importance production in Asia. He stressed on the need
with particular reference to physiological to encourage seed enhancement mechanism
interventions. He was of the opinion and technologies for more viability of seed
that persistent efforts through genetic, and also develop regional cooperation in
physiological and breeding approaches quality seed supply, for example, APSA
need to be made so as to develop wheat (1994) and SAARC Seed Forum (2010).
genotypes tolerant to high temperatures. He further mentioned that there is a need
For this purpose, several traits associated to develop a common variety list and
Regional Consultation on Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia 27
harmonized quality assurance system for zz The basic elements of CA remains the
SAARC countries for seed supply. In self- same, however, for realizing potential
pollinated crops, small farmers tend to benefits, the recommendation domains
produce and use farm- saved seed to the of the component technologies (water,
tune of 60-70 per cent, except in warm and nutrient, weed, cultivar choices, seed
humid areas where the vigour and viability rate, depth etc.) need to be defined
of seed decline rapidly. In the global scenario through participatory adaptation to
of climate change, farmers are frequently meet local needs.
facing newer challenges of abiotic and biotic zz Significant genotype × management
stresses. Thus, there is a greater need to interactions have been observed and
replace old varieties with new improved hence the breeding strategies need
ones. Hence, adoption of new varieties to be reoriented in order to capture
can be achieved only by increasing the G × M interactions and define the
seed replacement rate (SRR). In conclusion, domains of the genotypes and realize
he proposed the following strategies for potential yields.
increasing seed production: (i) maintenance
of seed chain:breeder-foundation-certified, zz As immediate strategy to cope with
(ii) involvement of public sector agencies- climate change effects, the farmers
self-pollinated and high volume crops, should be assisted with establishment
(iii) encouragement to private sector, (iv) of weather services, agro-advisories,
farmers’ participatory seed production, insurance and community banks for
(v) better and fast institutional mechanism seed and fodder.
for seed certification, and (vi) developing zz Research programs need to be
efficient seed distribution network. strengthened for enhancing adaptive
capacity on climate change monitoring
and warning systems.
Key Highlights
zz Intensive efforts are required for
zz Large management yield gaps in developing nutritionally superior wheat
wheat exist particularly in Eastern varieties enriched with iron and zinc
Gangetic Plains of South Asia and using molecular tools as well as
the major factors contributing this are agronomic manipulations.
poor crop establishment and delayed
zz B re e d i n g s t r a t e g i e s s h o u l d b e
planting. Conservation agriculture
reoriented to develop micronutrient
based technologies and appropriate
cultivar choices in wheat systems enhanced wheat cultivars without
have helped in bridging the yield compromising tolerance to abiotic/
gaps and hence needs strategies for biotic stress, crop productivity, and
accelerated adoption. acceptable end-use quality.
production through biotic and abiotic to ensure food security. He also stressed
stresses vis-à-vis food security of the region. on developing strategies for outscaling of
He emphasized on wheat improvement conservation agriculture producing more
through conventional and molecular from less area and lesser inputs for which
approaches in order to develop new high good agronomy needs to be continued.
yielding wheat varieties in shorter time He also mentioned that long-term research
frame having resistance/tolerance to biotic and development needs must also be
and abiotic stresses that adversely and kept in view.
significantly affect the wheat productivity.
Dr Raj Paroda, Executive Secretary,
There is increasing need to develop wheat
APAARI in his concluding remarks was
varieties suited to zero till condition and
emphatic on food security and nutritional
have increased water and nutrient use
security for the people of Asian region.
efficiency due to continuous dwindling
He stressed on the possibility to increase
of natural resources in Asia. Dr. Konuma
wheat productivity by 1 ton per hectare
indicated that rice-wheat system is the
in 75 million hectare area in Asia (except
most popular covering larger acreage and
China). In order to achieve this target, there
thereby affecting soil health and ground
is need for adoption of aggressive approach
water adversely. Hence, diversification of
for genetic enhancement through use of
cropping systems is essential. There is
modern technologies and natural resource
an urgent need for adoption of resource
management. He also emphasized on the
conservation technologies and farm
need for enhanced use of alien species,
mechanization. He stressed on effective
hybrid technology and biotechnology. Major
linkages between wheat research and
efforts are needed in outscaling resource
extension for faster dissemination of
conservation technologies to produce
modern technologies benefiting resource
more at less costs, improving soil health,
poor farmers through increased income
and reducing environmental pollution
and also livelihood security. In order to
in order to enhance productivity and
enhance wheat productivity in Asia where
production of wheat crop. He mentioned
fluctuation in temperature and rainfall
that environmentally sustainable small
is a regular phenomenon in changing
farm mechanization requires support
climatic situations, there is need to develop
from all the stakeholders. Therefore,
medium and long-term forecasting model
regional cooperation among FAO, APAARI,
for sustainable production.
ASEAN and SAARC for close interactions
Dr. Thomas Lumpkin, Director General, is extremely necessary to exchange
CIMMYT, Mexico highlighted that the experiences and learn from each other.
favourable climate for higher production Involvement of private sector and youth
may not be a regular feature and therefore, is also very important. Also, South-South
there is a need to develop and popularize and North-South partnership is needed
wheat cultivars that can withstand the for greater collaboration. International
adversaries of weather. The global, organizations like CIMMYT should provide
regional and country specific research facilitation role towards strengthening
requires more investment in wheat, close wheat improvement activities in these
collaboration and mutual understanding countries. Public-private-partnership in
to address future threats and constraints Asia needs promotion aggressively in
32 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
quality seed production, greater investment enabling policies, as emerged during the
in conservation of natural resources and discussions in the regional consultation,
farm mechanization. He emphasized on are given below:
strengthening extension services for faster
dissemination of technologies where NGOs
can also play significant role. He gave a
I. Research related
call for building up a "Regional Alliance recommendations
on Wheat (RAW)" for catalysing policy zz The reversal of slowdown in genetic
makers through FAO. gains (breaking yield barriers) needs
Dr. Bhag Mal, Consultant, APAARI concerted efforts through effective
extended vote of thanks to the organizers, use of ger mplasm. Ger mplasm
co-sponsors and the participants attending enhancement/pre-breeding through
the regional consultation. the use of trait-specific germplasm from
genebanks (seeds of discovery) need
to be strengthened for developing new
Recommendations plant architecture and advancement of
generations using conventional breeding
The wheat growing countries of Asia, supplemented with biotechnological
especially China, India and Pakistan tools and collaborative regional testing.
have played critical role in ensuring food CGIAR Centers such as CIMMYT
security in Asia. In this context, the Green and ICARDA should facilitate as
Revolution in South Asia had been a well as accelerate the pre-breeding
great success story. The world would need initiatives.
around 1090 million tons of wheat by 2050
zz The breeding programs in wheat
from its current production level of 680
need to be strengthened adopting
million tons. This production target has to
conventional breeding, biotechnology
be achieved especially when productivity and marker assisted selection. Research
growth rate in wheat has declined and the on development of synthetic wheat, use
same is even lower than global average of double haploids, hybrid wheat and
in Asia. Hence, improving productivity GM wheat (herbicide tolerant, water
of wheat is of immediate concern for and nutrient use efficient) needs a
the Asian wheat growing countries. In focused and mission mode approach
this context, there exists large untapped involving all active stakeholders and
potential for doubling wheat productivity the CG Centers. There is also a need
in the region. However, it is also clear that to establish hybrid wheat consortium
business as usual will not work. The first at the regional level in order to
revolution in wheat was primarily through accelerate the pace of research in
germplasm enhancement (single pillar). this direction.
For second revolution, we shall need a
zz Greater thrust needs to be given to
‘three pillar’ strategy, involving germplasm
breed varieties with multiple/durable
enhancement, agronomic management and
resistance against major biotic and
enabling policies.
abiotic stresses using novel germplasm
The major recommendations related and molecular tools. Pyramiding genes
to wheat research, development and for resistance to rusts must be given
Regional Consultation on Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia 33
a high priority attention. Minor genes use efficiency, nutrient use efficiency,
based multiple resistance also needs high nutritional and end-use quality
to be given preference. (biofortification). Institution like BISA
zz As a long-term strategy to address should have major mandate for this.
the vulnerability of wheat to changing zz The shuttle breeding programs need
climates and projected shrink in to be accelerated for which facilitation
favourable wheat mega environments, role of international centers will be
photosynthetic efficiency of wheat highly critical.
plant needs to be enhanced. Hence, zz Renewed efforts need to be made for
concerted long-term strategy for research on developing and defining
conversion of C3 wheat to C4 should resilient wheat production systems
be in place. Advanced international having greater synergy with resource
institutions, viz., CIMMYT, ICARDA endowments particularly to meet the
and JIRCAS, in collaboration with needs of small holder farmers under
regional institutions such as Borlaug varied ecologies to harness enhanced
Institute for South Asia (BISA), and the productivity with efficiency, while
stronger NARS should play important addressing the issues of natural resource
role in this basic research area. degradation and projected impact of
zz There is a greater need in the present climate change. For climate change
context to develop resilient plant types resilient varieties, new types of genes
with better root architecture having are required to be incorporated into
improved efficiency in the uptake of the varieties. Conservation agriculture
nutrients and water, better nutrient based crop management technologies
partitioning and higher nutrient density should also form the integral part of
grains. this strategy.
zz Special efforts need to be made on zz Concerted efforts need to be made
bioinformatics and research programs to for research on dual purpose wheat
understand/explore physiological basis varieties, crop residue cover needs and
of stress tolerance (drought, terminal crop-livestock interactions in relation to
heat, etc.) and nutritional quality. conservation agriculture under irrigated
zz Trans-boundary diseases and pests and rainfed ecologies. Such wheat
surveillance regional research networks varieties will enable farmers to address
need to be established to address their concerns for lack of good quality
possible outbreaks of new races of fodder for their milch animals.
diseases having potential threats, zz There is an urgent need for enhancing
especially in case of stripe rust, leaf farming system based productivity
rust, foliar blight, stem rust (Ug99), etc. through promoting agronomic (water,
for their effective management. nutrient, weed management), genetic
zz Greater thrust needs to be given to and physiological interventions and
regional approach on the development also to introduce resource conservation
of varieties possessing resistance to technologies at small farm level.
diseases, particularly durable resistance, zz There is an urgent need for basic and
heat tolerance, short duration, water strategic research on integrated use of
34 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
Asia is the world’s largest producer of growing countries or countries with limited
wheat with 280 million tons and an average wheat production: Japan (5.2 mt), Korea
yield of 2.9 tons per hectare (excluding (3.1 mt), Indonesia (2.6 mt), Malaysia
Russia). Southern and Eastern Asia produce (2.4 mt) and the Philippines (2.4 mt). It
114 million tons each, Western Asia 29 needs to be emphasized that all major
million tons and Central Asia 23 million Asian wheat producing countries that
tons (FAOSTAT, 2010). Average national were involved in the Green Revolution are
yields are highly variable. The highest today self-sufficient for wheat production
yields are obtained in Saudi Arabia (5.6 with the exception of Afghanistan, Iraq
t/ha, all irrigated) China (4.7 t/ha, mostly and Yemen. Due to very significant price
irrigated) and Uzbekistan (4.5 t/ha, mostly fluctuations for wheat over the last five
irrigated), while yields are the lowest in years, many countries seek to remain
Central Asia (Kazakhstan, 1.4 t/ha, mostly self-sufficient for major staples and wheat
rainfed). Asia is also the home to more plays an important role in this.
than 50 per cent of the global population
Demand for wheat in the developing world
and by 2050, every fourth citizen will live
is projected to increase by 60 per cent
in South Asia.
by 2050 (Rosegrant and Agcaoili, 2010)
Wheat is the most important protein source and much of this increased demand is
and after rice the second most important expected in Asia. However, in the world's
calorie source world wide. In Asia, its 20 principal wheat-producing countries,
importance varies greatly with more than which account for 85 per cent of all wheat,
50 per cent of all calories coming from yields rose annually by only 1.1 per cent
wheat in Central Asia. In 2007, Asian during 1995–2006 (Dixon et al., 2009),
countries imported nearly 40 million tons excepting China, where growth is still
of wheat, mostly non-traditional wheat above 3 per cent per annum. Based on
42 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
a 1.0 per cent global yield growth rate, highest priorities for wheat breeders in
wheat production will be only 15 per cent low latitude Asia.
higher by 2025. This falls well short of
the 25 per cent increase needed to keep Between 25 and 30 million hectares of
prices at the current level (Rosegrant and wheat in tropical and subtropical areas
Agcaoili, 2010). (including China, Bangladesh, Nepal, India,
Pakistan, Ethiopia, Sudan, Egypt, and
At the same time, climate-change-induced North Africa) are subject to yield losses
temperature increases are estimated to from heat stress. This area will increase
reduce wheat production in developing substantially, according to current trends
countries (where around 66% of all wheat and predictions about global warming.
is produced) by 20-30 per cent (Easterling South Asia’s Indo-Gangetic Plains region
et al., 2007; Lobell et al., 2008; Rosegrant is especially at risk. This breadbasket
and Agcaoili, 2010). Wheat production created by the Green Revolution currently
will also suffer the effects of stagnating accounts for 15 per cent of global wheat
or decreasing on-farm productivity, falling production and is inhabited by 900
irrigation water supplies, declining soil million people, or one-seventh of the
fertility, and threats from emerging diseases world population. It is now considered
and insect-pests. In irrigated cropping optimal for wheat farming but, even with
systems in Asia (wheat-rice; wheat-cotton carbon fertilization, between 26 per cent
and increasingly wheat-maize) wheat is and 51 per cent of this breadbasket may
often the crop with the lowest economic be transformed by 2020-2050 from being
value and farmers optimize yields of other the most favourable, high-yielding wheat
crops. Consequently, wheat is sown late production zone to a heat-stressed, short-
and at maturity more exposed to high season production zone. In India alone,
temperatures e.g. in the rice-wheat system
the heat-stressed wheat area is expected
of eastern India, remote sensing studies
to triple by 2050 and temperatures are
have shown that at least 60 per cent of
projected to rise as much as 3-4°C by the
the wheat area is planted late. Improving
end of the century. The greatest impacts
wheat’s adaptation to high temperatures in
will be in the Eastern Gangetic Plains, an
these systems would considerably benefit
area with high levels of rural and urban
subsistence farmers. In a survey among
poverty (Braun et al., 2010).
farmers in developing countries regarding
the impact of global climate change (GCC), The compounding impact of receding
farmers were not so much afraid of the groundwater table and increasing irrigation
impact on increasing temperature per se, cost, could result in the politically risky
but of the impact of climate extremes or prospect of South Asia having to import
irregularities on the timing of cropping as much as one-quarter to one-third of
operations, e.g. delay in sowing due to its wheat by 2050. Together, West Asia
late rains. The impact of GCC on diseases and North Africa have the highest per
and pests is reported elsewhere in this capita wheat consumption; their imports
publication. Developing wheat cultivars as well as yield losses and year-to-year
that are adapted to variable sowing times production swings will increase due to rising
and wheat cultivars with short growth temperatures, more severe weather extremes,
duration become, therefore, one of the and decreasing water availability.
Regional Scenario of Wheat in Asia 43
Climate change will increase the risk of often go together, this constitutes a strong
water deficits in most developing countries. argument for enhancing heat tolerance and
Of the three major staple crops, wheat is improving wheat’s water use efficiency.
the best adapted and most widely grown Significant advances in gene discovery and
commodity under semi-arid conditions. in understanding genotype environment
The majority of the 90 million hectares of interaction have been made through:
wheat grown in Asia is already experiencing development of precision phenotyping
temporary or permanent water scarcity, as tools for a range of physiological traits
a result of either inter- or intra-seasonal design of a new generation of experimental
rainfall variation (in rainfed systems) or populations; innovative approaches in
of temporary unavailability of irrigation statistical analysis and access to a vast
water. Today, already more than 300 database from international nurseries.
million people are fed with grain produced Major efforts are now underway to evaluate
from over-pumping. Current irrigation large germplasm collections for traits that
systems are frequently inefficient and potentially can contribute to increased heat
since water is often provided for free or and drought tolerance. NBPGR (India)
at insignificant costs, farmers have little is evaluating the Indian wheat collection
incentives to adopt more efficient systems. (26,000 accessions), CIMMYT is screening
To produce 1 kilogram grain, wheat requires all its genebank wheat accessions (ca 150
ca 900 litres water, maize 1,500 litres and 000 accessions) and so does ICARDA (ca
rice 1,800 litres, whereby tremendous 50 000 accessions). Similar efforts are
variation exists among irrigation systems underway in several other countries. To
and farmer’s practices. Using optimum develop databases that are compatible
agronomic practices, best available wheat to each other and that allow comparing
varieties and the irrigation technology, e.g. data – phenotypic and molecular – are,
laser leveling or drip irrigation, the water therefore, of paramount importance. A
consumption for wheat can be reduced major objective of the G20 Wheat Initiative
by 30-50 per cent to an optimum of is to establish such standards for interested
around 460 litres water per kg wheat grain wheat programs.
produced. Considering that agriculture Wheat is the crop to which the most
consumes globally more than 70 per nitrogen fertilizer is applied globally i.e.
cent of all sweet water and in Asia even 19 per cent of all nitrogen fertilizer. Of
more, investments in increasing irrigation the 90.9 million tons of nitrogen fertilizer
efficiency is paramount and the greatest used globally, 70 per cent is applied in
gains in increasing water use efficiency
the developing world, most of it in only
will initially come from improved irrigation
three countries: China, India, and Pakistan.
technology (agronomy and irrigation
Nitrogen-use efficiency (NUE = kg grain
systems).
/ kg N applied) in developing countries
Due to the relatively low value of wheat is commonly only around 33 per cent,
compared to other irrigated crops, wheat but it is economically feasible to increase
production is likely to expand in rainfed this level to 65 per cent. In rainfed
areas and the demand for water use areas, NUE is intricately linked to rainfall
efficient and drought tolerant lines will and decision guides linked to weather
greatly increase. Since heat and drought information for farmers are critical to
44 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
enough food during the coming decades, Food, fibre and forest products. In: Parry
investments in wheat research need to ML, Canziani OF, Palutikof JP, Van Der
be increased since in the absence of Linden PJ and Hanson CE (eds). Climate
Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and
unprecedented, coordinated measures to
Vulnerability. Contribution of Working
raise wheat productivity, wheat consumers
Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report
will pay more than twice of today’s prices of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
for their staple food by 2050 AD. Change. Multi-location Testing to Identify
Plant Response 137. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, UK, Pp 273–313.
References FAOSTAT (2010). http://faostat.fao.org/.
Dixon J, Braun HJ and Crouch J (2009). Lobell DB, Burke MB, Tebaldi C, Mastrandrea
Transitioning wheat research to serve the MD, Falcon WP and Naylor RL (2008).
future needs of the developing world. In: Supporting Online Material for: Prioritizing
Dixon J, Braun HJ and Kosina P (eds). Climate Change Adaptation Needs for
Wheat Facts and Futures 2009. Mexico, Food Security in 2030.
D.F. CIMMYT. Pp. 1-19.
Rosegrant MW and Agcaoili M (2010).
Easterling WE, Aggarwal PK, Batima P, Global food demand, supply, and price
Brander KM, Erda L, Howden SM, prospects to 2010. International Food
Kirilenko A, Morton J, Soussana JF, Policy Research Institute, Washington,
Schmidhuber J and Tubiello FN (2007). D.C., USA.
Increasing Wheat Productivity
The global food security depends on genetic grains in the last 30 years have
adequate production of food grains as amounted to 1.5 per cent per year, while
more than 70 per cent of energy intake the genetic gains needed are 2.0 per cent
comes from cereals which is the cheapest per year. The global average yield needed
source. Recently, the per capita food grain in 2025 would be 4 tons per hectare to
production has shown declining trend. meet the demand of wheat.
Also, the demand pattern is shifting from
The major production constraints globally
low priced cereals to high cost livestock
and in India are foliar disease, low fertilizer
products as source calories. This pattern
doses, soil pathogens and late planting.
necessitates increase in total grain supply
The accumulated reduction in productivity
involving decline in food demand but rising
could be as high as 25 per cent per year.
feed demand causing food-food competition
The major challenges in increasing wheat
intense. The small shortage can cause big
productivity are breaking yield barriers,
price shocks particularly in developing
bridging yield gaps, reducing losses due
countries and make market highly volatile.
to biotic stresses and improving adaptation
The food grain production in 2009 was
under climate change. In the case of
2,493.62 million tons globally compared to
South Asia, avoiding storage losses is of
pulses (64.05 mt), oilseeds (162.49 mt) and
paramount importance.
roots and tubers (735.8 mt). Cereals occupy
the largest arable area of 699.19 million The priority areas of research and
hectares. The global wheat production in development to increase wheat productivity
2009 was 684 million tons. The demand are investments in hybrid wheat, exploitation
for wheat in 2025 would be between of alien and related species, water use
800-1,000 million tons. The momentum of efficiency, high temperature tolerance
productivity growth is slowing down. The and pyramiding of disease resistance
Strategy for Increasing Wheat Productivity 47
genes. In global setting, the stripe rust and Super 152 by Shriram Fertilizer and
fungus (P. striiformis tritici) has caused Chemical Company (SFC) out of a set of
enormous damage in wheat production. germplasm provided by CIMMYT. These
Unless it is addressed properly and timely, varieties represent on the average 10
it has potential to destabilize wheat per cent higher yield than currently and
production from India to Morocco and widely grown cultivar PBW 343. This is
Ethiopia to Kazakhstan. I believe this a real breakthrough. However, in India,
regional consultation on ‘Improving Wheat wheat future depends on application of
Productivity in Asia’ has the responsibility a set of technologies involving breeding,
to warn NARS and governments of this integrated pest management (IPM), water
threat. If there is one most important R&D management, hybrid technology and
agenda requiring attention of International genetically modified (GM) wheat. In
Centers, NARS and donors, that would be conclusion, it is my strong conviction that
stripe rust threat. India, China, and the countries of West
It is to emphasize that conventional tool and Central Asia need to follow a set of
of plant breeding would continue to technological interventions which involve
play a major role in improving yields. genetic, agronomic, chemical, nutritional,
This has been recently demonstrated rotational and mechanization as it is now
by identification of varieties Super 172 routinely done by Australian farmers.
Genetic Resources to Boost Wheat Productivity
Collaborative efforts between and the need for wheat lines exhibiting
gene banks tolerance to terminal heat and specific
rust diseases.
zz Gene banks of different countries
have specific crop-based long-term This beginning nevertheless requires a
mandates that cannot be altered, specific paradigm shift in the functional
and hence benefit from each other’s model of NBPGR. The Bureau (applicable
experience (exchange of information to all gene banks) needs to be transformed
and material). from a mere service organization into
a vibrant research hub, that connects
zz Gene banks specialize in specific
breeders, pathologists, physiologists and
PGR management aspects such as
molecular biologists with a purpose of
cryopreservation, seed physiology,
enhanced utilization of the germplam and
herbarium, geographic information
productivity enhancement.
system (GIS) tools, taxonomy, in vitro
culture, pre-breeding, informatics, etc., NBPGR has planned for broadening
and hence benefit from each other’s genetic base by (i) augmenting trait-specific
expertise. germplasm from CIMMYT and ICARDA,
zz Collaboration can be in the form of: and other gene banks; (ii) enhancing pre-
(i) collaborative projects, e.g. screening breeding efforts in collaborative mode;
for terminal heat tolerance at different (iii) test the feasibility of novel breeding
locations, and (ii) starting centers of approaches including multi-parent mapping
excellence and exchange programs. populations; and (iv) employ genomic tools
to complement the efforts (e.g. Genome
wide association studies (GWAS).
India’s Approach
The National Gene Bank housed at NBPGR
holds about 400,000 accessions of which
NPBGR’s New Initiative
about 6 per cent belong to bread wheat. It is obvious that we need to begin
The wheat germplasm (22,000 accessions) with characterization and evaluation of
at NBPGR is about 2.5 per cent of the entire germplasm available in the Indian
worldwide wheat holdings. However, National Gene Bank. NBPGR started
availability of material from international with multiplying about 16,000 accessions
wheat nurseries for selection every year of wheat germplasm in kharif 2011
and incomplete characterization and (off-season) at IARI Regional Station,
absence of trait-specific evaluation of the Wellington.
wheat germplasm has led to inefficient
In a new initiative (Fig. 2), NBPGR has
utilization of wheat collections conserved
grown for the first time ~22,000 accessions
in the National Gene Bank.
of wheat germplasm conserved in the
NBPGR has accorded the highest priority National Gene Bank, at three locations.
to characterization and evaluation of wheat In the first experiment, two sets of 22,000
collections conserved in the National wheat germplasm, first set under normal
Gene Bank. This activity assumes greater sowing (during 1-5 December, 2011 and
significance in the face of climate change a second set under late sowing were
52 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
Wheat is an important cereal crop world- T. timopheevii and six hybrids based on
wide followed by rice. Globally, wheat is Ae. kotschyi had a 15 per cent advantage
grown on 217 million hectare area with over commercial pure line cultivars.
621 million tons of production whereas the
In India, the work on hybrid wheat at
area under wheat in India is 28.9 million
Maharashtra Hybrid Seeds Co. (MAHYCO)
hectares with 80.7 million tons of production
Ltd. started more than two decades ago.
(Rajaram, 2011). With the increase in the
Virmani and Edwards (1983) reported 15
demand for wheat, efforts are being made
different cytoplasm of the genera Triticum
to increase the productivity of the crop.
and Aegilops. MAHYCO is the only private
Development of hybrids in wheat by use of
sector institution in India working on hybrid
chemical hybridizing agents (CHA) is one wheat. At MAHYCO, efforts are being made
of the options (Mahajan and Nagarajan, to develop hybrids suitable for North-West
1998). Since the report of cytoplasmic Plain Zone, North-East Plain Zone and
male-sterility (CMS) by Wilson and Ross Central Zone. The first CMS-based hybrid
(1962), efforts were made in development was released in India (1996) by MAHYCO
of CMS-based hybrids. China, India, France, and proved the benefits of the heterosis
Germany and South Africa have all reported in wheat. The area under hybrid wheat in
activities in hybrid wheat breeding. At India was about 2,400 hectares during 2005
present, the area under hybrid wheat is (Matuschke and Quim, 2006). There is a
~ 300,000 hectares, where China is the need to identify heterotic cross combinations
leading country (Rajaram, 2011). He et al. so that the productivity of wheat can be
(1998) reported that the Chinese national increased. The research is in progress for
hybrid wheat network first emphasized the development of disease resistant parental
use of T. timopheevii CMS, but Ae. kotschyi lines in wheat. As rusts are important
and Ae. ventricosa were also being utilized. threats for wheat, development of rust
They reported that three hybrids based on tolerant lines is the priority.
Hybrid Wheat at MAHYCO 55
There are other biotic stresses, which are germplasm sources to have more options
becoming major bottlenecks in increasing for improved cultivars/hybrids farmers in
wheat yield. Apart from rusts, weeds are the years to come.
major constraints in sustainable wheat
production. The losses caused due to
weeds vary depending on the weed species, References
their density and environmental factors.
He ZH, Du ZH and Zhuang QS (1998).
The average losses caused by weeds in Progress of wheat breeding research in
wheat are about 25-30 per cent (Singh and China pp 47-53. In Wheat: Prospects
Chhokar, 2011). Use of selective herbicides for Global Improvement, H J Braun, F
is one of the common practices for control Altay, WE Kronstad, SPS Beniwal and A
of weeds. Glyphosate is a non-selective, McNab, eds. Ankara, 10-14 June. 1996,
systemic herbicide which gives broad Pp 47-53. Dordrecht, Netherlands, Kluwer
spectrum control of weeds. Development Academic Publishers.
of glyphosate tolerant wheat through Mahajan V and Nagarajan S (1998).
transgenic breeding will help farmers to Opportunities in hybrid wheat- A review.
control all types of weeds. PINSA, B 64(1): 51-58.
Matuschke I and Quim M (2006). Adoption
and impact of hybrid wheat in India. Paper
Challenges in Hybrid Wheat presented at the international association
of agricultural economists conference, Gold
Breeding
Coast, Australia, August 12-18, 2006.
The following challenges in hybrid Rajaram S (2011). Research and development
wheat breeding need to be addressed strategy to produce 100 million tons of
on priority: Wheat in India by 2030. pp 1-13. In:
Wheat productivity enhancement under
zz Non-availability of diverse cytoplasm changing climate. SS Singh, RR Hanchinal,
sources Gyanendra Singh, RK Sharma, BS Tyagi,
zz Assembling favourable genes from MS Saharan and Indu Sharma (eds.).
diverse genetic resources. Narosa publications, New Delhi, India.
interdependent interests and often they any, even if they are on a smaller scale.
are not in the best position to handle One of the successful examples of this
them on their own. In addition, the planning was initiating shuttle breeding
scope of regional collaboration is quite between Mexico-Kenya by CIMMYT using
logical due to presence of similar kind the earlier model of shuttle breeding within
of agro-ecological environments across Mexico. The results obtained in the Mexico-
countries, presence of similar cropping Kenya shuttle are even better in breeding
system (e.g. rice-wheat) in a big area, agronomically superior lines along with
same type of biotic and abiotic stresses resistance to stem rust race Ug99.
(the major being wheat rusts, drought and
heat), matching economy and presence of
variable level of research institutions with Existing Regional
each having some strength to support the Collaboration in Asia
other. Some countries lack infrastructure
for doing cutting edge science but their There are several regional collaborations
strategic location for testing the presence already going on in Asia mainly through
of a particular trait or as source of disease different projects of CIMMYT and ICARDA
inoculums requires their compulsorily that connect different nations. The major
inclusion. Therefore, there is need to work ones are: i) Cereal System Initiative in
together across countries and to develop South Asia (CSISA); ii) USAID Famine Seed
pragmatic solutions. Project; iii) HarvestPlus and iv) Borlaug
Global Rust Initiative (BGRI).
The necessity of regional collaboration in
wheat has assumed increasing importance CSISA project is funded by BMGF,
in recent years due to emergence of serious USAID and World Bank and involves
issues that were not present previously. four CGIAR institutions (IRRI, CIMMYT,
Some of these issues are: climate change ILRI and IFPRI) with traditional public
effects, resurgence of super races of disease research and development partners to
such as stem rust race Ug99, major yield medium-and large-scale companies,
losses caused by stripe rust in several farmers’ organizations, and NGOs in
countries, possibility of developing hybrid four South Asian countries – India,
wheat and overcoming legal hurdle in Nepal, Pakistan and Bangladesh (CSISA,
germplasm exchange. Although there is 2012). The purpose of the project is to
no single model or approach to regional decrease hunger and malnutrition and
collaboration, previous experiences can increase food and income security of
be used to think and act regionally. resource-poor farm families in South Asia
The first important and critical step will through the accelerated development and
be to determine the need for regional inclusive deployment of new varieties,
collaboration on a particular or more sustainable management technologies,
number of issues. It is not necessary and policies with respect to wheat, rice
that regional collaboration will work in and maize. This project provides an
all situations. Therefore, the best way to overall strategy and a new umbrella for
ensure its effective use will be to devote contributing new science and technologies
sufficient time for proper planning in a to accelerate cereal production growth
particular situation using success stories, if in South Asia’s most important regions
58 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
where major cereals (including wheat) are quality of life. The two major micronutrients
grown. The improved cultivars of wheat being focused by HarvestPlus in wheat
selected under conservation agriculture are iron and zinc and the two countries
practices are also being developed and presently targeted in Asia are India and
management concepts for future cereal Pakistan. In the first phase, donor lines
systems is being designed and evaluated, with high Zn and Fe were identified, while
alongside policy analysis and advocacy, in second phase advanced lines have
and capacity building at all levels. The been developed that are under evaluation
first phase (2009-11) is already completed in South Asia engaging both public and
with significant achievements. private sector with the aim to release a
variety by 2014.
To mitigate the threat of Ug99 and other
wheat rusts, a seed multiplication project Global Rust Initiative (GRI) was launched
‘Famine Seed Project’ supported by in 2005 and was later called the Borlaug
United States Agency for International Global Rust Initiative (BGRI) (BGRI, 2012).
Development (USAID) was implemented The objective of BGRI is to systematically
in Nepal, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Egypt, reduce the world’s vulnerability to wheat
Pakistan and Ethiopia (Joshi et al., 2011). rusts, facilitate the development of a
The objective was to have sufficient seed sustainable international system to contain
of resistant lines to plant at least 5 per the threat of wheat rusts, and continue the
cent of the total wheat area by 2011. enhancements in productivity required to
The major activities under this initiative, withstand future global threats to wheat
being implemented jointly by the national (BGRI 2012). Many wheat producing
wheat programs, CIMMYT, ICARDA and countries of the world including those in
BGRI are: i) identification of suitable Asia initiated activities in collaboration
Ug99 resistant varieties and their pre- with CIMMYT, ICARDA and BGRI, to
and post-release seed production; and identify and develop suitable resistant
ii) delivery of seed to farmers to ensure cultivars before race Ug99 establishes.
their rapid dissemination. The project The enormous effort put in at CIMMYT
ended in March, 2012 and has made and many other countries resulted in
significant impact by enabling fast track identification of promising sources of
release of agronomically superior Ug99 resistance, both race-specific and adult
resistant wheat varieties in participating plant and agronomically superior wheat
nations and by facilitating large scale seed varieties were developed with diverse and
production of these varieties. durable resistance (Singh et al., 2011).
Consequently, Ug99 resistant varieties
HarvestPlus is a global biofortification were released in many countries of
initiative within the Consultative Group on South Asia and Africa and large scale
International Agricultural Research (CGIAR)
seed dissemination was achieved (Joshi
to breed and disseminate crops for better
et al., 2011).
nutrition (Harvestplus, 2012). The goal
of HarvestPlus is to reduce micronutrient In addition to above, other regional
malnutrition among poor populations in collaborative mechanisms exist in Asia with
different countries including Asia thereby respect to wheat research and development.
improving food security and enhancing the For instance, rust monitoring is being
Regional Collaboration for Wheat in Asia 59
done through South Asian Association for regional priorities for enhancing wheat
Regional Cooperation (SAARC) nursery production in the region. This will help in
in South Asia. Likewise, joint survey and developing a common strategy to address
surveillance for rust and other diseases emerging problems by collaboration and
are also being done in South Asia and by learning from each other’s successes
central Asian countries. The implications of and failures. This in turn will lead
wheat rust on wheat production in different to enhanced wheat productivity and
countries at the national, regional and global production in Asia and thus improved
levels are being discussed through different livelihood of resource poor small holder
fora to formulate strategy to respond to farmers.
the emergency occurrence of wheat stripe
rust in current cycle 2011-12.
References
The Way Forward for BGRI (2012). Borlaug Global Rust Initiative.
http://globalrust.org verified 15th March,
Regional Collaboration in Asia 2012.
Since food security will be of major concern CSISA (2012). Cereal System Initiative for
in Asia, regional collaboration on emerging South Asia. http://csisaportal.org verified
challenges will play a crucial role. The future 15th March, 2012.
germplasm requirements will be mostly FAOSTAT (2012). http://www.fao.org verified
dictated by stresses caused by climatic 10th April, 2012.
change, emergence of new pathogen races, HarvestPlus (2012). http://www.harvestplus.org/
shrinking resources, widespread adoption verified 16th April, 2012.
of resource conservation technologies, and
Joshi AK, Azab M, Mosaad M, Moselhy M,
quality requirements. Although germplasm
Osmanzai M, Gelalcha S, Bedada G, Bhatta
requirements will vary from country to MR, Hakim A, Malaker PK, Haque ME,
country and also within countries, most Tiwari TP, Majid A, Kamali MRJ, Bishaw Z,
of the locations will need high yielding, Singh RP, Payne T and Braun HJ (2011).
adaptable genotypes with resistance to Delivering rust resistant wheat to farmers:
the three major rusts. In addition, heat A step towards increased food security.
and drought tolerant genotypes will be Euphytica 179: 187-196.
important in the future. Major wheat Singh RP and Trethowan R (2007). Breeding
growing countries in Asia should look spring bread wheat for irrigated and rainfed
forward for collaboration seeking short production systems of the developing
and long term solutions for the major world. In: Kang M, Priyadarshan PM (eds.)
problems. While stem and stripe rust may Breeding major food staples. Blackwell
demand greater attention, some countries Publishing, Iowa, USA. Pp 109–140.
can have collaboration for local issues Singh RP, Hodson DP, Huerta-Espino J, Jin
such as spot blotch of wheat in South Y, Bhavani S, Njau P, Herrera-Foessel
Asia (India, Nepal and Bangladesh) and S, Singh PK, Singh S and Govindan V
Sunn pest for Central Asia. (2011). The emergence of Ug99 races of
the stem rust fungus is a threat to world
Regional collaboration will be useful for wheat production. Annual Review of
knowledge sharing and assessment of Phytopathology 49: 465–81.
Wheat in Bangladesh
production and requirement is huge for demand of about 3.60 million tons. The
these commodities which needs to be consumption rate of wheat is increasing
narrowed to face the great challenges in at the rate of 3 per cent per year. So,
meeting the food and nutritional security wheat is playing an important role to
of the country. ensure food and nutritional security in the
Bangladesh is traditionally a rice growing country. Therefore, to meet the growing
country and wheat was a nontraditional demand of wheat, Bangladesh needs to
crop in this country up to early seventies. import at least 2.60 million tons of wheat
Bangladesh has become a wheat growing grain every year.
country by mid eighties through a massive Wheat in Bangladesh is mainly grown
wheat production program that initiated in rotation with rice. About 85 per cent
in 1975-76. A rapid dietary change has area of wheat is grown after harvesting of
also taken place so that wheat rose to transplanted Aman rice. Wheat-rice-rice,
prominence in diet within a time span wheat-fallow-rice, wheat-jute/legumes-rice,
of only a decade. With the growing are the common wheat based cropping
demand of food and use of wheat in patterns in Bangladesh. Moreover, about
diversified ways, it stands as the second 50 per cent of the wheat area (about 0.20
most important cereal crop next to rice m ha) is late sown due to late harvest of
in Bangladesh. transplanted Aman rice that encounters
Wheat is rich in nutritional value than heat stress during grain-filling period. So,
rice having high protein (12-14%), high sustainability of the rice-wheat system has
fibre, minerals and vitamins. Wheat has become a critical issue for agricultural
very good industrial and commercial value research in Bangladesh.
due to its easy utilization and marketing Considering the population increase,
and about 50 items of food products present and foreseeable crop production
of wheat are available. Wheat straw is constraints, availability of natural
durable and used for thatching purpose, resources, agro-ecological conditions
cottage industries, as pulp for paper mills and government’s policies related to
and feed for cattle. Wheat crop needs less agriculture, renewed research thrust was
water than rice and can be grown without given to different commodities to generate
irrigation (in rainfed condition, or with technologies on a long term basis to meet
residual moisture in heavy soil, or in the the future challenges.
area where water table is shallow) where
soil moisture is enough to complete its life
cycle. In the crop fields, insect infestation Area, Production and
is negligible. Disease infection is less in Productivity of Wheat
wheat crop and the modern varieties are and Other Food Crops in
tolerant or resistant to the major foliar
diseases. Wheat cultivation needs very
Bangladesh
less or almost no use of pesticides. So, Rice is the predominant crop in Bangladesh
wheat is an environment friendly crop. occupying 78.25 per cent of the total
Currently, Bangladesh is producing one cropped area. The rest 21.75 per cent
million ton of wheat against the national area is covered by all other crops.
62 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
Year Area Production Yield Area Production Yield Area Production Yield
(‘000 ha) (‘000 t) (t/ha) (‘000 ha) (‘000 t) (t/ha) (‘000 ha) (‘000 t) (t/ha)
Wheat Maize Potato
2000-01 773 1670 2.16 4 10 2.25 249 3216 12.92
2001-02 742 1610 2.17 20 64 3.23 238 2994 12.60
2002-03 706 1504 2.13 29 117 4.01 245 3386 13.80
2003-04 642 1252 1.95 50 241 4.80 271 3908 14.43
2004-05 559 976 1.75 67 356 5.33 326 4856 14.88
2005-06 479 735 1.53 98 522 5.31 301 4161 13.81
2006-07 400 737 1.84 151 902 5.97 345 5167 14.96
2007-08 388 844 2.18 224 1346 6.01 402 6648 16.54
2008-09 395 849 2.15 128 730 5.69 396 5268 13.32
2009-10 376 901 2.93 152 887 5.83 435 7930 18.24
2010-11 374 972 2.60 227 1552 6.84 460 8326 18.10
Aman rice Aus rice Boro rice
2000-01 5713 11249 1.97 1326 1916 1.45 3764 11921 3.17
2001-02 5650 10726 1.90 1243 1808 1.46 3773 11766 3.12
2002-03 5685 11115 1.96 1244 1850 1.49 3846 12222 3.18
2003-04 5680 11520 2.03 1203 1832 1.52 3945 12838 3.25
2004-05 5282 9819 1.86 1025 1500 1.46 4066 13837 3.40
Wheat Production for Food Security in Bangladesh
2005-06 5431 10810 1.99 1035 1745 1.69 4068 13975 3.44
2006-07 5418 10841 2.00 906 1512 1.67 4260 14965 3.51
2007-08 5050 9662 1.91 919 1507 1.64 4610 17762 3.85
2008-09 5500 11152 2.03 1066 1895 1.78 4718 17809 3.77
2009-10 5665 12207 2.15 985 1709 1.74 4709 18059 3.84
63
2010-11 5645 12791 2.27 1112 2133 1.92 4770 18617 3.90
64 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
zz More than 300 operators, advanced average yield is expected to be at least 3.0
growers, agricultural officers, NGOs tons per hectare. However, the average yield
are trained on operation, maintenance in varietal demonstration trials during the
and trouble shooting of these resource last few years at farmers’ field was 3.0-3.5
conservation technologies (RCTs). tons per hectare. The mean yield of new
varieties so far recorded at research stations
with optimum management is 4.5 tons per
Seed Production hectare, while the maximum yield with new
variety and recommended management so
Wheat Research Center of BARI produced
far achieved in the farmer’s field is 6.5 tons
nucleus seed for variety maintenance,
per hectare. So, huge yield gap remains
breeder seed for supply to seed producing
between varietal yield potentiality and
agencies and truthfully labelled seed farmers’ yield which should be minimized
(TLS). During 2010-11, nucleus seeds of to enhance wheat productivity. There are
4 varieties Bijoy, Prodip, BARI Gom 25 many reasons behind such yield gap most
and BARI Gom 26 were produced each of which are due to continuous rice-wheat
in 0.25 hectare of land area. In total, 50 rotation, late planting, depletion of soil
tons breeder seeds and 40 tons TLS were nutrients, formation of plough pan restricting
produced. During 2011-12, a total of 16 proper root growth, sterility in wheat due
hectare land was under seed production to micronutrient deficiency especially B,
of Prodeep, BARI Gom 25 and BARI etc. Wheat planted late i.e. beyond 30
Gom 26 with each 5 hectares each and November (1 st week of December for
Bijoy 1 hectare. A total amount of 50 tons northern region) often encounters high
breeder seed was supplied to Bangladesh temperatures during grain filling period
Agricultural Development Corporation resulting in reduced yield @ 1.3 per cent
(BADC) this year. for each day delay (Saunders, 1988). The
rate of yield loss is significantly higher in
southern areas. Various biotic and abiotic
Constraints in Productivity constraints and other factors associated
Enhancement and Emerging with decrease in wheat productivity are
Challenges given below:
the variety, time of sowing and agronomic during and after heading. None of the
management. New wheat varieties have cultivars and advanced lines has been
moderate to good level of tolerance to found to be completely free from the
this disease. disease, but considerable variability in
incidence of the disease exists among
Leaf rust: Leaf rust caused by Puccinia
them. Spraying with Tilt 250 EC (0.05%),
triticina Eriks. (Puccinia recondita f. sp.
once at heading and another at 15 days
tritici) is considered as the second most
later, can minimize the incidence of the
important disease of wheat in Bangladesh
disease. Studies have been initiated to
but yield losses are usually small, but
generate detailed information on this
can be severe if a susceptible variety is
disease.
grown and infection occurs early in the
crop season. Recently developed wheat Rodents: Rats cause serious damage to
varieties are resistant to the existing leaf the crop throughout the growth period.
rust population in Bangladesh. However, Necessary measures should be undertaken
Prodip released in 2005 has become to control the rats from the beginning.
susceptible to leaf rust particularly under Rats could be controlled by using poison
late sown condition. baits, traps, water, smokes, etc.
Black point: Black point of wheat is a Birds: Birds causes seed and seedling
disease of grain. It is considered as a major damage up to 10-12 days after sowing and
problem for production and marketing of reduces the plant population to a greater
wheat seed. In order of prevalence, the extent. Measures should be ensured to
major fungi associated with the black drive out the birds up to 10-12 days after
point disease are B. sorokiniana, Alternaria seeding to avoid the seed and seedling
alternata, Curvularia lunata, Fusarium damage by birds.
spp. and Cladosporium cladosporioides.
Severity of the disease increases if rain
occurs or humid condition prevails during Abiotic constraints
grain filling period. Seed germination is
Heat stress: High temperature is one of
reduced depending on severity of infection,
the major constraints of wheat production
particularly when B. sorokiniana and/or
in Bangladesh (CIMMYT, 1995). Wheat
Fusarium spp. are involved. Occurrence
is sensitive to temperature increases
of black point may be avoided to a large
but the intensify of effects depends
extent if the crop is harvested (without
on variety, and stage of development.
delay after maturity) before rain or humid
Increasing temperatures usually hasten crop
weather.
development and shorten the grain filling
Head blight: Head blight or ear-head duration, which severely reduces grain
infection caused by B. sorokiniana is yield. Late sown wheat is more affected
becoming an important disease of wheat by heat stress. IPCC (2000) predicted
in Bangladesh. It usually affects one or 1.8-4.0°C temperature increase by the
more spikelets of an individual ear-head. end of 21st century. In sub-tropical and
Severely infected spikelets do not bear tropical regions, wheat is often already
any seed inside the florets. The disease near its limit of maximum temperature
is favoured by warm and humid weather tolerance, so temperature increase of
68 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
1-2°C will reduce wheat yield in future. significant yield loss. WRC has recommended
Therefore, high yielding varieties with soil amendment through applying dolomite
greater adaptation to high temperature lime @ 1-2 tons per hectare once in 3
need to be developed for sustaining and years. It enhances more than 20 per cent
increasing wheat production in this region. yield of wheat (Anonymous, 2010).
About 50 per cent wheat in Bangladesh is
Salinity: It is a major constraint in
late sown due to late harvest of transplanted
expanding wheat in southern region where
Aman rice and faces heat stress during
salinity during sowing time varies from
grain filling period and produces smaller
3.0 to as high as 15 dS/m. Most of the
grains than in optimum sowing.
wheat varieties can tolerate salinity level
Drought stress: Water scarcity for of 6-8 dS/m at seedling stage. The variety
irrigation is very common in many areas BARI Gom 25 can tolerate salinity up to
of Bangladesh and ground water table is 10 dS/m at seedling stage (Saifuzzaman et
rapidly declining. Even irrigated wheat is al., 2010). Therefore, varieties with higher
facing temporary drought stress in critical degree of salinity tolerance at seedling
growth phases like tillering, booting and stage should be developed for achieving
grain filling that reduces wheat yield. good yield in saline belt.
Global climate change may induce more
droughts in future. So, emphasis should
be given to develop varieties combining Approaches for Meeting the
high yield potential with tolerance to Challenges Including Climate
severe drought. Change
Water logging: Wheat plant cannot zz Develop high yielding varieties with
withstand water logging at seedling stage greater adaptation to changing climatic
especially at crown root initiation stage. situation-terminal heat stress, drought,
Over irrigation at this stage followed by salinity, spike sterility, etc.
rain may cause water logging. It causes zz Develop lodging resistant varieties
yellowing of leaves and stunted growth having high input use efficiency
and results in low yield.
zz Improved resistance /tolerance to spot
Spike sterility: Spike sterility frequently blotch and leaf rust disease in new
occurs in the light soil of north-western part varieties
of Bangladesh causing significant yield loss zz Continued screening of germplasm
in some years. Sterility is presumed to be against Ug99 race of stem rust in Kenya
associated with low soil fertility, especially through CIMMYT collaboration as a
deficiency of boron. Some environmental measure to mitigate the future threat
factors such as low light intensity, high zz Survey and monitoring for new diseases
humidity, foggy weather at anthesis are and new races of pathogens
likely to enhance spike sterility.
zz Germplasm collecting and evaluation
Soil acidity: Soils of north-western of exotic germplasm against specific
Bangladesh are light textured and acidic stresses
in nature (pH 4.5-5.0). It reduces the zz Strengthen physiological traits based
availability of P to the crops causing breeding program
Wheat Production for Food Security in Bangladesh 69
drought, salinity (straw retention and zz Ug99 Famine Fund Seed Multiplication
residue management, bed planting) Project (CIMMYT/USAID)
zz Choosing profitable cropping patterns zz Food for Progress Program in
to sustain and improve soil fertility Bangladesh- Lime and Raised Bed
zz Efficient irrigation scheduling to Component (USDA/CU)
optimize water use zz Global Cereal Rust Monitoring under
zz Developing and refining improved BGRI Initiative
management packages for attaining zz Sending advanced lines and
high yield goal segregating generations to KARI,
Kenya for testing their resistance to
Ug99 race and its variants of stem rust
Farm machinery
pathogen under BGRI/CIMMYT
zz Improving small scale farm machinery
(PTOS, reaper, bed planter)
zz Encouraging new entrepreneurs to Conclusion
design and fabricate efficient farm As winter loving crop, global climatic change
machinery
will affect wheat production unless necessary
zz Introducing resource conservation measures are not taken well. Among the
technologies (RCTs) at farm level biotic factors, new races of diseases may
become more virulent. Intensity of abiotic
stresses like heat, drought, salinity, etc. will
Quality seed production
be enhanced affecting the productivity of
zz Strengthening variety maintenance wheat in future. Due to climate change in
program to produce quality breeder future, there will be scarcity of water during
seed of new varieties wheat season and crop will be exposed to
zz Ensuring the supply of quality seeds more frequent droughts. Wheat production
of the new varieties to the farmers can be increased through vertical expansion
and private seed producers by improving wheat productivity as well
as horizontal expansion where feasible.
There is a scope to increase wheat area in
Socioeconomic Studies southern belt, in eastern part (Sylhet) and in
zz Policy intervention to encourage wheat Barind area (Rajshahi) where thousands of
production in areas where underground hectares of land remain fallow during winter.
water table is going down alarmingly Therefore, the following recommendations
instead of boro rice cultivation may be considered to sustain and increase
zz Under taking economic study of wheat production in Bangladesh:
profitability of wheat cultivation as zz Water table is going down every
compared to the competing crops year and the annual precipitation is
also reducing due to global climatic
International collaboration change. So, water is going to be scarce
in future. Wheat may become more
zz CSISA-CIMMYT collaboration for wheat important cereal than rice in such
breeding and technology transfer situation as wheat requires much less
72 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
water than rice. So, more efforts should Collaboration with CIMMYT should be
be made to expand wheat cultivation further strengthened in this regard.
in such areas. Simultaneously, artificial
recharge of ground water table also
needs to be done. References
zz Since, there is ver y high crop Ahmed SM and Meisner CA (1996). Wheat
competition in traditional wheat area, research and development in Bangladesh.
wheat can be expanded in barind area Australian Agency for International
Development (AusAID)/International Wheat
of Rajshahi, southern belt and greater
and Maize Improvement Center CIMMYT)-
Sylhet district, where abundant land
Bangladesh: Dhaka, Bangladesh.
remains fallow in the winter. Fallow land
in southern Bangladesh during winter Anonymous (2010). Annual report of Wheat
was estimated to be more than 400,000 Research Center, BARI, Nashipur,
Dinajpur.
hectares which is suitable for growing
wheat (Rawson et al., 2011). BBS (2011). Handbook of Agricultural Statistics.
Published by Bureau of Statistics, Ministry
zz Collaborative research work with
of Finance, Bangladesh.
CIMMYT needs to be strengthened in
the field of breeding varieties for heat CIMMYT (1995). CIMMYT/NARS Consultancy
stress, salinity, drought, etc. Continued on ME1 Bread Wheat Breeding. Wheat
Special Report No. 38. CIMMYT, Mexico,
support is needed to develop disease
D.F.
resistant variety especially against the
virulent races. FAO (2008). Adapting to Climate Change -
World Food Day, 16 October, 2008.
zz There is a need to strengthen more
collaboration with directorate of MoF (Ministry of Finance) (2009). Bangladesh
agricultural extension and other Economic Review 2007-2008. Ministry of
Finance, Govt. of Bangladesh (website).
agencies for rapid dissemination of
new varieties and technologies to the Rawson HM, Carberry PS, Hossain ABS,
farmers. and Saifuzzaman M (2011). Background
to wheat in southern Bangladesh: The
zz Regional cooperation needs to be challenges to increasing wheat production.
strengthened among the countries for ACIAR Technical Report No. 78. ACIAR:
technology generation. Canberra. Sustainable intensification of
zz Human resource development i.e. rabi cropping in southern Bangladesh
training of wheat scientists is very using wheat and Mungbean Rawson H.M.
Pp 14-30.
much important to face future research
challenges and needs to be given a Saifuzzaman M, Barma, NCD, Hossain ABS,
thrust. Rawson HM, Kabir Z, Rahman MM and
Dalgliesh NP (2010). How to grow wheat in
zz Participatory adaptive research in the southern Bangladesh and fit into timely
farmers’ field should be strengthened annual sequence with other crops. ACIAR/
for upscaling of technologies and also CIMMYT/ WRC, BARI publication.
for reducing yield gap.
Saunders DA (1988). Crop management
zz Well trained scientists and well equipped research: summary of results, 1983-88.
laboratory facilities are prerequisite Monograph No. 5: Wheat Research Center,
to start biotechnological research. Dinajpur, Bangladesh.
Wheat in China
and wheat-rice rotations are the dominant 3,200 companies – only 4 giant ones crush
crop systems in Yellow and Huai Valleys between 5,000 to 18,500 tons per day,
and Yangtze Region, respectively. 50 more than 1,000 tons per day and the
last ones much less.
About 70 per cent of the national production Many factors contributed to this increase
was concentrated in the provinces of from 1949, including adoption of improved
Henan, Shandong, Hebei, Anhui and cultivars with eight rounds of varietal
Jiangsu, where 70 per cent of wheat is changes, expansion of improved crop
still consumed in mid-North China. In management, significant increase in
2012, the Chinese milling industries gather irrigation, fertilizers and mechanized
operations, and improved rural policies has been moved to northern China
since 1978. Agricultural policy reform in due to the expansion of conservation
the early 1980s largely stimulated wheat technology under wheat-maize rotation
production, and 123 tons of harvested system. Toxicity caused by head scab
grain was recorded in 1997. Farmers is a big concern for food safety reason.
have replaced their wheat cultivars 6-8 Multiple durable resistance offered by
times in the major wheat areas during Yr18 and Yr29 could reduce the risk
the past 60 years. Wheat area, however, of resistance breakdown for stripe rust
has declined from 30 million hectares to and powdery mildew.
around 24 million hectares at present, zz Maize/wheat competition, with drastic
largely due to the policy of increasing crop spring wheat acreage reduction which
diversity, high yield and high profitability is replaced by maize; hybrid rice/wheat
of maize, elimination of guaranteed pricing competition in the South
policies in South China and spring wheat zz Small farm size (0.65 ha), strong
regions. competition between grain and cash
crops, as well as farmer’s interest
shifting to non-farming activities
Challenges and Opportunities
zz Urbanization and differences of revenues
The main current production constraints between urban and rural areas having
are as follow: for consequence a significant input
increase, especially human costs
zz Shortage of water is a major limiting
factor for wheat production in China,
particularly in the northern part of Other Emerging Trends in
Yellow and Huai Valley, i.e., the Production
provinces of Hebei and Shandong.
Another impor tant constraint is There are several other emerging trends
heavy water pollution. Irrigation in production which are as follows:
has been reduced from 4-5 times zz Seedling rate increase due to promotion
to 2-3 times during wheat season, of zero-tillage, with lodging becoming
therefore, combination of new varieties a problem
with outstanding performance under
zz Irrigations reduced from 4-5 times to
reduced irrigated conditions and
2-3 times
water saving technology such as bed
planting will be crucial for increasing zz Investment needs for accelerating the
productivity in China mechanization, as lots of farmers move
to urban areas
zz Sharp eye spot and take-all have
become the major diseases and no zz More concerns about food safety/
significant progress has been made security, quit flour bleaching with flour
in developing resistant varieties. colour becoming a critical breeding
Integration of pathology and breeding, goal
or development of GM wheat will Global warming advanced the heading
eventually provide great opportunity date by 7-10 days in northern China,
for improving resistance. Head scab but maturity period remains basically
76 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
unchanged. Wheat type has changed in new cultivars such as Zhoumai 18 and
response to rising temperature, facultative Zhongmai 175 supports this approach.
type replaced winter type and spring type The significant increase in grain yield in
has replaced facultative type. Therefore, a China mainly occurred in the early 1980s,
positive effect on yield was observed due largely due to the successful utilization
to the extended grain filling period. Winter of dwarfing genes and the incorporation
wheat also replaced spring wheat in Gansu of the 1B1R translocation. However, it
and Ningxia and it shows 20 per cent yield is very unlikely that further reduction in
advantage and benefits for the following plant height will benefit yield progress.
crops. However, significant temperature Most current leading cultivars have
and rainfall fluctuations observed during plant heights around 75-85 centimeters,
the last few years may have negative effect suggesting that combinations of Rht-B1b
on wheat production, i.e. the drought of or Rht-D1b with Rht8 confer optimal plant
last years in Yunnan. Improvement of height for those regions. Combination of
tolerance to high temperature and drought, Rht-B1b with Rht8 is suggested in Zone III.
and multi-location testing will benefit the The GA-insensitivity genes Rht-B1b and
development of widely adapted varieties Rht-D1b have pleiotropic effects on plant
under changing environment. growth, causing reduction in coleoptile
Combination of elite cultivars, good quality length and seedling leaf area. Other
seeds and improved crop management dwarfing genes such as Rht 8 and Rht 9
are the main approaches for meeting the that do not confer GA insensitivity may,
productivity challenge. In breeding, yield therefore, be more suitable in reducing
potential has always been the top priority. final plant height without compromising
It remains the top priority in China. The early plant growth. Other innovative
significant genetic improvement in grain approaches such as derived synthetic
yield in China were primarily attributed to lines have sometimes been used with a
increased kernel weight per spike, reduced great success, i.e. in Sichuan. Until today,
plant height, and increased harvest index, hybrid approaches in wheat have been
and partly attributed to the combination less successful in commercialization than
of Chinese and foreign germplasm. Large in rice or maize.
kernel size is generally preferred in China The use of new seed ranges from 10-80
and it is associated with fast grain filling per cent in different provinces. In crop
under high temperatures, which are very management, delayed sowing and early
common in northern China after anthesis. wheat harvest allows the possibility to
Therefore, thousand kernel weight (TKW) is increase the maize yield in mid-North
an important selection criterion in Chinese China, with an excellent productivity of
wheat breeding programs. Considering the wheat/maize rotation system, 13-15 tons
limited potential to further increase of TKW per hectare per year. Crop management
in Chinese environments, and the trends of enhancement includes promotion of
reducing spike number per unit area, it is conservation agriculture and water saving
generally believed that further increase of technology such as bed planting.
kernels per spike (even 2-3 kernels) could
offer an opportunity for increasing grain Quality breeding has been very successful
yield potential. Experience in developing in the last 10-15 years. Initially, Chinese
Wheat Production and Technology Improvement in China 77
wheat was not suitable for mechanized with the Shandong AAS in Jinan, the
production, but now it has become possible. Sichuan Academy of Agricultural Science
Improvement of quality still remains a in Chengdu, and the Gansu Academy of
great challenge in China. Pan bread and Agricultural Science in Lanzhou. Around
noodles are the targeted products for 100 available markers, including those
northern China and soft wheat is targeted developed by other programs around the
for southern China. In addition to gluten world, targeting traits including quality,
quality, improvement of colour and starch disease resistance, plant height, and
property is crucial for high noodle quality adaptation. Currently, molecular markers
wheat. It is expected that demand for are used to characterize cross the parents,
good quality wheat will increase with the improve selection efficiency in segregating
rapidly increasing consumption of fast populations of backcrosses, and confirm
foods, such as instant and frozen noodles, the presence of targeted genes in advanced
and western products, such as bread and lines.
cookies. It is estimated that market demand
is already for more than 20 million tons of Chinese scientists started to work on GM
good quality wheat, suitable for noodles, wheat in the early 1990s, and a national
dumplings, western breads, cookies and wheat GM project was initiated in 2008
cakes. This represents around 20 per cent with involvement of major breeding
of the national production and over 50 per programs. This project with excellent
cent of the commercial wheat. In addition funding support is designed for 15 years.
to good quality cultivars, the industry will The targeted traits include resistance to
require appropriate production systems, biotic and abiotic stresses such as drought
improved quality testing, and adequate and pre-harvesting sprouting, processing
grain segregation and storage capacity. quality for improving gluten strength and
Experience has shown that a combination starch parameters, and yield potential.
of high grain yield and excellent industrial Significant progress has been made in
quality is possible, as exemplified by Jimai improving drought tolerance and resistance
20 and Yumai 34, leading cultivars in to pre-harvesting sprouting. Field trials
Shandong and Henan, respectively. But, are being conducted in several institutes
small farmers (around 0.7 ha) face great and it is expected that rapid progress will
challenges in producing stable commercial be achieved in the near future. China
wheat varieties. is also part of the world wheat genome
sequencing project.
Molecular markers have great potential
in improving breeding efficiency if they In addition, it is emphasized that
can be integrated with conventional governmental policy supports have also
breeding programs. In addition to been constant from 2003 on following
validating molecular markers from other aspects:
programs around the world, the CAAS-
zz End of agricultural quota system
CIMMYT (International Maize and Wheat
Improvement Center in Mexico) joint zz Support for crop production at the
wheat program takes a leading role rate of $ 200 per hectare
in molecular marker development and zz Subsidized elite seeds and
application, through close collaboration mechanization
78 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
sections and private-public partnership will and in wheat quality through its public
make significant contributions to increase research and cooperation with CIMMYT.
the productivity. Further yield increase at stable or slightly
decreasing acreage must be achieved in the
For decades, repeated attempts have been
future under less input conditions whatever
made to develop non-GM hybrid wheat
the evolution of the global warming. In
systems, and China remains a major, if
this perspective, conventional breeding
not the main world player in this sector.
and selection assisted by markers will
Several breeding teams had been working
continue to play a crucial role, as well
with various types of cytoplasmic male
as the improvement field management
sterility systems based on alien cytoplasm,
systems through the country. After 40
genic male sterility, and gametocides.
years of hybrid wheat research, there is no
Following the success of hybrid rice, hybrid
significant commercial progress. However,
wheat breeders are trying to develop two-
this goal is achievable as in maize and
line hybrid wheat systems that exploit
rice without complementary use of gene
differential plant responses to different engineering. The question remains open
thermo-and photo-period environments. in China as in other countries. Potentially,
Even with further progress in the science, Chinese GM wheat tolerant to drought
commercial hybrid wheat will be delayed would tremendously secure the China’s
as we will need to bridge the gap between wheat production and a GM hybrid would
the breeding nursery and the farmer’s field. offer higher yield regularity.
However, if successfully developed, hybrid
wheat would undoubtedly contribute a
significant production increase. Suggested Readings
With a significant investment in wheat El-Shehawy MA, Ahmed RA and Lu Q (2011).
biotechnology, it is expected that both Production Trends of China’s Wheat (1990-
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leading conventional breeding programs. (eds) (2001). A History of Wheat Breeding
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breeding programs and international
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Wheat in India
(bread wheat) is contributing approximately field testing sites which are located in six
95 per cent to total production while wheat growing zones of the country. Wheat
another 4 per cent comes from durum crop in India is grown under six diverse
wheat and one per cent from Dicoccum. agro-climatic zones (Fig. 2), wherein Indo-
The organized wheat research in India Gangetic Plains (IGPs) comprising the North
started more than hundred years ago after Western Plains Zone (NWPZ) and the North
the joining of Sir Howards as the Imperial Eastern Plains Zone (NEPZ) form the major
Botanist at Pusa (Bihar) in 1905. wheat tract followed by the Central Zone
(CZ) and the Peninsular Zone (PZ). This
The main strength of AICW&BIP had been
classification of zones has been based on
its multidisciplinary and multilocational climatic conditions, soil types and growing
approach adopted in car r ying out duration of wheat. During wheat growing
comprehensive research in the field of season, the expected changes in climatic
wheat improvement. The multi-disciplines factors, viz., precipitation/winter rains,
are Crop Improvement (Breeding, Genetics minimum and maximum temperature,
& Physiology); Crop Protection (Pathology, wind velocity and its direction, sun shine
Entomology & Nematology); Resource hours, etc. need to be determined before
Management (Agronomy & Soil Science), making a drastic change in the future
Quality (Cereal Chemistry) and Social breeding strategies. However, realizing the
Science (Statistics, Extension & Economics). vast variation in the climate in different
There are 32 funded centers primarily regions of India, the ongoing programs are
located at different State Agricultural tuned to address even the micro-niche as
Universities (SAUs). In all, there are well as the region specific needs. Similarly,
107 wheat scientists in position at these modern varieties and matching production
centers. Besides, nearly 250 more scientists and protection technologies are being
are associated with field testing program developed across the country to mitigate
across the country. There are around 155 the possible anticipated effects.
Wheat Improvement in India 83
Among these, the landmark varieties like The strength of Indian wheat program
Kalyansona, Sonalika, C 306, WL 711, can also be visualized by the suitability
UP 262, WH 147, HD 2189, HD 2009, of Indian germplasm in Asian, African
Lok 1, HUW 234, HD 2329, VL 616, and Mediterranean regions of the world.
HD 2285, GW 496, HI 8498, GW 322, It is fascinating to note that some of the
WH 542, PBW 343, UP 2338, HD 2733, landmark varieties (NP 4, Kalyansona
DBW 17, etc. dominated and occupied and Sonalika etc.) became popular in
larger area due to wider adaptability, high more than one country. At present, good
yield potential, disease resistance, better choice of improved varieties is available
grain quality, etc. It is also worthwhile to farmers for growing under different
to mention here that a total of 34 four production conditions (Table 3).
varieties developed in Indian wheat
program benefited other countries of Besides, 136 trait-specific genetic stocks of
the world by their adoption, adaptation wheat and triticale have also been identified
and multiplication leading to commercial and registered (Table 4) for utilization
production (Table 2). Many of these in hybridization program. These include
varieties and other genetic stocks shared donors for resistance/ tolerance to major
under collaborative research projects have biotic and abiotic stresses, primary yield
been utilized as one of the parents in component, grain quality attributes, CMS
developing high yielding wheats by these lines, etc. Seeds of all these genetic stocks
countries (Table 2). have been maintained in the National
Contd...
Wheat Improvement in India 85
Table 2 (Contd.)
Table 3. Improved varieties of wheat for different zones and production conditions
due to slowing down the pace of yield yield. Effects of increased CO2 on wheat
improvement in the form of new varieties yields will normally be positive but benefits
developed during last one decade. The will vary with the prevailing temperature
increase in productivity which is treated as regime and availability of other inputs
real indicator of yield potential of varieties (water and nutrients). Whether such
also showed the same trend. In the first benefits will offset negative effects of
instance, the increase in productivity warming is, therefore, a critical issue for
jumped from 100 to 139 per cent during any assessment of wheat production under
1975-84 and it remained unchanged during changed climate. It is established that
the next decade of 1985-94, but later on many physiological traits / parameters,
came down to 122 per cent (1995-04) and viz., grain filling duration (GFD), canopy
104 per cent (2005-09). Therefore, from temperature (CT) have strong correlation
research point of view, the level of gain with terminal heat tolerance (THT). It is
in the genetic potential of grain yield of assumed that reduced GFD will avoid
futuristic wheat varieties has to be pushed the damage done due to terminal heat
up for achieving the vertical increase in stress, while a low CT will help the plant
wheat production because there is little withstand terminal heat stress. In view of
this, both GFD and CT have been used
scope for further horizontal expansion of
while selecting for higher wheat yields under
area under wheat.
high temperature at the time of maturity
Adverse effects of climate change: and thus can be effectively utilized for
It is obvious that any significant change QTL analysis as parameters for terminal
in climate will have impact on agriculture heat tolerance.
or in food production as these two Water scarcity and drought tolerance
are interrelated. Increase in ambient for yield enhancement in drier areas:
temperature may lead to shorten crop Water is becoming a limiting factor
duration, increase crop respiration rates, in production all over the country. In
affect the survival and distribution of pest wheat, irrigation scheduling is followed
populations, hasten nutrient mineralization depending on the availability of water.
in soils, decrease fertilizer use efficiencies Excess utilization of ground water in dry
and increase evapo-transpiration. It is areas has led to depletion of underground
anticipated that the adverse effects on water and farmers are expecting to get
wheat productivity and total production reasonable grain yield with sub-optimal
may be felt in the long run. irrigation. Through restricted irrigation
Heat stress: Heat stress is a major abiotic experiments, it has been found that a
stress limiting yield. Wheat is sensitive to single post sown irrigation under rainfed
high temperature (both early and late heat) condition can double the grain yield of
but magnitude of damage will depend on many of the wheat genotypes. Drought or
background ambient temperature, stage moisture stress is another important factor
of development and variety. Extremes of determining area under wheat cultivation
temperature at sensitive developmental vis-à-vis total wheat production in the
stages are especially detrimental as country. Considerable area (86%) sown
temperatures above 300C around anthesis under wheat has an access to irrigation,
can damage pollen formation and reduce however, crop sown in about 14-15 per cent
Wheat Improvement in India 89
of the area, which amounts approximately have been used for carrying out intensive
to 4 million hectares, depends on rain. studies on phenotyping and genotyping
Hence, failure of monsoon followed by leading to identification of genes for heat
absence of winter rains largely reduces tolerance. Similarly, experiments are in
area as well as productivity particularly place to identify wheat varieties which give
in the central and peninsular parts of the good response to limited irrigations. It has
country as well as in northern hills. In been seen that certain wheat genotypes
fact, drought stress is a major constraint primarily developed for rainfed condition
in rainfed agriculture particularly in the do yield double if provided two irrigations
semi-arid regions of the tropics. As a i.e. one for sowing and another at CRI
matter of fact, besides developing a few stage. In case, there is no need of pre-sown
varieties through empirical approach, no irrigation due to availability of residual
breakthrough could be made in increasing moisture, the first irrigation is applied at
the productivity in drought prone areas CRI stage, and second irrigation can be
of the country. Although, number of provided at flowering stage for achieving
physiological parameters have been put desired results. Some of the promising
forward for identifying drought tolerant wheat varieties, namely, HI 1500, HI
genotypes of wheat, but none of these 1531, HI 8627, PBW 596, etc. have
parameters could become practically given around 3.5 quintals per hectare as
feasible for selecting individual plants compared to 1.5-2.0 quintals under rainfed
from the segregating generations. Hence, conditions. Hence, all possible efforts have
the breeders had no option other than to be made to develop water use efficient
to select individual segregants based (WUE) wheat genotypes and WUE wheat
on their phenotypic performance under cultivation technology to face the shortage
natural conditions of drought which of water for irrigation.
may or may not yield to desired type of
High cropping intensity and shorter
genotype. Nevertheless, on limited scale,
crop duration: In addition, wheat is sown
the segregating material can be exposed to
late on considerable area in north-western
artificial moisture stress under controlled
and north-eastern plains of India due to
conditions to select drought tolerant and
high cropping intensity and delayed harvest
drought susceptible plants based on seeding
of previous crop. As a result, the crop gets
survival. Recently, the carbon isotope
exposed to higher ambient temperatures
discrimination (CID) technique has been
at the time of grain filling, which cause
successfully utilized in identification of
significant reduction in productivity. The
drought tolerant genotypes.
Indian wheat improvement program
Technology for tackling abiotic has been instrumental in developing
stresses: Now, with the availability of improved varieties suitable for cultivation
biotechnological techniques, the mapping under varying environmental conditions.
populations in the form of recombinant Performance of different varieties is
inbred lines (RILs) have been utilized assessed based on their grain yield
for identifying the QTLs / major genes per unit of land. This is an important
governing heat tolerance in wheat. The indicator but with climate change and
RILs developed by crossing WH 730 (heat emerging scarcity of water and energy,
tolerant) and Raj 4014 (heat susceptible) other indicators like stability and efficiency
90 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
are also acquiring importance. Therefore, male sterile lines (CMS), their maintainers
due consideration is being given to and fertility restorers has increased the
varietal attributes like (a) resilience to possibility of developing hybrid wheat. This
withstand climatic aberrations, and (b) activity has been taken up in a network
input use efficiency. Thus, assessment of project mode involving DWR, Karnal;
performance of different varieties should IARI, New Delhi and PAU, Ludhiana.
be based on a composite index which At present, efforts have been made to
incorporates all important attributes by convert commercial varieties into male
assigning suitable weights to them. Studies sterile lines, studying the floral biology
involving advanced wheat genotypes have and identifying suitable maintainers and
helped in characterizing the environments restorers besides developing heterotic
in terms of weather parameters and also gene pools.
in terms of plant responses.
Developing new plant types: Efforts
It has been conclusively shown that have been made to genetically architecture
biomass production is a key factor in high a new plant type (NPT) that has high
grain yield performance under late sown harvest index and biomass. In crops like
high temperature environments. Reports wheat, number of grains per plant serves
have indicated that various morpho- as the sink and helps in identifying the
physiological parameters are related to potential high yielders. The research efforts
heat stress which adversely affect wheat particularly at IARI, New Delhi are going
yields. The probable approaches for on to increase the harvest index through
further increasing the yield potential of enhanced grain yield along with the higher
wheat varieties include pre-breeding for biomass. To increase the biomass for higher
parent building vis-à-vis transferring novel yield potential, the following characteristics
traits of economic importance from wild are being introgressed:
or alien species in the usable genetic
zz Desired canopy structure
background of hexaploid genotypes,
exploitation of heterosis for the production zz Rapid leaf area development
of hybrid wheat and resorting to winter × zz Rapid nutrient uptake
spring wheat hybridization for generating zz Increasing lodging resistance (robust
variability and developing facultative stem)
high yielding varieties suitable for early
Physiological parameters like greater
sowing.
radiation use efficiency, increased rate of
grain filling, increased number of grains per
Current Efforts for Improving spike, efficient nutrient uptake efficiency
and better stem reserve mobilization, are
Wheat Productivity being taken into account for making a
Developing hybrid wheat: Developing new plant type (NPT). Two high yielding
hybrid wheat is a good option for varieties, namely, Vaishali and Vidisha were
productivity increase. Exploitation of released which were developed using local
heterosis is a workable approach for germplasm-SFW through NPT approach.
increasing the yield potential of wheat Several other genotypes based on NPT
genotypes. The availability of cytoplasmic have been developed which possess
Wheat Improvement in India 91
high 1000-grain weight, higher grains per The useful Sr genes like Sr2, Sr5, Sr25,
spike, higher biomass, dark green and Sr26, Sr27, Sr32, Sr35, Sr39, Sr40 and
broader leaves, thick stem and efficient Sr43 need to be utilized on priority basis
root system. for keeping the menace of stem rust under
control in the stem rust vulnerable areas
Sustaining wheat yields through of central and peninsular India. A new
enhanced disease resistance: The race of stripe rust known as 78S84 has
host resistance is the cheapest, effective come to stay in Indian wheat fields and
and environmental friendly means of it has knocked down the most popular
controlling the menace of three rust variety of wheat PBW 343 which is
diseases. In fact, there had not been any covering more than 7 million hectares of
serious rust epidemic in India during the area in Indo- Gangetic plains. The stripe
last four decades due to deployment of rust rust disease is prevalent in northern and
resistance genes in the form of improved southern hills, north western and north
wheat varieties released for commercial eastern plains of the country. However,
cultivation. So far, quite a few resistant the central and peninsular parts remain
genes against rust diseases have been free from this disease due to unfavorable
utilized by wheat breeders in the country. weather conditions. For keeping stripe
However, emergence of a new stem rust rust under control, new Yr genes like
race Ug99 (TTKS) in Uganda (Africa) has Yr5, Yr10, Yr15, Cappelle Desprez and
posed a serious threat to wheat cultivation China 84-40022 should be utilized in
across the globe. Luckily, Ug99 race has the breeding program. Among other
not been detected so far in Indian wheat diseases which need immediate attention
fields, but there is every likelihood of its in breeding for resistance are Karnal bunt,
arrival sooner or later in our country. To foliar blight, powdery mildew and loose
pre-empt the threat posed by Ug99, the smut. Although, the incidence of Karnal
anticipatory resistance breeding work was bunt disease is presently not so severe as
initiated in collaboration with CIMMYT and it used to be during eighties and nineties,
BGRI by screening Indian wheat materials however, due to its cosmetic nature and
against Ug99 at Njoro (Kenya) where this ban for trading in international market,
race is existing in natural condition. So breeding efforts need to be continued
far, little over 700 Indian wheat genotypes for the development of resistant varieties.
have been screened at Njoro (Kenya) The resistance donors for Karnal bunt
against Ug99 and 78 genotypes have disease are now available in both bread
shown resistance to this race. Of these 78 wheat (HD 29, HD 30, W 485, W 1786,
genotypes, 25 are the commercial varieties KBRL 10, KBRL 13, KBRL 22, ML 1194,
of wheat and triticale. Besides, there are WL 3093, WL 3203, WL 3526, WL
known Sr genes like Sr25, Sr26, Sr27, 3534, HP 1531, ISD 227-5) and durum
Sr29, Sr32, Sr35, Sr36, Sr39, Sr40, Sr44 wheat (D 482, D 873, D 879, D 895)
and Temp which can be utilized in breeding for breeding purpose. Resistance has
program for developing resistant varieties been incorporated in high yielding wheat
of wheat against Ug99. To counter the varieties like PBW 343 and WH 542 by
menace of important races of stem rust back crossing. Chromosome region (4B,
of Indian origin, there is also need for 6B and 5A) linked to KB resistance has
immediate attention. been identified.
92 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
Similarly, the breeding for developing be directed by the technology but rather
resistant cultivars against foliar blight by the ability to maximize genetic gains,
is now feasible due to standardization and breeders need to be confident that
of disease creation techniques, disease selection pressure of this nature will shift
scoring methodology and availability of the populations in the desired direction.
resistance donors such as Harit 1(M 3), The impacts on the breeding programs
LBRL 1, LBRL 4, LBRL 6, LBRL 11, will be as follow:
LBRL 13 and DBW 46. A high level of
zz Significant reduction in the time to
resistance to spot blotch was achieved
develop a new variety
by crossing resistant varities of wheat
with agronomically superior varieties zz More effective and direct control of the
following rigorous selections for low area alleles retained and eliminated
under disease progress curve (AUDPC) in zz Possibility of improving traits that
segregating generations. Besides, in order were not possible using traditional
to facilitate the molecular mapping for phenotypic screening
resistance against Bs, three different sets
zz Access to new genes that will provide
of recombinant inbred lines (RILs) have
greater diversity
been developed and are being utilized
for identification of major QTL conferring zz Ability to manipulate the expression
resistance to spot blotch. Fortunately, there of existing genes
is no serious problem of any insect-pest in zz Oppor tunity to adopt more
our country in wheat crop. The incidences sophisticated, challenging breeding
of termites and aphids have sometimes strategies.
been reported from certain parts, which
can be controlled by use of recommended
insecticides. In the same way, loose smut Tailoring Wheat Varieties
and powdery mildew diseases of wheat are Suiting to Different Resource
very well managed through seed treatment
and spray of recommended fungicides,
Conservation Technologies
respectively. Nevertheless, in view of The important resource conservation
decreasing water table and increasing technologies are as follows:
temperature, both termites and aphids
may become prominent threats to wheat zz To cut down the cost of wheat
production without compromising on
crop in future.
yield, the zero-tillage technology has
Use of molecular tools in wheat been perfected for wheat cultivation.
breeding: The intended outputs for The zero-till-drill machine can make
the marker programs in wheat breeding slits and place measured quantity of
include genetic understanding, markers seed and fertilizer in one go in fields
for disease resistance, biotic and abiotic vacated from rice or sugarcane. There
stresses. The outputs for the novel gene is no need of field preparation in zero
programs will include increased knowledge, tillage practice which saves up to 96 per
identification of novel genes and marker cent in diesel consumption. At the same
assisted trait specific targeted breeding. time, grain yields of wheat obtained
Breeding strategies adopted should not under zero tillage technology are as
Wheat Improvement in India 93
farmers and seed industry in the country. to meet the projected demand for wheat,
As a result, today about 150 improved new technological advances under changing
varieties including PBW 502, PBW 550, climatic conditions becomes one of the
UP 2338, Raj 3765, HI 8498, K 9107, HS vital components of wheat research in the
295, VL 804, GW 322, PBW 373, PBW country. In the area of crop improvement,
343, HUW 468, HW 2045, HD 2733, emphasis is being placed on developing
DBW 14, DBW 16, DBW 17, DBW 39, new genotypes that are responsive to high
NW 2036, etc. are in the seed production input management and capable of yielding
chain. This change in deployment of large beyond 7 tons per hectare. In this pursuit,
number of varieties has not only increased the selection in segregating generations
the number significantly but also provided under varying climatic conditions will
choice to farmers thereby diversifying the help to breed wheat genotypes tolerant
genetic base to avoid large area under a to harsh conditions. The future genotypes
few varieties. Presently, India is producing of wheat must be nutrient and water use
more than 35,000 quintals breeder seed efficient, possess desired level of disease
of wheat varieties and is capable of resistance and quality traits. However, in
fulfilling the national requirement of view of the global climatic changes, we
32,000 quintals breeder seed which are need to highlight the importance of heat
indented annually through Department of and drought tolerance to further improve
Agriculture and Cooperation (DAC) in the yield and quality status of wheat varieties.
country. However, there is a strong need At the same time, agronomic interventions
for faster replacement of old varieties to or approaches to increase soil carbon
ensure the national food security. content through organic manures, wide
scale adoption of reduced tillage practices
and proper residue management are
Conclusion essential to cut down overall gaseous
emission to a great extent. In view of
Since the onset of the Green Revolution changing food habits and requirements of
in 1960’s, India has had spectacular domestic as well as international market,
increase in production, productivity and future priorities are now inclined towards
quality of wheat. The total production improving wheat quality for industrial uses,
increased in the magnitude of about besides increasing yield and resistance to
seven folds from roughly 12 million tons various biotic and abiotic stresses. The
in 1965 to 85.93 million tons in 2011. synergy between research, developmental
This was achieved due to strong research and extension workers, can lead India to
by ICAR/SAU’s which permeated into a achieve the projected demand of wheat in
set of improved varieties of wheat and the time to come. Any of these components
barley resistant to diseases and high in isolation will not be successful in further
yields with stable performance. Critical increasing and sustaining the yield levels in
assessment of the anticipated climatic case of wheat. The Indian wheat program
changes and their probable impact on has required infrastructure, manpower and
wheat crop have been visualized. Both, new tools and is capable of meeting the
the long-term and short term strategies future challenges. It can be concluded
are being executed for sustaining the here that to counter the possible effects
productivity of wheat in India. In order of global climatic variations, integration
Wheat Improvement in India 97
Contd...
Productivity (kg/ha)
Rainfed
to 54°C (abs. max) in littoral zone. The
1,085
1,043
0
2,973
524
1,365
430
rate of evaporation per annum ranges
from 700 to 4,200 mm.
Iran lies within the West Asia diversity
Irrigated
center where crops of global importance
3,745
3,158
4,143
7,423
1,176
2,177
1,246
have originated and includes the diversity
of farming systems prevailing in CWANA
region and in the non- tropical drylands.
The diversity of climate in Iran provides
14,663,745
2956032
2,612,174
2,166,130
324,786
208,286
100,784
an opportunity for producing diversified
Total
horticultural and field crops. Agriculture
is an important sector, employing about
21.1 per cent of the labour force in the
Production (t)
country, but contributing only 13 per cent
4,525,975
983633
0
251
5,908
308,627
84,121
Rainfed
to the national GDP. Of the total agricultural
land (19 mha), 10 million hectares are
rainfed and the rest are irrigated. Major
crops include wheat, barley, rice, chickpea,
cotton, sugar beet, vegetables, fruits and
10,137,770
1,972,399
2,612,174
2,165,879
16,159
202,377
16,663
Irrigated
0
85
942,963
4,329
588,814
195,690
Rainfed
Beans
Maize
Lentil
Crop
inclusive economic growth, food, nutrition, The total wheat harvested area in Iran
environment and livelihood security. has not changed significantly during the
period of 2006-11. However, it dropped
to its lowest level of about 5.3 million
Status of Wheat Production hectares in 2007-08 cropping cycle due
The total harvested wheat area in 2010-11 mainly to severe drought conditions, and
cropping cycle was 6.7 million hectares consequently a decrease in the harvested
from which about 2.7 million hectares area of wheat (Fig. 1). The wheat crop
(40%) were irrigated and about 4.0 experienced a very severe drought in the
million hectares (60%) rainfed (Fig. 1). autumn 2010 (Fig. 2).
The average wheat grain yield of irrigated (806 kg/ha) of rainfed wheat in 2011
wheat in 2006-2011 period was the highest was also less than the average of grain
in 2007 (3,800 kg/ha) but significantly yield of rainfed wheat for the period
decreased to 2,856 kg per hectare in of 2006-11 reflecting severe drought in
2008 due to drought conditions (Fig. 3). autumn 2010.
The average grain yield for rainfed wheat
In normal years, about 70 per cent of
was the highest (1,287 kg/ha) in 2010
and the lowest (490 Kg/ha) in 2008 due wheat production is harvested from
to severe drought in 2007-08 cropping irrigated wheat areas. The total wheat
cycle (Fig. 3). Clearly, the average grain production reached to about 15.0 million
yields in the country are more influenced tons in 2007 and 2010 (Fig. 4). This
by the average grain yield of the irrigated was because of more favourable growing
wheat (Fig. 3). The average grain yield conditions. The 2008 harvest was the
lowest (less than 8.0 mt) recorded for the as economically significant diseases in
period 2006-2011 (Fig. 4). Reductions the Caspian Sea region. Some insects
were also evident for 2011, with production as leaf beetle (Lema), Russian wheat
of 9.65 tons for irrigated wheat and 3.2 aphid are becoming growing problems
tons for rainfed wheat and total production in cold areas, and common cereal aphid
of 12.85 million tons, again reflecting the (Schizaphis graminearum) has become
effect of drought in autumn 2010 (Fig. a problem in the temperate and warm
2 & Fig. 4). areas (Esmaeilzadeh Moghaddam et al.,
2009).
All the three wheat types, viz., winter,
facultative and spring, are grown in different More than 60 wheat cultivars are
agro-climatic zones under irrigated and commercially grown in different agro-
rainfed conditions. The temperate zone climatic zones, under irrigated and rainfed
is the most favourable area for wheat conditions in Iran. Most of them have
production; high grain yields have been become susceptible to stripe rust virulence
recorded at Kangavar in Kermanshah for Yr27. The major commercial wheat
province (14 t/ha) and in Daryoun in cultivars, based on distributed certified
Fars Province (12 t/ha) which are part seed, are presented in Table 2. About five
of this agro-climatic zone. Biotic (e.g. million hectares are grown under these
susceptible wheat cultivars (unpublished
stripe rust, leaf rust, stem rust, Septorias,
data, Ministry of Jihad-e-Agriculture).
Fusarium head blight, powdery mildew,
Hence, in the stripe rust epidemic years,
Sunn pest) and abiotic (drought, heat,
the rate of crop loss is considerable. Even
cold, salinity) stresses are major limiting
in the absence of stripe rust epidemic,
factors for wheat production. Stripe
there are some crop losses due to the
rust, leaf rust and stem rust have been
susceptibility of these commercial cultivars.
reported from all parts of the country,
Therefore, development and release
but stripe rust remains the major disease
of resistant/tolerant wheat cultivars to
in more favorable years. In 1993, about new races of stripe rust is a must, and
1.5 million tons of wheat was lost due appropriate strategies are necessary for
to an epidemic of stripe rust. There was replacement of the old and susceptible
stripe rust incident in some parts of the cultivars (Table 2).
country in 2011, but the crop loss due to
this disease was not significant. Fusarium
head blight and Septoria are becoming Mechanization
increasingly serious diseases in Caspian
Sea region as well as in South-west Iran. Wheat is predominately produced under
Leaf rust and stem rust appear late in the dryland conditions although significant
season and there is no recent report on areas are also irrigated. So, this crop is
crop losses due to these diseases. vulnerable to variations in seasonal rainfall
and subsequently soil moisture conservation
In drought years, the invasion of Sunn pest is extremely important. However, to date,
is devastating and in 2007-08 more than little work has been undertaken in Iran
1.5 million hectares area was sprayed to on conservation agriculture whereby
control it. Other diseases as Septoria and zero-tillage crop production is undertaken
tan spot, which were minor, are emerging on a continuous basis eliminating any
104 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
Table 2. T
he major commercial wheat cultivars, based on the distributed certified seed, grown
in Iran in 2009-10 cropping cycle
Temp °C
Maragheh Sararood
Temp °C
Temp °C
Qamlo Ardebil
Without effect of climate change: It has prone areas. Fusarium head blight and
been estimated that the population in Iran Septoria are becoming increasingly serious
in 2025 will exceed 96 million people, and diseases in Caspian Sea region as well as
hence, wheat production and consumption in South-west Iran. Leaf rust and stem
would be: i) wheat consumption per capita: rust appear late in the season and there
210 kg, ii) wheat production: 17 million is no recent report on crop losses due to
tons, iii) wheat demand: 20 million tons, these diseases. Field evaluations of the
and iv) deficit: 3 million tons responses of Iranian wheat germplasm
to Ug99 in Kenya from 2006 till 2010
With effect of climate change: It has showed that the frequency of resistance/
been estimated that the population in Iran tolerance of wheat breeding lines in wheat
in 2025 will exceed 96 million people, and breeding programs significantly increased.
hence, wheat production and consumption Commercial cultivars, such as Kavir, Bam
would be: i) wheat consumption per capita: and the durum wheat cultivar, Arya, and
210 kg, ii) wheat production: 13.7 million some landraces, such as Sorkhtokhom
tons, iii) wheat demand: 20 million tons also showed variable levels of resistance.
and iv) Deficit: 6.3 million tons To reconfirm the reported resistances in
Kenya, the resistant lines were re-examined
In both the scenarios, the rate of wheat
in 2008 and 2009 in the glasshouse at
production in Iran would not be meet the
Cereal Research Department, Seed and
demand for wheat in the country. Therefore, Plant Improvement Institute, using the
challenges for wheat improvement for Ug99 isolate from Broujerd. The resistance
adaptation to changing climate are to was reconfirmed. Since 2006, significant
be identified, their importance critically efforts have been made in breeding and
assessed and appropriate strategies to be identification of Ug99 resistance/tolerant
developed. wheat cultivars. This has led to release of
Ug99 cultivars, Parsi, Sivand, Morvarid, Arg,
and identification of Bam, Akbari, Kavir,
Constraints in Wheat Sistan, Shiraz, Roshan and Sorkhtokhm,
Production commercially grown cultivars also Dehdasht,
Karim and Rijaw have been released
Biotic (e.g. Yr, Lr, Sr, Septoria, FHB)
for warm and semi-warm and moderate
and abiotic (drought, heat, cold, salinity)
dryland areas (Table 3).
stresses are among the major factors
limiting wheat production in Iran. Stripe Stem rust was reported for the first time
rust, leaf rust and stem rust occur in in Iran by Esfandiari (1947). An epidemic
different parts of the country. However, of the stem rust in the Caspian Sea region
stripe rust remains the major wheat disease in the northern and southern regions of
in more favourable years. In 1993, about Iran in 1975 and 1976 was reported by
1.5 million tons of wheat was lost due Bamdadian and Torabi (1978). In 1976
to an epidemic of stripe rust. However, epidemic of stem rust in southern part of
this wheat loss was lower (~5-10%) in Iran, 100 per cent crop losses occurred in
2010, mainly due to diversification of landraces (Bamdadian and Torabi, 1978).
commercial wheat cultivars, with different The first stem rust race analysis in Iran
levels of resistance/tolerance in stripe rust was reported by Sharif et al.,1970. Race
Wheat Productivity in Iran: Constraints and Opportunities 107
Table 3. C
ommercial wheat cultivars resistant to Ug99 released/identified in Iran during
2006-2011
analyses and responses of cultivars and have successfully developed and released
advanced breeding lines were carried out in 29 bread wheat and 6 durum wheat
1994 and 1995 by Nasrollahi et al. (2001). cultivars over the period 2001-12, and
Stem rust was controlled since 1976 by these cultivars are commercially grown in
growing CIMMYT germplasm. different regions of Iran (Table 4).
In 2007, the presence of race Ug99 was Since 1999-2000 to 2010-11 crop seasons,
officially reported from Broujerd and the recommended advanced technologies
Hamadan. These are facultative and were adopted in different agro-ecological
winter wheat growing areas. Analysis of climates in dryland areas of Iran. Results of
samples of Ug99 collected from Borujerd, application of new technologies in the large
Hamedan, Poldokhtar and Kelardasht in scale at farmers' fields showed significant
2007 and a race collected from Borujerd differences in wheat productivity during
in 1997 was conducted using differentials 2000-11 (Ghaffari and Roustaei, 2010).
carrying stem rust (Sr) resistance genes Application of recommended advanced
plus several additional wheat genotypes technologies increased wheat grain yield
(Nazari et al., 2008 a and b). The results by 30 per cent under drylands in Iran
were later confirmed using differential lines. (Table 5).
The race has not spread ever since.
The reform in the agricultural price policy
for inputs and outputs during the last 10
years, has encouraged farmers to adopt new
Major Achievements agricultural technologies for strategic field
Two wheat breeding programs at Seed crops. Therefore, policy makers and planners
and Plant Improvement Institute and have achieved their goal of encouraging
Dryland Agricultural Research Institute farmers to adopt modern technologies in
108 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
Table 4. Bread wheat and durum wheat cultivars released in Iran during 2001-12
Contd...
Wheat Productivity in Iran: Constraints and Opportunities 109
Table 4 (Contd.)
Wheat consumption rate is increasing at of wheat based industries like flour mills
2 per cent per annum. (19 high capacity flour mills in operation),
bakeries, biscuits and noodle factories in
In the past, major thrust for wheat the country.
research and developments was given to
varietal development for different agro- In Nepal, National Wheat Research
ecological zones and providing package Program (NWRP) was established in 1972.
of practices to grow successfully by NWRP coordinates the national wheat
farming communities. Sufficient source research system through its ten research
seed production and supply to the client stations in terai/ valley (Doti, Sundarpur,
groups was always a priority area in Surkhet, Nepalgunj, Bhairahawa, Rampur,
transferring wheat technology (Tripathi, Parwanipur, Hardinath, Tarahara and
2008). Continuous research efforts enabled Itahari); six stations in hills (Jumla, Dailekh,
to recommend technologies in different Lumle, Kabre, Pakhribas, Agriculture Botany
aspects of wheat production like agronomic, Division) and other disciplinary divisions.
soil, entomological, pathological and post- Marpha horticulture farm is utilized for
harvest technologies for the farmers and shuttling wheat segregating populations
other stakeholders with regular updating. during the summer season. It works with
As a result, wheat crop become a major Department of Agriculture for dissemination
food commodity and continue to grow of technologies, and with National Seed
its area, production and productivity, Company (NSC) for multiplication and
through time. supply of quality seeds.
Use of high yielding and disease Till date, NWRP followed the conventional
resistant varieties, increased availability breeding approach for varietal improvement
of improved seed and efficient supply for higher yields with better quality
system, changes in crop management and resistance to abiotic and biotic
technologies, use of chemical fertilizers, stresses, wide adaptability and efficient
herbicides, awareness on planting time and cropping system. Participatory varietal
plant stand management, support from selection approach is being used to identify
CIMMYT, ICARDA and other international and select farmer preferred varieties
organizations, increased linkages with and faster dissemination of selected
different stakeholders (NGOs, DADOs, technologies. Similarly, participatory plant
CBOs, etc.) to update the research efforts breeding approach is also used to identify
are major factors contributing to increased and select problem and niche-specific
area, production and productivity of genotypes from the early stage of selection.
wheat in Nepal (Tripathi, 2011). However, Outreach research activities such as PVS,
different micro-climatic environments farmer’s acceptance test, and minikits are
possess new challenges of biotic and being conducted at need-based farmer’s
abiotic stress in wheat production. fields. Research problems are identified
Therefore, National Wheat Research through village level workshops, regional
Program (NWRP) has set up new priority and national technical working group
areas and reoriented the research efforts meetings.
to tackle the upcoming problems. Once
an exporter of rice, Nepal now is a food NWRP produces nucleus/breeder seed of
deficit country. There is an increasing trend released and pre-released varieties as per
114 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
the demand. Besides the varieties and in total cereal production. Maize occupies
seeds, technologies on crop protection, 26 per cent and wheat 22 per cent area,
soil fertility management and industrial and contributes 24 and 20 per cent,
quality are also being generated. respectively to the total cereal production.
Several technologies related to resource Millet and barley jointly occupy 9 per
management have been generated after the cent area and contribute 4 per cent of
establishment of Rice-Wheat Consortium total cereal production. Rice is by far the
in 1994 such as understanding rice-wheat largest cereal contributing 20 per cent in
system productivity trends, diagnostic GDP and wheat contributes 7.14 per cent
surveys, tillage and direct sowing (surface to AGDP (MOAC, 2010).
seeding, zero-tillage, bed planting, etc.),
Nepal has 3.1 million hectares cultivated
integrated crop management and integrated
agricultural land. Rice is number one
plant nutrient management (balanced,
crop and grown in 1.5 million hectares
efficient nutrient use, soil organic matter
and produced 4.46 million tons in 2011.
dynamics, micronutrients, crop residue
Maize is second crop which is cultivated
management, etc.). The proven RCTs
in 0.9 million hectares with production of
need to be scaled-up and integrated into
2.07 million tons Total wheat area and
the concept of conservation agriculture to
production in Nepal for the year 2010-11
make long-term benefit. Eastern Gangetic
was estimated 0.77 million hectare and 1.7
Collaborative Breeding activity between
million tons, respectively, with an estimated
Nepal, Bangladesh and India was launched
yield of 2.27 tons per hectare (MOAC
during 1997-2006. During this period,
2011) (Table 1), which has increased 6
activities such as Eastern Gangetic Plains
fold in area and 13 fold in production
Screening Nursery (EGPSN) - 150 entries
during the last 50 years.
in 15 locations; and Eastern Gangetic
Plains Yield Trials (EGPYT) - 25 entries Similarly, pulses are also important crops in
in 12 locations were conducted. Besides Nepal which occupy 0.33 million hectares
this, NWRP had collaboration with different and produce 0.32 million ton. Potato
regional and global institutions such as has covered 0.18 million hectares and
CIMMYT, ICARDA, IRRI, DWR-India, produced 2.51 million tons which plays
WRC-Bangladesh, PARC-Pakistan, RWC/ vital role in food security and economy
CSISA, USAID-Famine Seed Project, of the country (Table 1).
DRRW, BGRI/Cornell University, etc. for
exchange of germplasm, technologies and Wheat occupies 22.1 per cent of national
information sharing and human resource cereal coverage (3,478,813 ha) with 20.3
development. In addition, participation in per cent contribution in the country’s cereal
regional visits and conferences, travelling production (8,615,383 tons). It covers
0.77 million hectare with the production
seminars, etc. were also organized.
of 1.75 million tons and the productivity
of 22.75 q/ha (MOAC, 2011). Irrigated
Area, Production and wheat occupies 62.94 per cent of total
Productivity of Food Crops wheat area and producing 1.24 million
tons with the productivity of 25.66 q/ha
In Nepal, rice occupies 43 per cent cereal but un-irrigated wheat occupied nearly
area and contributes nearly 52 per cent 37.06 per cent producing 0.51 million tons
Wheat Research and Development in Nepal 115
of grain with productivity of 17.80 q/ha. been released for hills and remaining
Wheat crop is grown all over the country for terai conditions. Wheat production
which covers 58.62 per cent area in terai, and productivity increased due to the
34.58 per cent in mid-hills and 6.79 per introduction of improved varieties and
cent in mountains with productivity of quality seeds, new cultivation techniques
25.29 quintals/per hectare, 19.94 quintals/ as well as increased cultivated land. Use
per hectare, and 15.09 quintals/per hectare, of high yielding varieties such as Nepal
respectively. Improved seed has covered 297, Bhrikuti, BL1473, Gautam, WK1204
97.6 per cent of total wheat area in the resistant/tolerant to Helminthosporium Leaf
country with the productivity of 23.01 Blight and leaf and stripe rusts resulted in
quintals/per hectare. overall increase in wheat production and
yield. Over the last 40 years, wheat area
has increased by seven folds, production
Past Accomplishments in by fourteen folds and productivity by two
Increasing Wheat Production folds in the country (Fig. 1 and 2) In
and Productivity Nepal, most popular varieties of wheat are
Gautam, Bhrikuti, Nepal 297, WK1204,
Fluctuation in wheat production is very
Vijay and others which significantly
common as in other major cereal crops
contributing on increasing production and
because of changes in rainfall, cold or hot
productivity in the country.
wind wave, frost, diseases and pests. In
early period, effect of abiotic and biotic
factors has played significant role on
wheat production and productivity in the
Constraints in Wheat
country. Since 1960, altogether 33 varieties Productivity Enhancement and
of wheat starting from tall variety Lerma Emerging Challenges
52 to semi-dwarf high input responsive,
high yielding varieties were released in the Wheat production in Nepal is critically
country. Among these, 13 were introduced affected by three major factors: (i)
from Mexico, 13 from India, and 7 varieties temperature during the grain filling period,
were bred in Nepal. Ten varieties have (ii) input application (irrigation and
116 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
2000000 2500
1800000
Yield (kg ha-1)
1600000 2000
1400000 Production (MT)
1200000 1500
1000000
800000 1000
600000 Area (ha)
400000 500
200000
0 0
1991/92
1992/93
1993/94
1994/95
1995/96
1996/97
1997/98
1998/99
1999/00
2000/01
2001/02
2002/03
2003/04
2004/05
2005/06
2006/07
2007/08
2008/09
2009/10
2010/11
nutrient), and (iii) incidence of diseases. 46 per cent (Bhandari et al., 2002) and
The longer the cool temperatures prevail soil pathogens by 8-16 per cent (Dubin
during the wheat season and lower the and Bimb, 1994; Saari 1998).
incidence of foliar diseases, the higher
the production. Various reports show Improvement and selection of high
that foliar diseases could reduce yields and low input and stress responsive
in South Asia by 23-42 per cent (Saari wide adaptive wheat genotypes with
1998; Sharma et al. 2004; Sharma and preferred traits are necessary to increase
Duveiller 2006), low fertilizer dose by 25- production and productivity for ensured
Wheat Research and Development in Nepal 117
food security in the country. Existing level of nutrient content and only 7.66
varieties are not sufficient to increase per cent is alkaline with high content
sustainable production and productivity of nutrients.
due to climate change, disease outbreak
Biotic stresses: Several wheat diseases
on wheat by new pathotype especially of
such as rust (stripe, leaf and stem), spot
stripe and stem rust. Population growth,
blotch, foliar blight, powdery mildews,
decreasing land and other resources, soil
hill bunt and smut are the major threat
fertility degradation, climate change are
to wheat production. Disease incidence
other factors limiting higher production.
changes according to the climatic condition
The following section highlights the major
and management practices. New virulent
constraints in wheat productivity.
pathotypes of different diseases are emerging
Increasing temperature regimes, that pose new challenges to overcome
erratic rainfall pattern-climate change: through new breeding strategy by identifying
Crop systems in Nepal are mostly rainfed resistant parents, crossing and selection to
with crop of different maturity time. Hence, develop new resistant varieties. Moreover,
planting longer duration rice varieties also time has come to click on biotechnology
delays the wheat sowing. Late sown wheat and molecular breeding. However, rust
varieties are exposed to high heat and hot and spot blotch are considered one of
air at the time of grain filling and anthesis, the major breeding objectives to develop
which results in abortion of grains as well resistant wheat varieties. Additionally, aphid
as shriveled grains which reduce the grain (Aphis spp.) and Helicoverpa spp. incidence
yield drastically. Hence, climatic change in wheat have been reported to result in
with increasing temperature regimes and lower productivity. During 2003-2006, the
erratic rainfall pattern is the additional hill farmers of Nepal faced epidemic of
challenge to cope up. stripe rust that badly affected the wheat
crop especially the variety Nepal 297 and
Soil fertility degradation, depletion RR 21 due to their narrow genetic base
of soil organic matter and other to resistance.
nutrients: Continuous cultivation without
using proper dose of fertilizer and adding Drought stress: Most of wheat grown in
organic manure to soil has resulted insoil Nepal is usually irrigated only once at CRI
degradation and depletion of soil organic stage and then depend on winter rains.
matter. Low soil organic matter resulted Therefore, winter rain is very important
in low soil flora and fauna and soil for wheat production in Nepal. Water
health is also deteriorating continuously. scarcity due to poor irrigation facilities
Imbalanced application of NPK and other and windy weather are the two factors
micro-nutrients in soil has also resulted restricting wheat from irrigation particularly
in reduced crop yield. In Nepal, 65.04 after anthesis even when irrigation water
per cent of soil is acidic and has low is available. Rainfall in Nepal is also very
organic matter, nitrogen, phosphorus, erratic and hence, crop suffers from the
potassium and micro-nutrients for wheat need of water during different growth stages.
crop which always limits the production Wheat needs moisture for germination
and productivity. Similarly, 27.3 per and a few irrigations or rain at different
cent soil is alkaline which has medium stages for growth and development stages.
118 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
Hence, limited irrigation facility results the during anthesis, water logging and water
plant to dry and shrivel grain and reduced deficiency.
grain yield which is irreparable loss to
Short sowing season: Wheat planting
the farmers. Therefore, development of
season in Nepal is very short which lasts
drought tolerant varieties for both rainfed
only for 20-25 days. It is estimated that
and irrigated areas need to be developed
nearly 40 per cent of the farmers generally
on regular basis.
sow wheat after optimum planting time
Depletion of water table: Underground passes out. This is mainly because most
water table is decreasing as a result of farmers are resource poor and therefore,
which most of the artisan and shallow they cannot manage wheat planting at
wells dried up in summer causing problem proper time. This situation becomes
for irrigation and drinking water which inevitable for the farmers because of many
recharge only after monsoon. This is very reasons such as planting of late maturing
alarming situation but people still do not rice, overlapping the rice harvesting and
realize its importance and unnecessarily wheat sowing, and excess or less soil
waste ground water. moisture at planting time. Nevertheless,
to address this problem and minimize
Slow improved seed and varietal
yield loss NWRP has set up a separate
replacement rate: Farmers in most part
breeding objective to develop varieties
of the country are still planting old varieties
for late sown conditions.
with low yield potential. Those varieties
are susceptible to different biotic as well Poor agricultural mechanization:
as abiotic stresses. Transfer of technology Non-availability of proper agricultural
in conventional way takes long time to equipments on time causes higher cost
popularize a variety. It takes 4-6 years for of cultivation and delayed in agricultural
the improved seed to reach the farmers operation. Most of the farmers are smaller
after release of a variety. This process and are not having capacity to procure
needs to be accelerated in an efficient improved agricultural implements and
way. On-farm seed saving is the common machineries. Custom hiring of machineries
practice among farmers and hence, they and equipment could be better option for
plant same seed year after year besides the farmers but due to policy support from
replacing with new improved seed. The the government and incentives to local
seed replacement rate (SRR) in cereal traders and manufactures, this is also in
crops in Nepal is 9.46 per cent. transitional phase. In hilly areas, terrain land
also limits the use of mechanization.
Wheat sterility: Some eastern terai
districts (Morang and Jhapa) and mid- High cost of cultivation and low
hills (Lamjung, Tanahu, Gorkha) are farm gate price: Increased dependency
considered as wheat sterility prone areas. on inorganic fertilizers, improved seed
The sterility ranges from 1-100 per cent and labour intensive farming practices
in extreme cases. There are several factors have increased the cost of cultivation.
inducing sterility but major problem was Scarcity of labour due to youth migration
boron deficiency in soil as well as failure to urban areas and abroad has increased
of boron uptake by plant. Other factors labour wage and farm cost. Farmers get
inducing sterility are hot and dry winds low prices of their farm produce due
Wheat Research and Development in Nepal 119
zz Develop appropriate wheat production for hills and terai regions, respectively
technologies for optimal use of (Tripathi et al., 2011). Hilly area of Nepal
resources in a sustainable manner is more prone to stripe rust epidemic and
zz Produce nucleus and breeder seed therefore, two genotypes (BL 3235 and BL
of popular varieties in required 3503) have been developed and proposed
quantity for release. Some other genotypes like
BL 3623, BL 3555 and several others
zz Carryout off-season breeding work were also evaluated and promoted in
(shuttle breeding) for rapid generation pipelines for different ecological zones.
advancement at suitable hill sites These varieties were also evaluated for
zz Establish good collaboration and their earliness to escape terminal heat
partnership with national and stress, drought and suitability to late
international institutions for strengthening planting.
wheat improvement research in the
Other genotypes, namely, Chyakhura,
country
Kiskadee, Becard, Chonte and Chewink
are found promising for hills under both
irrigated and rainfed conditions. These
Improving Wheat Production
are also high yielding and stripe as well
for Meeting Future Targets as stem rust resistant genotypes. These
Sincere efforts from public and private lines are being tested in the farmers’ field
sectors are urgently required to meet the through participatory varietal selection. In
future demand of wheat production for addition to bread wheat improvement,
food security. Following section highlights durum and perennial wheat are being
on the envisaged efforts: explored in western Nepal for crop varietal
diversity. Perennial wheat could be good
Varietal improvement: All together crop for conservation agriculture in high
32 wheat varieties have been released hills of Nepal. Besides, efforts are being
since the initiation of organized wheat made to develop high yielding, abiotic
research in the country. However, only and biotic stress tolerant wheat varieties
20 varieties are in cultivation where as 12 for current and future cereals and mixed
varieties have been de-notified since their crop-livestock systems under Cereal
resistance to major diseases has broken System Initiatives for South Asia (CSISA)
down and are regarded as degenerated project. Collaboration with regional as
(NWRP, 2011). Three varieties have been well as international institutions is being
released in 2009 and 2010 for cultivation strengthened on broader perspective
all over Terai, viz., NL971 (2009), Aditya for increasing wheat production and
(2009) and Vijaya (2010). Variety Vijay productivity.
(BL 3063) is the first variety of its kind
which is resistant against Ug99 race of Pathological research activities:
black stem rust (NWRP 2009/10). The Continuous disease monitoring is going
Ug99 is considered major threat to present on in wheat to update the disease status
and future wheat globally (Singh et al., in Nepal. Monitoring addresses the disease
2011). NWRP has also identified other prone area and the potential host of
two Ug99 resistant genotypes, viz., NL different disease in Nepal. Screening of
1064 (Danphe) and NL 1073 (Francolin) wheat germplasm against major disease
Wheat Research and Development in Nepal 121
productivity enhancement, meeting existing challenging issues along with the modern
challenges (including climate change), future technological advancement which need a
targets and lessons learnt will be addressed strong institutional commitment to realize
through the following strategies : the anticipated goal. These are the areas
where CGIAR Centers, international donors
zz Strengthening research capacity to
and other international communities can
develop location specific varieties/
play a lead role.
technologies
zz Research on physiological aspects to Since the establishment of NWRP in 1972,
cope-up with the impact of climate tremendous efforts were made in wheat
change research and development in Nepal. The
major of achievements are summarized
zz Use of modern biotechnological tools
as fillows:
in wheat breeding
zz Public-private-par tnership (PPP) zz Since 1960, wheat area has increased
for technology generation and by seven folds, production by fourteen
dissemination folds and productivity by two folds.
zz Strong linkages with agricultural zz A total of 32 wheat varieties were
universities and research institutions released in the country, out of which
23 are for terai conditions and 10
zz Research on key emerging issues
for hills.
(adaptation to climate change,
conservation agriculture, agriculture zz Wheat production is one of the
mechanization and post-harvest) economic mainstays in Nepal, but the
yield gap between farmers’ fields and
experimental yields is wide across the
Conclusion country. Experimental yield of wheat
is 4.8 tons per hectare and national
Wheat research in Nepal has been providing average is 2.2 tons per hectare.
good return as production and productivity
zz Most popular wheat varieties are
of wheat continues to grow. However,
Gautam, Bhrikuti, Nepal 297, WK 1204,
there is less scope of increasing area under
Vijay and others which significantly
wheat cultivation and therefore, there is
are contributing towards increasing
a need for technological advancement
production and productivity.
to gain higher production to feed the
growing population. Although wheat zz Increased varietal diversification in the
research has approached to paradigm shift country helped mitigate the abiotic
from conventional to advance research and biotic stresses. Further varietal
system, the limited physical facilities improvement is continued to cope-
and human resource may result in quick up the future challenges of these
reversal. The mitigation and adaptation problems.
strategy to cope-up with climate change, zz Varietal improvement by using new
agriculture mechanization to save labour sources of genetic base against existing
force, time and money, conservation grain yield and biomass, breeding for
agriculture to protect natural resources abiotic and biotic stresses, conservation
and environment are some of the major agriculture, increased efficiency of
Wheat Research and Development in Nepal 123
water, CO2 and nutrient, grain quality reductions under resource-limited farming
and nutritional aspects are the main conditions. Journal of Phytopathology
approaches for enhancing wheat 154: 482–488.
productivity. Sharma RC, Duveiller E and Ahmed F (2004).
zz Collaboration with regional as well as Helminthosporium leaf blight resistance and
agronomic performance of wheat genotypes
international institutions needs to be
across warm regions of South Asia. Plant
strengthened on broader perspective Breeding 123: 520–524.
for increasing wheat production and
productivity. Singh RP, Hodson DP, Huerta-Espino J, Jin
Y, Bhavani S, Njau P, Herrera-Foessel S,
Singh PK, Singh S, Govindan V (2011).
The emergence of Ug99 races of the
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term rice-wheat rotation in India. Soil Tripathi J, Regmi AP, Giri GS, Bhatta MR, Paudel
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162-170. research on resource conser vation
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soil-borne diseases and foliar blights of Nepal Agricultural Research Council,
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Mexico D.F. DN and Chaudhary HK (2011). Third
MOAC (2010). Statistical information on Progress Review report on CSISA Wheat
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promotion and statistics division. Singh Annual Review Meeting held on 6-10
Darbar, Kathmandu, Nepal. September 2011, Kathmandu, Dhulikhel
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Darbar, Kathmandu, Nepal. Bhairahawa, Paper presented in 28th winter
crops workshops held on 9-10 March 2011
Saari EE (1998). Leaf blight disease and at RARS Lumle Kaski Nepal.
associated soil-borne fungal pathogens of
wheat in South and South East Asia. In: Tripathi Janmejai (2008). Farmer responses
Helminthosporium blights of wheat: spot to variety and seed quality concerns in
blotch and tan spot. CIMMYT, Mexico rice wheat system of Nepal terai, Paper
D.F. Pp 37–51. presented in the 27th National Winter
Crops Research Workshops held on Feb.
Sharma RC and Duveiller E (2006). Spot blotch 21-23, 2008, NARC, NARI, Khumaltar,
continues to cause substantial grain yield Kathmandu, Nepal.
Wheat in Pakistan
In Pakistan, wheat being the staple diet rice–wheat, sugarcane– wheat, maize –
is the most important crop and cultivated wheat, and fallow – wheat. Of these,
on the largest acreage (8.902 m ha during cotton-wheat and rice-wheat systems
the growing season 2010-11) in almost together account about 60 per cent of the
every part of the country. It contributes total wheat area whereas 30 per cent area
13.1 per cent to the value added in is under rainfed wheat. Rotations such as
agriculture and 2.7 per cent to GDP. Over maize-sugarcane, pulses and fallow are
the past three decades, wheat productivity also important.
has been increased largely due to high
yielding, disease resistant cultivars and Wheat worth rupees 594 billion is produced
increased fertilizer use. Wheat supplies in the country and one per cent gain or loss
37 per cent of the daily calorie intake to in wheat production would be equivalent
the people of Pakistan. Its production has to rupees 5.94 billion. During the last ten
been increased in all the major cropping years (2001-2011), national production
systems representing the diverse and varying varied from 18.2-25.0 million tons with an
agro-ecological conditions. Pakistan is tenth average national yield of 2.26-2.81 tons
largest global producer of wheat. per hectare. A bumper crop was harvested
in 2010-11 because of suitable weather
Wheat production zones in Pakistan are
during the growing season (timely rains
given in Fig. 1. The zoning is mainly based
and prolonged grain filling period) and
on cropping pattern, disease prevalence
policies of the government (e.g., adequate
and climatic conditions.
supply of inputs, price incentive, etc.).
In Pakistan, wheat is grown in different Punjab contributes about 76 per cent of
cropping systems such as cotton – wheat, the total wheat production (Table 1).
Wheat Research and Production in Pakistan 125
Yield
Fig. 2. Wheat area and production trend in Pakistan
per cent yield gap which needs to be late planting of wheat, non availability
narrowed down. The major reasons for of quality inputs (e.g. seed, fertilizer),
low productivity and instability included: inefficient fertilizer use, weed infestation,
delayed harvesting of kharif crops like shortage of water and weak extension
cotton, sugarcane and rice, and consequent services.
Wheat Research and Production in Pakistan 127
Annual wheat meeting: The National Drought and heat tolerance: In Pakistan,
Wheat Coordinator plans annual meeting rainfall has been erratic over the years
every year. Participants from different and most of the times the crop faces
research and extension institutions and water shortages and drought conditions
international centers participate in this aggravated by high temperatures during
meeting where different research and grain filling period. As a result, wheat
production issues are discussed in detail. production, both in irrigated and rainfed
Moreover, achievements of different areas, is being hampered. In order to
cooperating units are also presented minimize the effects of drought and high
along with next year’s plan of work. In the temperatures, drought and heat tolerant
end, future strategies and recommendations varieties are being evolved.
are finalized to enhance the wheat
Diseases: Diseases, especially rusts (stripe,
production in Pakistan.
stem and leaf) and emerging disease of
Wheat traveling seminar: Wheat powdery mildew are the major biotic
traveling seminar is another useful activity stresses of wheat crop which inflict heavy
of the Wheat Coordinated Program losses when in epidemic form. A simple
of PARC which provides not only an one year disease epidemic could cause
opportunity to the wheat scientists to a 2-3 billion rupee loss to the country
jointly assess the status of the standing because of reduction in wheat yield (an
wheat crop but also gives them opportunity example of 1977-78 epidemics) (Fig. 5).
to observe and discuss the farmers and Therefore, breeders and pathologists are
extension workers regarding their local developing disease resistant and high
problems. The national uniform wheat yielding varieties in order to cope with
yield trials (NUWYT) planted in different threats created by ever changing rust
parts of the country are also evaluated and races by using approaches like durable
potential varieties are identified. Above all, resistance.
the seminar provides an opportunity for
the scientists to identify priority research A new form of stem rust known as Ug99
areas. At present, the wheat research took several growing seasons to spread
programs are giving due emphasis on the from the highlands of Uganda and Kenya
drought/heat tolerance, diseases, salinity in 1999, via Ethiopia and Yemen, to reach
and crop management. Iran by 2007. The disease could spread
even farther from Iran to the vast wheat sowing should be carried out well in time.
fields in Turkey, Afghanistan, Pakistan Any delay in planting would reduce yield
and India, which are largely planting drastically. For example, wheat planted
varieties which are not resistant to Ug99. after 10 November would reduce the
A local stem rust race RRTTFF has been yield as high as 42 kilogram per hectare
identified which is a future threat to wheat per day (1% loss per day).
production. Pakistan is fully aware of this
In rice-wheat areas, use of zero-tillage
threat and it is a part of the Global Rust
is common whereas relay cropping is
Initiative in which resistant varieties are
good in cotton-wheat zone in which
being developed. Pakistan has developed
cotton field is irrigated without cutting
six Ug99 resistant wheat varieties (Lasani
the cotton crop and then moist wheat
2008, Baras 09, Dharabi 11, NARC 2011,
seed is broadcasted. Bed sowing is being
Aas 11 and Punjab 11).
practiced in cotton zone which results in
Salinity: It is another menace to which early planting, water saving and better
wheat is exposed in saline areas of Pakistan. wheat crop stand.
Therefore, there is need to evolve salt
Wheat simulation modeling: Crop
tolerant wheat varieties for such ecologies
simulation models have emerged as
by introducing salt tolerant genes using
valuable tools in enhancing understanding
novel breeding techniques.
of crop ecology and physiology. PARC
Crop management: Farmers generally takes a leading role in introducing this
plant wheat late in rice-wheat, sugarcane- tool in Pakistan. Scientists at PARC
wheat, and cotton-wheat areas of Pakistan parameterized the Agricultural Production
due to late harvesting of these kharif crops Systems Simulator (APSIM) and Decision
which result in drastic low yields because Support System for Agro-technology
the crop is exposed to heat stress at grain Transfer (DSSAT) in our local conditions
filling period leading to the formation (Table 2). These models have also been
of shriveled grains. Currently, only 20 used by other institutes like Global
per cent of wheat is being planted at Change Impact Study Center (GCISC),
optimum planting time (15 October to 15 Islamabad, University of Arid Agriculture,
November). To achieve good yield, wheat Rawalpindi and University of Agriculture,
Table 2. P
erformance of parameterized APSIM-wheat module under local conditions for
grain yield (kg/ha)
In order to revive cropping sub-sector big entities that possess more than 3,000
and to increase the self sufficiency in hectares land.
flour and flour products, the Mongolian
Crop production sub-sector is fully
Government launched Crop III Program
privatized now. Land productivity has been
to be implemented during 2008-10. As
increased by 0.5 ton per hectare against
a result of this program, 80 per cent of
2007, reaching 1.54 tons per hectare as
tractors, 65 per cent of harvesting machines,
of 2011. The Government of Mongolia
50 per cent of farming equipments and
has been taking extensive measures and
implements which were to be renewed policy to select and introduce promising
have been replaced with new ones under varieties with high yield potential that
technology renovation effort. Mongolia can be adapted in arid continental
lies in Central Asia, where harsh arid, climate. In order to multiply elite seeds of
semi-arid continental climate dominates. locally adapted and promising varieties,
Average precipitation rate stays between specialized seed multiplication centers
240-280 mm. The total size of cropland and organizations were established. All
is estimated at 1.2 million hectares, found crop producers began to be supplied
at relative elevation of 800-1,300 meter with high quality seeds that conform to
above sea level, of which 664.3 thousand national standards from 1982. Following
hectares is used as agricultural land, while the privatization of cropping sub-sector
561 thousand hectares is abandoned. in 1994, the large state owned collective
farms disintegrated into many smaller
A total of 410-430 thousand tons of
economic entities with meager equipments
wheat is required every year to satisfy
and machinery capacity, causing decline
the growing demand of the nation. A
in the production of high quality seeds.
total 448 thousand tons of wheat was
harvested from 301 thousand hectares in In order to revive cropping sub-sector, the
2011, fully satisfying domestic demand Government of Mongolia focuses its activities
for wheat. Land productivity reached to improve the quality and availability of
1.53 tons per hectare. Abundant wheat high quality seeds. Today, 25-27 varieties
harvest in 2011 allowed the country to of early, medium, and late maturing wheat,
export 100 thousand tons of wheat in 4-5 varieties of other crops are planted in
2012. The cropping sub-sector produced Mongolia. Among these, Altaisky 50 variety
20 per cent of total agricultural production is planted in 17.1 per cent of total cropland
as of 2011. It also employed 60 thousand followed by Buryatsky 79 (16.7%), Selenge
farmer households with more than 240 (15.9%), Altaisky 100 (8.5%), Altaisky 530
thousand members. (7.2%), and Buryatsky 34 (6.8%).
A total of 1,385 crop producing entities These six varieties are planted in 72.2 per
and farmers with 663.4 thousand hectares cent of total cropland. Varieties such as
cropland are registered in Mongolia. There Altaisky 99, Skala, Albidum 43, Darkhan
are 940 entities and farmers that possess 74 are grown in 1.6-2.8 per cent of
up to 500 hectares cropland, 230 entities total cropland, while Jorny, Buryatskaya
with 500-1,000 hectares land, 150 entities ostistaya, and Tsagaan deglii varieties are
with 1,000-2,000 hectares land, 40 entities grown in 1.4-5.0 per cent of total cropland
with 2,000-3,000 hectares land, and 25 under irrigation.
Wheat in Mongolia 133
The priority under the government policy (ii) To reflect the issues of cropland
is to intensify crop production and irrigated possession by crop producers in
farming, and to improve land efficiency respective laws and legal acts to
by improving legal and economic enabling improve land use
environment, supplying crop producers with (iii) To legalize allocation of certain
high quality seeds, continuing technology percentage of mining income
renovation, and introducing innovative to agricultural cropping sector
technologies. development as investment, and
The major challenges in crop production (iv) To promote rotation of cash crops,
in Mongolia are listed below: to preserve soil fertility, to plant
shelterbelts and build fences,
zz Climatic hazards, such as climate
and to improve seed quality and
change, global warming, excessive
supply
heat, low precipitation cause severe
harvest loss. Comparing to other zz Construction of new irrigation schemes
countries, the average land productivity and restoration of old schemes also
of 1.5 tons per hectare is very low need priority attention.
in Mongolia. The crop production and productivity
zz Insufficient financial resource for the will be improved by realizing all above
introduction of innovative technologies, mentioned activities. The assessment of soil
preserving soil fertility, expanding erosion, large scale agrochemical analysis
irrigated farming area, and taking of soil will be carried out with government
measures to influence the weather, fund in 561 thousand hectares land that
also pose big challenges. have been abandoned since 1998. By
zz As a landlocked country, the cost of increasing the amount of investment to
introduction of innovative technologies, cropping sub-sector, the country will be
and transportation cost of food and able to fully utilize 1.2 million hectare
agricultural products, fodder to other cropland by 2020, with estimated annual
countries is very high. In general, production of 0.70-0.98 million tons of
transporting products to other countries crops, of which 030-0.45 million tons will
is a big challenge for Mongolia. be available for export.
zz In order to strengthen the achievements To achieve expected results in near future,
in cropping sub-sector, to introduce the Government of Mongolia is taking
innovative technology, to improve following policy measures:
land productivity and crop quality,
and to intensify crop production, zz The import of tractors, harvesters,
the Government of Mongolia plans agricultural equipments and implements,
following complex measures: irrigation equipments, fertilizers,
agricultural chemicals is exempted
(i) To draft the law on “Crop
from VAT and import tax, in order
insurance” to mitigate the risks in
to promote renovation of agricultural
cropping sub-sector and establish
cropping sector.
legal environment of the cropping
sector and to have this law adopted zz The resources from international
by the parliament programs-projects, and state budget
134 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
zz Implementation of strategic reservoirs but now the bank does not exist and
system should be rehabilitated.
zz Rehabilitation and strengthening the zz The other important issue is provision
Agricultural Extension Department of improved seed for farmers. In 1970s,
zz Rehabilitation and strengthening the supply of improved seed was taken
Agricultural Research Institute over by Government. Modern farms
for production and multiplication of
zz Increasing the yield per unit of land wheat were established for farmers,
zz Development of agricultural land but unfortunately, all the infrastructures
zz Scientific and technical management were destroyed. The farmers require
55-65,000 metric tons certified wheat
Factors contributing to increased seed of different varieties for irrigated
production of wheat: Afghanistan is and rain-fed lands annually. Currently,
suffering from conflicts and insecurity for only local varieties are used in rain-
over 30 years. The economy of the country fed areas.
is related to agriculture in particular to wheat zz Fortunately, during the last decade
which is a crop that contributes towards the system for provision of improved
elimination of hunger and ensures food seed was established with the support
security. The farmers of our country are of FAO, CIMMYT, ICARDA, EU and
now empty handed and need agricultural MAIL.
services. The following factors are important
zz During this period, production of
for increasing wheat production:
different classes of seed, viz., breeder,
zz The farmers need efficient agricultural foundation, registered and certified
equipments like tractors and other seed are produced. The responsibility
technical machinery but currently for production of breeder seed is given
most of the farmers carry out their to ARIA, foundation and registered
practices using cows and mechanical seed are being produced by ISE which
equipments like shovels. is a public enterprise and a huge
volume of certified seed is produced
zz Annually, the farmers need 0.4 million
by private seed enterprises. There are
ton of urea and 0.2 million ton of DAP
105 registered private seed enterprises
fertilizers to cultivate their irrigated
in Afghanistan.
and rain-fed land.
zz If these obstacles are removed, not
zz Farmers need agro-chemicals that can only Afghanistan would become
destroy the weeds and that eradicate self-sufficient in food production, but
the infestation of locust. They require would also be able to export wheat
chemicals to control the diseases and to other countries.
pests.
Althrough the activities in this field were
zz The other support for the farmers is
started from scratch but a significant
the establishment of loan and credit
progress has been made. The major
system. Years before, the system
achievements are as follows:
existed and the farmers were able to
work out their problems as there was zz A total of 105 private enterprises have
an Agricultural Development Bank, been established in the country.
Improvement, Production and Multiplication of Wheat in Afghanistan 137
zz Seed Enterprises Association under 1.5 to 2.5 tons per hectare and the
the name ANSOR was established plan is to increase the average yield
in 2008 and now ANSOR has the of farmers to 4.0 tons per hectare.
membership of ECOSA. zz The most important achievement is
zz National Seed Policy was adopted that the Government is working with
in 2005. the private sector under the same
zz For the first time, the Seed Law was umbrella which can be considered
enacted in 2009. as a good example of rehabilitation
in the country.
zz The volume of production has increased
and the average yield of seed enterprises zz Tables 1,2 and 3 show the variation
became 7-8 tons per hectare of different in wheat production in the country.
improved wheat varieties. The grain Fig. 1 shows the production of cereal
yield at farmers fields increased from crops (2002-11).
Table 3. Area and production of different cereals in 2011 (September, 2011 estimates)
to lack of modern irrigation systems and zz This system will strengthen the
dams, almost 75 per cent of Afghanistan’s investment in wheat cultivation
irrigation sources are directed outside zz This system will provide good support
the country. Afghanistan’s Ministry of to WFP Food-For-Work schemes
Agriculture has put enormous efforts to
improve the irrigation systems, yet it has not There are several other benefits of this
improved due to numerous problems. system. It is hoped that MAIL would
purchase 0.2 million ton of surplus wheat
The implementation of National Program
from farmers this year. There are challenges
for Development and Utilization of Water
in this regard too. The six silos and stores
Sources and Irrigation is already planned
by MAIL as follows: that belonged to Fertilizer Company require
urgent rehabilitation.
zz Construction of 30 medium and large
dams for irrigation
Agricultural Research Institute
zz Construction of 2,000 small scale
water reservoirs
and Production & Multiplication
of Breeder Seed of Different
zz Plan to increase the area under
wheat cultivation and avoid water
Varieties of Wheat
wastage zz Agricultural Research Institute has
a long background history in the
Water is an extremely important factor in
country
agriculture and sincere efforts are being
made in this regard. The other issue which zz ARIA has 7 central and 10 field
has a high importance is the strategic food research stations
reserves. MAIL has put numerous efforts zz ARIA has 12 Departments and the
in this regard. The farmers have surplus Department of Crop Improvement is
production at the time of harvesting and the most important which has working
they need storage or purchasing sources relation with international organizations
to avail economic benefit. They sell their like CIMMYT, ICARDA and FAO.
surplus products at low price and they It acquires research materials from
suffer economic loss. The government international sources with the support
has decided to buy a certain amount of of CIMMYT.
surplus product at a reasonable price from
zz Currently, the research activity for wheat
farmers. This process has the following
is centered around the introduction of
benefits:
varieties from exotic sources.
zz Farmers will benefit from this process zz ARIA not only works on cereal crops,
and will be able to invest in cultivation but also on industrial crops, vegetables
of wheat in future. and horticultural crops.
zz The Government will also benefit from zz As per law, ARIA has the responsibility
this system as it will be able to use to produce breeder seed of different
these reserves during critical moments, varieties of wheat. In this year, ARIA
disasters and high prices. produced more than 100 tons of
zz The wheat market will be balanced breeder seed.
140 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
Table 1. Area, production and yield of major food crops in Central Asia (2010)
Fig. 1. Area, production and yield of wheat in Central Asian countries in 2010
(Source: FAO, 2011, except for segregated yield estimate of winter wheat in Central Asia)
Kazakhstan. Averaged across the region, gains were also realized in Tajikistan and
wheat yields are stagnant in the past 10 Turkmenistan. At present, Uzbekistan has the
years (Fig. 3). However, the levels of highest (about 5 t/ha) yield of wheat.
progress in wheat productivity differ among
individual countries with some countries Besides growing varieties developed in other
showing remarkable progress. In the past countries, each Central Asian country has
10 years, Uzbekistan achieved about 5 per now a number of wheat varieties developed
cent annual gain in yield (Fig. 4). Yield within the country. The commercial varieties
144 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
Fig. 3. Trend in area, production and productivity of wheat in Central Asia during 2001-2010
grown in each country meet the yield yield. Kazakhstan has well developed
goal and locally required end-use quality practices for conservation agriculture and
parameters. There is an array of variability resource conservation practices. These
among the varieties grown in Central achievements have been possible due to
Asian countries. For example, Uzbekistan national commitment towards improving
grows more than 20 varieties of winter wheat production and productivity. Besides,
wheat over approximately one million strong presence of two international centers
hectares of irrigated wheat land. There (ICARDA and CIMMYT) in the region
are similar examples in other countries. has played an important role in wheat
Each country has well developed wheat improvement in each country through
production packages to achieve high international collaboration.
Status of Wheat Improvement in Central Asia 145
Fig. 5. Number of wheat accessions received in different countries in Central Asia during
1995-2011
human resource and research infrastructure, leaf beetle, and Russian wheat aphid are
and working on joint research projects. The important constraints in some parts of
national research institutions immensely the region. The socioeconomic constraints
benefited from the technical support include inadequacy of funding, research
provided by ICARDA, CIMMYT and many facilities, number and training of manpower,
other institutions in advanced countries and policy guided varietal development,
towards strengthening wheat improvement adoption and replacement, and seed
activities. Through such collaboration, many multiplication. There are fewer experienced
improved varieties of wheat have been wheat breeders than needed in most
released in different countries in Central of the countries. There are inadequate
Asia, which are grown over large area research facilities and use of modern
in the region and play important role in wheat improvement methods and tools.
improving food security. Majority of the wheat varieties occupying
146 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
substantial area in the region lack adequate Sunn pest is also a perennial threat to winter
resistance to important diseases and wheat cultivation in many parts of Central
pests. Wheat improvement programs Asia. Since none of the commercially grown
are not well developed and facilitated in varieties is resistant to Sunn pest, chemical
majority of the Central Asian countries control is widely adopted. There is also
to effectively address the deficiency in a lack of winter wheat varieties resistant
the commercial varieties. Varietal release to cereal leaf beetle and Russian wheat
and seed multiplication systems are not aphid. Drought caused by the failure of
streamlined to allow swift replacement of expected precipitations and heat due to
deficient varieties with improved ones. sudden rise in temperatures during grain
There is inadequate funding of wheat filling are serious constraints to winter wheat
improvement related activities. There is production in some years. Drought is a
a lack of financial incentives and career perennial constraint to rainfed grown wheat
advancement opportunities for young across the region. Soil salinity has been
wheat researchers. A large mass of wheat traditionally managed through leaching in
researchers are ageing with little opportunity order to grow wheat. Due to decreasing
to replace them with competent young trend in water available for leaching salt,
manpower. There is weak networking for the problem of soil salinity is increasing
germplasm and scientific exchange among on wheat lands.
the countries within the region.
There is a lack of focused effort of
Stripe rust has been the most important replacing old varieties by new ones through
disease constraint to winter wheat accelerated seed multiplication and varietal
production across the region over the dissemination plan. There is insufficient
last 12 years and five epidemics occurred participation of farmers and private sector
during that period (Ziyaev et al., 2011). in development and out-scaling of new
Since cultivation of the resistant varieties varieties in most countries.
is limited, stripe rust is primarily managed
The widely grown cotton-wheat and
through fungicides, which not only adds to
wheat-other cereal cropping patterns
the cost of production but is also harmful
are detrimental to soil health. Land
to the environment. Recent studies in
degradation is a huge problem in Central
Uzbekistan and Tajikistan have shown that
Asia. There is little inclusion of legumes
grain yield reduction due to stripe rust in the cropping system. There is little
could go up to 40 per cent (unpublished application of integrated crop management
data). Leaf rust is an important disease practices.
across the region and its epidemics are
experienced on an average once in five There is a lack of young researchers
years. There has not been any report of in sufficient number to manage wheat
Ug99 stem rust in the region. However, research activities and substitute for the
it was reported in the neighbouring Iran. retiring wheat breeders. A survey of
Since the commercial wheat varieties plant breeding and related biotechnology
have been found susceptible to Ug99 in capacity was conducted by FAO in
the evaluation conducted in Kenya, there Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and
is a need for preparedness by identifying Uzbekistan (http://gipb.fao.org/Web-
resistant varieties. FAO-PBBC/index.cfm). The constraints
Status of Wheat Improvement in Central Asia 147
identified for wheat breeding research new varieties with traits required for local
in both public and private institutions wheat production systems. Each country
were the lack of trained young scientists, has developed wheat varieties utilizing
poor infrastructure, and lack of modern this approach.
equipments and machinery and were
In order to address disease and pest
considered as the main challenges for
problem and the abiotic stresses, each
effective variety development.
country tests international nurseries
developed with germplasm for specific
Approaches for Meeting the problem traits. A recent study has reported
Challenges including Climate that stripe rust resistant germplasm of winter
Change wheat are increasingly becoming available
through international nurseries provided by
Each country in Central Asia recognizes IWWIP (Sharma et al., 2012a). In order to
the wheat production constraints outlined exploit the genetic potential of high yielding
earlier in this paper. There is a team of varieties and locally available production
wheat researchers and decision makers in systems, different management practices
each country that outlines annual, short- are used for rainfed and irrigated systems.
term and long-term strategies to address Two recent studies have identified high
those challenges. There is also consultation yielding, stable varieties of winter wheat
with International Agricultural Research in the international nurseries evaluated
Centers (IARCs) present in the region in in Central Asia along with neighbouring
developing wheat strategies. Each country regions (Sharma et al., 2010, 2012b).
prioritizes the areas to be strengthened in Anticipatory breeding strategy is being
order to improve food security. From time adopted to address the problems likely to
to time, there is also regional level wheat emerge or increase in future due to climate
strategy meeting often organized jointly by change (heat, drought and salinity) and
the IARCs and national wheat improvement change in pathogen such as new races
programs where regional problems are of wheat rusts including Ug99.
discussed and prioritized and strategies are
developed. Each country develops plans Each country develops and executes annual
and funds research to solve problems plan for input supply to the farmers in
related to individual countries. Improved terms of quality seed of improved varieties,
wheat germplasm are introduced from fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation and marketing
CIMMYT, ICARDA, International Winter to maximize production and profitability
Wheat Improvement Program (IWWIP) from wheat cultivation. Often, wheat related
and other sources. policy interventions are made based on
needs in individual countries.
The national wheat improvement programs
in each country regularly evaluate wheat
germplasm made available through Efforts in Improving Wheat
international collaboration. Besides, each Production for Meeting the
country has its own wheat hybridization Future Targets
program where locally available genetic
resources are used in crossing with the Since wheat is the most important food
improved exotic germplasm to develop crop, a great deal of national efforts is
148 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
particular. Each Central Asian country gives Therefore, improving wheat productivity
high priority to strengthen collaboration remains at the core of agricultural policy in
with IARCs and research institutions in the region. The status of area, production
advanced country in order to benefit from and productivity of wheat differ among
their scientific developments. Research the five countries in Central Asia. There
institutions proactively seek partnership is a huge scope of improving wheat
in developing joint research projects with productivity across the region. There
IARCs and advanced institutions in different are a number of constraints to wheat
countries. production which need to be addressed
in order to improve wheat productivity
The region of Central Asia is rich in wheat and food security. Wheat stripe rust,
related genetic resources and each country Sunn pest, cereal leaf beetle and Russian
has a national genebank, The national wheat aphid are important biotic stresses.
wheat strategies aim at utilizing these Drought, heat, frost and salinity are key
genetic resources in wheat improvement. abiotic stresses. The emerging threats
In order to develop new wheat varieties
of heat during terminal growth stage,
with high yield, improved quality, resistance
erratic pattern of rainfall and dwindling
to major diseases, tolerant to heat,
supply of irrigation water are going to
drought, frost and salinity and acceptable
be major challenges for wheat research
agronomic traits, utilization of local genetic
in order to sustain wheat production. In
resources are considered important. This
order to address the above constraints,
is particularly important for incorporating
multilevel approaches are being adopted
stress tolerant genes into improved varieties.
in Central Asian countries. New improved
Each country is considering wider adoption
germplasm are being introduced and
of integrated pest management (IPM)
evaluated in the region to address
practices in order to manage diseases and
the problem of wheat stripe rust and
pests in a sustainable way and reduce
leaf rust and potential threat of Ug99.
the use of chemicals. Even though the
New varieties are being released, and
IPM system is well developed for cotton,
accelerated seed multiplication is done
much is needed to be done for wheat.
for efficient out-scaling of new varieties.
There is little use of modern tools, such
There are changes taking place in policy
as biotechnology, in wheat improvement
related to wheat improvement which
in Central Asia. However, each country is
will have long-term positive impact on
considering application of biotechnological
wheat production and productivity. There
tools important in order to improve
is renewed consciousness among the
efficiency of wheat varietal development.
national policy makers in Central Asian
Depending upon availability, application of
countries towards wheat improvement
biotechnology, especially marker assisted
due to emerging threats of Ug99 strain
selection, is an important future strategy
of stem rust and climate change. A great
in wheat improvement in Central Asia.
deal of effort is being made on capacity
development. Overall, intensive wheat
Conclusion improvement efforts in the region are
being made, and there are good signs
Food security in the Central Asia region of future progress in wheat productivity
is strongly linked to wheat productivity. in the Central Asia region.
150 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
faster, produced more spores per mm2 infection types decreased with increasing
of lesion in comparison to old isolates, temperature from 18°C; with the other
and tests conducted at high temperature strain, infection types decreased slightly
regimes of 12-28°C (Milus et al., 2009). at 30°C (Gousseau et al., 1985). Genes
Therefore, due to climate change, if parts Lr18, Lr14a, Lr30, Lr15, and Lr11 had
of Asia tend to become cool and cooler, lower infection types at low temperature
then such adapted Pst may dominate and and higher infection types at the higher
make the crop prone to epidemics. Such temperatures. However, genes Lr16, Lr17,
virulences may sporulate even during early and Lr23 had lower infection types at high
fall on volunteer plants / the green bridge temperatures, and had high infection types
and infect the main crop early resulting to various isolates at the low temperatures.
in severe epidemic. Genes Lr2a, Lr3ka, and Lr3 had less
resistance at low temperatures to isolates
Cropping System Induced that had intermediate infection types to
the genes. Dyck and Johnson (1983)
Changes
and Kholmer (1996) opined that the
Prior to 1987, the Soviet part of Central temperature responses of the leaf rust
Asia was a major cotton growing area. resistance genes were isolate dependent.
Subsequently, the emerging new nations Therefore, identifying such useful genes for
focused on food security and greater water the predominant virulences and positioning
use efficiency. The USDA data shows that them to accord resistance against inter
Uzbekistan had 2.1 million hectares under and intra crop season climate variation
cotton and by 2011, it got reduced to 1.4 will simulate durable resistance to P.
million hectares and rice from 0.15 million triticina (Ptr).
hectares in 1987 to 0.03 million hectare.
In Central Asia, rice area got reduced by
0.11 million hectares, and cotton area Scope for Gene Deployment
reduced by a million hectares. All that In Central Asia, winter wheat is grown
area was diverted to wheat creating a from September to July, facultative wheat
huge vulnerable varietal continuum and from September to May and spring wheat
the resultant removal of spatial barriers from May to August. Durum collateral
changed the farm level microclimate hosts provide live host for the wheat
favorably tilting the balance in favor of diseases to survive round the year. While
the stripe rust. in Iran, all types of wheat are gown
depending on the altitude. During the hot
Temperature Dependent Host- summer when temperature exceeds 40 oC
Pathogen Gene Expression and there is no wheat around, Puccinia
moves up to cooler slopes where host
Infection types in Sr15-bearing seedlings is available. In NW India, by late April
to P. graminis tritici (Pgt) were low at wheat is harvested and the pathogen
18°C and below, mesothetic at 22°C and moves up in the Himalaya to the interior
high at 26°C and above. Infection types valleys where wheat is grown during May
in Sr9b-bearing seedlings differed between to October. In the lower Himalaya, only
the two strains of Pgt; with one strain, facultative wheat is grown and no winter
158 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
wheat is grown since it gets trapped in Nagarajan S, Kranz J, Saari EE and Joshi
monsoon rain. Taking advantage of the LM (1982). Indian Phytopathology 35:
elevation dependent wheat maturity, 473-477.
a strategic gene deployment plan can Milus EA, Kristensen K and Hovmoller MS
be designed to cut down the inoculum (2009). Phytopathology 99: 89-94.
load, delay the epidemic and thus save Pisharoty PR and Desai BN (1954). Indian
the crop loss. Journal of Metrological Geography 7:
333-38.
Prabuyot Kaur, Singh H and Hundal SS (2006)
References Journal of Agricultural Physics 6: 39-45.
Dyck PL and Johnson R (1983). Canadian Vanderplank JE (1963). Plant Disease Epidemic
Journal of Plant Pathology 5: 229–34. and Control. AP. NY, 349 p.
Gousseau HDM,. Deverall BJ and McIntosh Zadoks JC and Schein RD (1979). Epidemiology
RA (1985). Physiological Plant Pathology and Plant Disease Management. Oxford,
27: 335–343. 427p.
Kolmer JA (1996). Annual Review of
Phytopathology 34: 435–455.
Managing Wheat Rusts by Minor Genes
Major Gene and Minor Gene features of disease resistance are the level of
Resistance to Rusts in Wheat protection from economic damage afforded,
and durability. Durable resistance was
Resistance to rust in wheat is often defined by Johnson (1978) as “resistance
referred to as being conferred by major that remains effective when a cultivar is
genes or minor genes, depending on the grown widely in environments favoring
phenotype conferred by the resistance disease development”.
locus in question. While these terms are
useful, it is important to note: The concept of durable resistance makes no
assumptions concerning the mechanisms
zz They are not mutually exclusive and are,
or genetic control of resistance. It has
in essence, a division of convenience.
proven to be a very useful concept in
Some rust resistance loci that display all
disease resistance breeding. While there
of the features typical of minor genes
can also be detected as genes of major are many examples of non-durable major
effect in seedling assays under certain resistance genes (eg. seedling resistance
environmental regimes (eg. Lr34, Singh gene Lr26, APR gene Lr22b), there are
et al., 2007; YrCk, Park et al., 1992, also examples of genes that “remained
2010). Conversely, some loci that can effective when present in a cultivar that was
be detected in routine seedlings assays grown widely in environments favouring
appear to confer minor gene resistance disease development”, and yet eventually
at adult plant growth stages in the succumbed. Stem rust resistance genes
field (eg. Sr12). Rpg1 in barley and Sr31 in wheat were
zz Major gene resistance is often equated regarded as durable; however, in both
with seedling resistance (resistance cases pathotypes with matching virulence
effective at all growth stages), and were eventually detected (races QCC
minor gene resistance with adult plant and Ug99, respectively). These examples
resistance (APR) – this is not always serve as a warning that there can be no
the case. guarantee of durability for any resistance
zz Also strictly not true, minor gene or source.
APR is often equated with durable
resistance. Are Minor Genes Per Se
zz Some (but not all) major genes Inherently Durable?
and minor genes display additivity
- combining two or more genes to The durability of polygenic resistance,
give levels of resistance beyond those whether major or minor gene based,
observed for the genes individually. is often attributed to the increasingly
zz While many reports exist of additive lower probability of a plant pathogen
minor gene resistance to leaf rust and simultaneously acquiring the virulences
stripe rust in wheat, a few sources of matching increasing numbers of pyramided
additive minor gene resistance are resistance genes. There are, however,
known to stem rust. examples of single genes that appear to
be “inherently” durable. Of the five rust
resistance genes that have been cloned from
Durable Resistance
wheat to date, only Lr34/Yr18/Sr57 can
For practical purposes, the most important be considered as a durable minor gene.
Managing Wheat Rusts by Using Minor Genes 161
The basis for the durability of this gene America and now regarded as being more
is still not understood, but could relate aggressive (Milus et al., 2006). It has had
to the molecular basis of the resistance a significant effect on Australian wheat
it mediates, which differs from those of germplasm that is not related to major
the non-durable “NBS-LRR” type major gene resistance – and so the question
resistance genes Lr1, Lr10 and Lr21 is raised, “has there been an erosion of
(Table 1). minor gene resistance to stripe rust?”
Complicating this issue, virulence for
The question of whether or not individual
a minor stripe rust resistance gene in
minor genes per se are inherently durable
the triticale cultivar Tobruk, most likely
is not insignificant. If, individually, these
acquired via simple mutation, was detected
genes are no more durable than major
in 2009 (C.R. Wellings, unpubl.).
genes, then the durability that is often
attributed to them likely stems from their Clearly, the factors that determine the
use in combinations. Deploying them durability of a given resistance, whether
singly would lead to loss of effectiveness, major or minor, single gene or polygenic,
as has been seen for many major resistance are complex. There is evidence that
genes. Qi et al., (1999) obtained evidence genetic “background” can influence
of race specificity for partial resistance resistance durability (eg. the pvr23 gene
to leaf rust in barley, and Rouse et al., in pepper, Palloix et al., 2009; Lr24 in
(1980) provided evidence for the erosion wheat in Australia, Park et al., 2000),
of slow-mildewing in wheat. The latter
lending credence to the strategy of
authors stated that “the interaction
using reputedly durable sources of rust
between components of slow-mildewing
resistance as “background” resistance, to
resistance and parasitic fitness indicate
which other resistance genes are added
that the resistance could at least to some
extent erode over time”. The recent (McIntosh, 1988).
introduction of an exotic pathotype of
P. striiformis f. sp. tritici into Australia What Have We Learnt, and
resulted in a rapid and major shift in
What About The Future?
the Australian stripe rust flora (Wellings,
2007). This pathotype is very similar to, Experiences with the development and
or the same as, one occurring in North deployment of rust resistant wheat since
Table 1. Rust resistance genes that have been cloned from wheat
the chance of developing new mutant Park RF, Bariana HS, Wellings CR and Wallwork
pathotype. H (2000). Detection and occurrence of a
new pathotype of Puccinia triticina with
virulence for Lr24 in Australia. Australian
Journal of Agricultural Research 53:
References 1-8.
Johnson R (1978). Practical breeding for durable Park RF, Singh D and Bansal U (2010). A
resistance to rust diseases in self-pollinating critical analysis of the additivity of minor
cereals. Euphytica 27: 529–540. gene adult plant resistance to stripe rust. In:
Lagudah ES, McFadden H, Singh RP, Huerta- 8th International Wheat Conference, June
Espino J, Bariana HS and Spielmeyer W 1-4, 2010, St. Petersburg, Russia.
(2006). Molecular genetic characterization Qi X, Jiang G, Chen W, Niks RE, Stam P and
of the Lr34/Yr18 slow rusting resistance Lindhout P (1999). Isolate-specific QTLs
gene region in wheat. Theoretical and for partial resistance to Puccinia hordei in
Applied Genetics (online first). barley. Theoretical and Applied Genetics
McIntosh RA (1988). Genetical strategies for 99: 877-884.
disease control. In Proceedings of the Rouse DI, Nelson RR, MacKenzie DR and
Seventh International Wheat Genetics Armitage CR (1980). Components of rate-
Symposium, Institute of Plant Science reducing resistance in seedlings of four
Research, Trumpington, Cambridge, U.K., wheat cultivars and parasitic fitness in six
Pp. 39-44. isolates of Erysiphe graminis f. sp. tritici.
Milus EA, Seyran E and McNew R (2006). Phytopathology 70: 097-1100.
Aggressiveness of Puccinia striiformis f. sp. Singh D, Park RF and McIntosh RA (2007).
tritici isolates in the South-Central United Characterisation of wheat leaf rust resistance
States. Plant Disease 90: 847-852. gene Lr34 in Australian wheats using
Palloix A, Ayme V and Moury B (2009). components of resistance and the linked
Durability of plant major resistance genes molecular marker csLV34. Australian
to pathogens depends on the genetic Journal of Agricultural Research 58:
background, experimental evidence and 1106-1114.
consequences for breeding strategies. New Wellings CR (2007). Puccinia striiformis in
Phycologist 183: 190-199. Australia: a review of the incursion,
Park RF, Ash GJ and Rees RG (1992). Effects evolution, and adaptation of stripe rust
of temperature on the response of some in the period 1979-2006. Australian
Australian wheat cultivars to Puccinia Journal of Agricultural Research 58:
striiformis f. sp. tritici. Mycological Research 567-575.
96: 166-170.
Management of Wheat Diseases in Asia
major wheat disease in the Caspian Sea time coincides with low relative humidity,
region and in large areas in China may although the pathogen is present, FHB is
increase in regions where maize production only found sporadically in the Himalayan
grows. In South Asia, the effect of spot foothills and in Bangladesh but news
blotch, a devastating foliar disease caused challenges may occur with changing rainfall
by Cochliobolus sativus in warmer growing patterns. Root rots inducing premature
areas can be minimized by reducing death of tillers are increasingly important.
physiological stress through timely sowing The dryland crown root rot (Fusarium spp.
and adequate use of fertilizers which and C. sativus), and the cereal nematode
shows the complex relationship between (Heterodera spp. and Pratylenchus spp.)
crop physiology, disease resistance and should not be ignored. These are all known
yield. Resistance breeding combined with to be much more damaging under sub-
rotations, timely sowing and irrigation or optimal moisture (rainfed or supplementary
even fungicide utilization if affordable, irrigation), particularly where plant growth
are part of integrated crop management is stressed. In some areas, the yield losses
practices minimizing the losses. due to various cereal viruses, some of them
transmitted by insect pests can occasionally
Various wheat diseases are commonly be important. More reports of aphids are
found both in advanced and less advanced emerging including in the North-West plain
agricultural systems. Although soil-borne zones of the Indo Gangetic plains.
pathogens are more frequently found in
rainfed systems, these limitations are not The rust diseases of wheat have historically
ignored since irrigation water availability been one of the major biotic production
may not always be satisfactory and is even constraints worldwide. Stem (or black)
becoming a problem in some optimum rust caused by Puccinia graminis has been
areas. In a long-term perspective, new under control since the semi-dwarf spring
challenges will emerge from environmental wheats of the green revolution occupied
and climate change. Climate change is most of the area in South and West Asia
likely to modify the wheat disease spectrum in the 1960s. Leaf (or brown) rust caused
in some regions and pathogens or pests by Puccinia triticina and stripe rust caused
considered unimportant today may turn out by Puccinia striiformis continue to pose a
to be potential new threats in future. major threat to wheat production over a
large area particularly in Asia. Leaf rust
Spot blotch caused by C. sativus is reported
to prevail on about 9 million hectares of and stripe rust could affect production on
wheat grown after rice in the Indo-Gangetic approximately 60 (63%) and 43 (46%)
plains. However, only 40 per cent of this million hectares, respectively, in Asia, if
surface is probably actually suffering losses susceptible cultivars were grown there.
in the range of 5-15 per cent every year, Movement of Yr9 virulent race of P.
depending on the level and duration of striiformis from the East African highlands
dew, and on heat stress. FHB has been a to the Indian sub-continent over a period
major concern in China where the disease of time between 1985 and 1997 when
is endemic in the Yangtze River Basin. In it eventually reached Nepal is a classical
China, the estimate is that scab may affect example. Earlier, virulence for Yr2 gene
up to 7 million hectares, and 2.5 million first recorded in Turkey had been traced
tons of grain may be lost in epidemic over time from Turkey to Pakistan. These
years. In South Asia, since wheat flowering examples suggest that the entire wheat
166 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
area in Asia except China may comprise advanced lines in East Africa accompanied
a single epidemiologic zone, a reality even by an emergency crossing program to
more of a concern when 'megacultivars' combine effective genes.
cover most of the surface grown to wheat
in a single country or when genotypes with Spot blotch caused by C. sativus is the
the same genetic background are released most serious foliar disease on wheat in
under different names in several countries. warmer areas, particularly in the Eastern
Growing fewer cultivars that carry race- Gangetic plains of the Indian sub-continent
specific resistance genes leads to greater where high average minimum temperature
genetic uniformity and, consequently, during winter, combined with fog or heavy
greater disease vulnerability. Therefore, if dew stimulate the fungus proliferation. The
a new race arises anywhere in this area, disease induces more losses annually in
given time it could spread throughout the the sub-continent than leaf rust. Genetic
epidemiologic region. resistance has been incorporated with
some success in locally adapted genotypes
The strategies to limit damages caused
with high yield potential, and on-farm
by wheat rusts especially in the last
and on-station trials under warm growing
decades followed the principles of a
conditions confirm the progress in breeding
coordinated anticipatory breeding approach.
for spot blotch resistant wheat. However,
The methodology has been particularly
understanding these relations and genetic
successful against leaf and stripe rusts. The
differences controlling resilience to stress
combination of minor genes with additive
effect has been particularly effective in are needed to further improve resistance
reducing disease severity for leaf and stripe and disease control. Crop management,
rust in the last three decades and the timely sowing and good soil fertility are
methodology has been shown to be very important components of an integrate crop
cost effective for leaf rust. Incorporation management for spot blotch. In Nepal,
of high levels of durable (slow rusting) it has been shown that K2O application
resistance to stripe and leaf rusts in PBW had a similar effect than one fungicide
343 and Inqualab-91 through a ‘single application.
backcross-selected bulk’ breeding approach Compared to rusts, powdery mildew conidia
has been very economic to incorporate do not spread over very long distances
additional resistance while keeping the but the fungus' evolutionary rate is high.
high yield potential of broadly adapted Powdery mildew is important in China where
commercial cultivars popular with farmers. at least 12 million hectares can be affected
As a rule, only rust-resistant cultivars but it may also cause concerns in Pakistan
should be anyway recommended in more and western India if susceptible varieties
rust-prone areas. Although stem rust was are grown and the weather is suitable.
almost ignored for several decades since Utilization of resistant cultivars is the most
the green revolution, the significant threat economical and environmentally safe means
represented by Ug99 showed that rapid of controlling powdery mildew.
action was needed to avoid major losses
in large wheat growing areas. The BGRI Changes in cropping systems, as a result
illustrated the importance of international of the introduction of a new rotation or
cooperation and investing in wheat tillage practice, influence the survival and
research. It allowed massive testing of prevalence of residue borne pathogens
Management of Wheat Diseases in Asia 167
necessary to monitor global and regional is usually part of the mandate of such
movement of new rust races to develop departments. These departments are
long-term management strategies at expected to cooperate with other public
regional and global level. offices and stakeholders where necessary
for this task. However, in many cases
In developing countries, small holder
such coordination mechanisms are either
farmers mostly rely on official resources
not present or ineffective. Even without
and assistance for monitoring and control
much investment, such coordination actions
of wheat rust diseases. Due to inadequate
could improve effectiveness of management
resources, wheat crops of small scale
effor ts. Therefore, improvement of
producers are affected most. In many
communication and coordination among
cases, rust diseases are ignored or not
the relevant institutions must be considered
noticed and when climatic conditions
as the key element of the efforts directed
become conducive, especially in humid
to improving national rust management
seasons, farmers are caught unprepared
capacities.
and they encounter significant yield and
quality losses. National coordination Since the rust diseases are air borne and
mechanisms, linkages and institutions play trans-boundary, only national actions can
a very important role in management not be adequate for the management
of the wheat rusts, because of their of wheat rust diseases. It is essential for
airborne and complex nature. Thus, it the national systems to follow up the
is important to evaluate the functions of developments in surrounding countries
the stakeholders and related institutions and regions. Thus, regional cooperation
including their roles, responsibilities and mechanisms and networks are essential in
working relationships for management of view of taking immediate actions where
the rust diseases. necessary and developing medium and
long term management strategies. In this
regard, cooperation with international
Overall Coordination and organizations and programs would be
International Collaboration essential. This is extremely important
especially for monitoring pathogenic
Wheat rust management strategies must
diversity, resistance breeding, sharing of
be based on integrated approaches
experiences and capacity development.
taking into account the importance of
surveillance and monitoring approaches,
cultivar development, registration and Tasks and Institutional
recommendation, seed production, Arrangements for the Integrated
technology transfer and farmer participation. Management of Wheat Rust
In many countries, Ministries responsible
Diseases
for agriculture have departments dealing
with crop protection issues at various For the management of wheat rust diseases,
scales and under a variety of names. In a prerequisite is an effective surveillance and
general, these departments are responsible monitoring approach. In many countries,
for developing and implementing strategies various institutions are involved in this
for the management of crop diseases. task. Surveys are conducted either by
Overall management of wheat rust diseases crop protection department, extension
170 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
of rusts, the extension officers would rust diseases and their impact on wheat
need to be equipped with the necessary productivity. This would be necessary
knowledge and tools. Usually, connection to convince relevant authorities for their
between the central government structure, commitments for contingency plans and
extension offices and farmers is not strong management actions. This is very important
enough and this needs to be strengthened since it is evident that one of the major
through improved communication, farmer problems regarding the management of
participation and coordination mechanisms. wheat rust diseases is lack of sufficient
Farmer organizations should not function policy level awareness, physical capacities
only as administrative or political platforms and human resources.
but also they should contribute to the
In this regard, a comprehensive plan of
work of the public offices in designing
action is necessary to establish a national
and implementing strategies and activities
coordination mechanism and contingency
for management of wheat rust diseases.
plans with the aim of identifying the tasks
Areas of joint actions could include
and actions necessary for the management
participatory breeding, training programs
of the wheat rusts. Responsible institutions
and in some cases even in seed production
must be identified for these tasks and their
and surveillance.
duties and working arrangements must
be outlined through an integrated and
participatory approach. Representatives of
Conclusion
the relevant institutions and stakeholders
Management of wheat rust diseases is including those responsible for research,
a complex challenge for the farmers to surveillance, protection, seeds and extension
achieve themselves due to trans-boundary must meet regularly before or during the
nature and frequent occurrence of new wheat growing season to monitor the
races. Moreover, no single measure developments and identify actions to be
would be adequate for their management taken. In this context, strengthening of
economically in the long-term. A holistic national capacities to improve interaction,
approach would be necessary for planning communication and coordination among
and implementing management actions. the relevant institutions would facilitate
Therefore, all relevant stakeholders and a more effective joint effort through
institutions should play their role and bring participation of all the relevant institutions.
together their capacities in this effort in This would help to manage wheat rust
an integrated manner. For an effective diseases more efficiently and as a result
rust management, in the first place policy minimizing the losses encountered due to
makers and institutions must be made wheat rust diseases and improving wheat
aware of the importance of the wheat productivity.
Global Alliance for Improving Food Security
Recurrent food crises combined with the by 20-30 per cent. As a result, prices will
global financial meltdown, volatile energy be more than double in real terms, eroding
prices, natural resource depletion, and the purchasing power of poor consumers
climate change undercut and threaten and creating conditions for widespread
the livelihoods of millions of poor people. social unrest. This scenario is worsened by
Accounting for a fifth of humanity’s food, stagnating yields, soil degradation, increasing
wheat is second only to rice as a source of irrigation and fertilizer costs, and virulent
calories in the diets of developing country new disease and pest strains.
consumers, and it is the first as a source
of protein. Wheat is an especially critical These challenges are the grand purpose
“stuff of life” for the approximately 1.2 for a revised strategy for the CGIAR
billion “wheat dependent” to 2.5 billion Centers engaged in wheat research. The
“wheat consuming” poor-men, women strategy is designed to ensure that public-
and children who live on less than US$ funded international agricultural research
2 per day and approximately 30 million helps most effectively to dramatically
poor wheat producers and their families. boost farm-level wheat productivity and
Demand for wheat in the developing world stabilize wheat prices, while renewing and
is projected to increase 60 per cent by 2050. fortifying the crop's resistance to globally
At the same time, climate-change-induced important diseases and pests, enhancing
temperature increases are likely to reduce its adaptation to warmer climates, and
wheat production in developing countries reducing its water, fertilizer, labor and fuel
WHEAT: Global Alliance for Improving Food Security and the Livelihoods 173
requirements. The strategy aims to enable, farm productivity and incomes from
support, and greatly strengthen the efforts irrigated and rainfed wheat systems
of national governments, the private sector, will thereby increase by 15–25
farming communities, and international, per cent, contributing to climate
regional and local organizations-creating change mitigation and adaptation
or capitalizing on synergies. while reducing soil erosion and
degradation, labor, and fuel use.
Building on the input, strength, and This SI will interact with SI 1, 3,
collaboration of over 200 partners from the 4, 5, 8, and 10, and with CRP
public and private sector, wheat will be the 1.1, 1.2, 2, 3, 5 and 7.
catalyst and apex of an emergent, highly-
distributed, virtual global wheat innovation SI 3. N u t r i e n t a n d w a t e r - u s e
network. It will couple discovery science in efficiency: Novel methods and
advanced research institutes with national decision guides will allow 15 million
research and extension programs in service small holders in irrigated areas to
of the poor in developing countries. The produce wheat with less fertilizer
CRP on Wheat will pursue 10 "Strategic and water and help smallholder
Initiatives" (SIs) that are build on each wheat producers in rainfed areas
to increase crop yields and reduce
other to prioritize, design, validate and
their risk of economic losses and
disseminate wheat technologies.
hardship. This SI will interact with
SI 1. Technology targeting for greater SI 2, 4, 6, 9, and 10, and with
impact: Work will increase the CRP 1.2 and 5.
effectiveness and impact of wheat
research on food security, poverty SI 4. Productive wheat varieties:
reduction, gender equity, and Robust, farmer-preferred wheat
the environment, through better varieties will bring 1.0 per cent
targeting of new technologies. This annual growth rate in wheat
will be reinforced by improved productivity to be maintained
policies, strategic analysis, and solely by breeding, beyond
institutional innovations that agronomic interventions, and
s t re n g t h e n l i n k a g e s a m o n g despite climate change effects
stakeholders along the wheat that would otherwise increasingly
input-output value chain. This reduce wheat production. This SI
initiative will interact with and will have close linkage with SI 1,
support all other wheat initiatives 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10, and
in priority setting, targeting, impact also with CRP 1, 4 and 7, and
assessment, and monitoring, and GIBS.
with CRP 2, 4 and 7.
SI 5. D u r a b l e r e s i s t a n c e a n d
SI 2. S u s t a i n a b l e w h e a t - b a s e d management of diseases and
systems: Innovation systems that insect pests: Enhanced genetic
encompass farmers and multiple resistance and management options
institutions will enable 10-15 for diseases, insect pests, and viruses
million farmers to adapt and that cause significant economic
implement sustainable, productive, losses on millions of hectares of
and profitable techniques. Total wheat lands will safeguard US$
174 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
account for two-thirds of the world’s systems adapted for lower-income wheat
wheat production. New technologies and growing countries.
an international alliance of concerted
With a targeted annual budget rising to
investments are required to meet wheat
demand from expanding populations, both US$ 93.4 million – to which the CGIAR
rich and poor. currently contributes approximately 18 per
cent of the funding through unrestricted
Activities under wheat focus on the support, and bilateral CGIAR and non-
developing world and have been prioritized CGIAR donors contribute approximately
with developing country stakeholders, 32 per cent of the funding through over
but wheat integrates a global wheat 100 individually designed projects, wheat
community through active participation in technologies and outcomes will lead to 21
initiatives such as the International Wheat per cent increase in productivity in the
Sequencing Consortium, the Borlaug target domain by 2030, adding an annual
Global Rust Initiative, the International value of US$ 1.3 billion by 2020 and US$
Triticeae Mapping Initiative, the Wheat Yield 8.1 billion by 2030. This will reach up to
Consortium, the International Research 40 million farm households and provide
Initiative for Wheat Improvement, and the enough wheat to meet the annual food
Hybrid Consortium, to name a few. As a demand for many wheat consumers—an
result, wheat partners are uniquely placed additional 56 million in 2020 and up to
to exploit and contribute to international 397 million in 2030.
efforts, as well as to apply results for the
benefit of developing world agriculture. Wheat research program will be implemented
in partnership with new and existing partners
In line with specific requests from the from: i) CIMMYT, ICARDA, Bioversity,
global wheat research and development ICRISAT, IFPRI, ILRI, IRRI and IWMI, ii) The
community, leadership from wheat will Genomics and Integrated Breeding Service
come in exploiting the wild relatives of (GIBS), and the Generation Challenge
wheat through new synthetic wheats, in Program, iii) 86 national agricultural
cytogenetic manipulations for alien gene research institutes, iv) 13 regional and
transfer from wild and cultivated relatives, international organizations, v) 71 universities
in finding new sources of pest and disease and advanced research institutes, vi) 15
resistance (particularly rust resistance), private sector organizations, vii) 14 non-
in new physiological tools for selecting governmental organizations and farmer
heat and drought tolerant lines, as well cooperatives, and viii) 20 host countries.
as applying systems-based approaches
and precision agriculture technology to Humanity faces tremendous challenges
improve the productivity, sustainability, and to food security and also must confront
resource-use efficiency of the developing environmental degradation that will worsen
world’s wheat production systems. Through if no measures are taken. Given the
its linkages with international efforts, wheat time needed to create the improvements
will benefit from developments in advanced described, we must act now so that poverty
economies in crop genomics, genetics, and hunger can be reduced, human health
pathology, physiology, and agronomy; and nutrition improved, and resources used
it will direct emerging technologies from sparingly in order that they may support
that work into varieties and production future generations.
Conservation Agriculture in Wheat Systems
The Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) of South are leading to un-sustainability and food
Asia inhabited by 900 million people insecurity. The recent trends and future
(one seventh of the world population), is forecasts for climatic variability further
agriculturally most important regions of the exacerbates the problems by projecting a
world. The IGP, the heartland of the Green decrease in favourable wheat growing areas
Revolution (GR) currently accounts for 15 to the magnitude of 51 per cent by 2050
per cent of global wheat production and (Reeves, 2009). Moreover, keeping pace
serves as breadbasket of the region. Though with wheat demand for the ever increasing
the IGP is highly productive and optimal population while keeping food prices lower,
eco-region for wheat farming systems but, the annual gains in wheat productivity
keeping in view the compounding impact would have to increase from 1.1 to 1.7
of deteriorating natural resources, escalating per cent essentially from the same land
cost of production inputs, and energy, area, with less water, nutrients, fossil fuel
growing labour shortages, (Jat et al., 2009, and labour. In this regard, the important
2012; Saharawat et al., 2010), receding question that comes to fore is that where
ground water table coupled with increasing will the future productivity gains come
irrigation costs (Rodell et al., 2009) and from and will germplasm improvement
loss of biodiversity, future gains in wheat research repeat the productivity gains
productivity and production with greater achieved in the last 4 decades? It seems
or even current resource use efficiency that much of these gains in wheat
will be challenging. Recognized as second production in the region will have to come
generation problems of the GR, these increasingly from adoption of ‘Best-Bet’
Conservation Agriculture in Wheat Systems of Indo-Gangetic Plains 177
terminal heat effects from 77 kilogram per ecologies (e.g. plains and sloppy lands)
hectare per day under conventional tillage and farmer circumstances may vary the
to 65 kilogram per hectare per day even importance of the ‘unvarying objectives'
under late planting (after 21 November till according to local situations, resource
20 December; most wheat in EGP planted endowments of the farmers and farming
during this window). Further, direct drilling systems. The CA is an innovation process
of wheat (no-till) in residues (surface for iterative guidance and location specific
mulching) keeps canopy temperature lower adaptations that suggests that CA systems
by 1.0 to 1.5oC during grain filling stage are ‘divisible’ in nature and ‘flexible’ in
(cooling effect due to transpiration) owing operation allowing farmers to benefit from
to sustained soil moisture availability to them under diverse situations. Also, the CA
the plants and results in significant yield based crop management technologies are
advantages (up to 0.5 t/ha). In cotton-wheat an “open” approach, easier to mainstream
systems of western IGP, the innovative CA and be able to immediately respond
based technologies facilitates advancing present day critical needs that address
wheat planting in standing cotton (relay concerns of emerging challenges of resource
seeding) with yield gains of 0.5 to 1.0 degradation, water, labour and energy
ton per hectare (Buttar et al., 2012) shortages, declining farm profitability and
in addition to other associated virtues changing climates.
and can potentially benefit 4.5 million
Through significant efforts of the regional
hectares wheat acreage in South Asia. In
other wheat based rotations i.e. maize- NARES, CGIAR Centers, ARIs, NGOs,
wheat and legume-wheat, permanent private sector organizations including
beds have shown monetary benefits to manufacturers and innovative farmers of
the tune of US$ 200-300 per hectare the region, the CA based technologies in
compared to conventional practices in wheat systems has been extended and
addition of other benefits of savings on adopted by large number of farmers to
water, labour, improving soil health and cover nearly 2.0 million hectare area in
environmental benefits. Layering laser South Asia (Erenstein and Laxmi, 2008).
assisted precision land levelling over But, the growth in accelerated adoption
CA based crop establishment techniques of these technologies during recent past
has additive effects (Jat et al., 2011). has slowed down due to one or the other
However, defining appropriate component factors including dynamics of adaptability
technologies suited to local needs and align and suitability of component technologies
them with CA principles needs immediate and policy issues. Therefore, the CA
and focussed attention for potential benefits based management solutions as described
and large scale uptake of CA. For example, above together with putting right policy in
significant tillage × genotype × cropping perspective to support investments on CA
system interactions were observed in wheat machinery, region-specific seed production,
systems suggesting tailoring genotypes for creation of service windows, develop
target management scenario and thus CDM like mechanism, carbon credits and
redefining recommendations for cultivar environmental services for farmers, extend
choices (Yadav et al., 2011). Therefore, reach of farmers through ICTs, develop
the way crop management is being innovation systems and common regional
practised in different production systems, platforms for knowledge sharing can help
Conservation Agriculture in Wheat Systems of Indo-Gangetic Plains 179
In Pakistan, wheat being the staple food behind the growth in demand over the
is cultivated on an area of about 8.8 years. Amongst the important wheat yield
million hectares in almost every part of limiting factors are late planting, due
the country. It contributes 14.4 per cent to late harvesting of crops and lack of
to the value added in agriculture and technological innovations. Late planting
3.2 per cent to GDP. Over the past three is a major problem in most rice-wheat
decades, increased agricultural productivity areas, except for the Indian Punjab.
occurred largely due to the deployment Sowing of wheat after mid November
of high-yielding cultivars and increased causes reduction in grain yield by one
fertilizer use. It is grown in different per cent per day. Farmers generally plant
cropping systems such as cotton-wheat, wheat late in rice-wheat sugarcane-wheat,
rice-wheat, sugarcane-wheat, maize-wheat, and cotton-wheat areas of Pakistan
and fallow-wheat. Of these, cotton- due to late harvesting of these kharif
wheat and rice-wheat systems together crops which results in drastic low yields
account about 60 per cent of the total because the crop is exposed to heat
wheat area whereas rainfed wheat covers stress at grain filling stage leading to
almost 15 per cent area. Rotations with the formation of shriveled grains. Any
maize-sugarcane, pulses and fallow are delay in planting would reduce yield
also important. Wheat is indispensable drastically. For example, wheat planted
source of carbohydrates for the poor. after 10th November would reduce the
Its production in the system is lagging yield as high as 42 kg/ha/day (1% loss
Enhancing Wheat Production through Resource Conservation 181
per day). Late -planted crop has lower reasons for low productivity and instability
germination, fewer tillers, smaller heads, include delayed harvesting of kharif crops
shriveled grains and lower biomass than like cotton, sugarcane and rice, and
the timely planted crop. Therefore, the subsequently late planting of wheat, non
change in sowing time from present to availability of improved inputs like seed,
two weeks earlier could result in addition inefficient fertilizer use, weed infestation,
to 2.0 million tones in national wheat shortage of irrigation water, drought in
production. The RWC's major recent rainfed and terminal heat stress, soil
success has been the development, testing degradation, and inefficient extension
and deployment of resource conserving services. Moreover, farmers are not aware
technologies for growing wheat after of modern technologies because of weak
rice (Hobbs, 2001). Currently, only 20 extension services system.
per cent of wheat is being planted at
optimum planting time (15th October to
15th November). Improved tillage and Production Constraints
crop establishment methods present real
To improve system productivity, wheat
potential for improving the sustainability
crop must be planted at the optimal time.
and productivity. It is, therefore, imperative
Late planting not only reduces yield but
to look for new interventions of resource
also reduces the efficiency of the inputs
conservation technologies and to exploit
applied to the wheat crop. The reasons
the all-possible available resouces to
for late planting of wheat in the rice-wheat
enhance the crop productivity for the
system are many. Farmers generally plant
enhancement of farmer's income and
wheat late in rice-wheat, sugarcane-wheat,
livelihood.
and cotton systems in Pakistan due to
There is around 60 per cent yield gap late harvesting of these crops which
in wheat (Fig. 1), which needs to be results in drastic low yields because the
narrowed down. Wheat production in crop is exposed to heat stress at grain
the country, however, has been well filling period leading to the formation of
below potential and variable. The major shriveled grains.
Grain yield (t/ha)
Any delay in planting would reduce yield threshing and handling the rice crop before
drastically. For example, wheat planted preparing land for wheat (Fig. 3).
after November 20 would reduce the
Coupled with the problems of late planting
yield as high as 42 kg/ha/day (1% loss
of wheat is the problem of poor germination
per day). Late-planted crop has lower
and crop stand. Most farmers in Pakistan
germination, fewer tillers, smaller heads,
sow wheat by broadcasting the seed into
shriveled grains and lower biomass than
ploughed land and incorporating it by
the timely planted crop (Fig. 2).
another ploughing. Part of the reason for
Therefore, the change in sowing time from this is residue management problems in
present to two weeks earlier could result fields following rice. The loose straw and
in additional yield of 2.0 million tons in stubbles are raked and clog the seed drills.
national wheat production. Broadcast seed results in seed placement
at many different depths and into different
The other major cause of late wheat
soil moistures, variable germination. land
planting is the long turnaround time
preparation resulting in loose stubble and
between rice harvest and wheat planting.
a problem of drill clogging.
Long turnaround can be caused by many
factors, including excessive tillage, soil
moisture problems (too wet or too dry), Production Strategy
lack of animal or mechanical power for
ploughing, and the priority farmers place on Rice-wheat cropping system is the major
Fig. 3. The most common causes of late wheat planting following rice harvest
prefer to level their fields with laser food security of the people of Pakistan
technology. Laser land leveling is a but its sustainability and stability is
process of smoothing the land surface threatened due to various unknown
(± 2 cm) from its average elevation factors. The improved package of resource
using laser-equipped drag buckets. This conservation technologies have great
practice uses large horsepower tractors potential for improving the sustainability
and soil movers that are equipped with and productivity of the system. To improve
global positioning systems (GPS) and/or system productivity, the wheat crop must be
laser-guided instrumentation so that the planted at the optimal time, Late planting
soil can be moved either by cutting or not only reduces yield but also reduces
filling to create the desired slope/level. the efficiency of the inputs applied to the
This technique is well known for achieving wheat crop. The reasons for late planting
higher levels of accuracy in land leveling of the wheat in the rice-wheat system are
and offers great potential for water savings many. Zero tillage method of the planting
and higher grain yield. can address the issue of late planting in
rice-wheat cropping system.
Major benefits It is a method of sowing a crop without
The laser land levelling has the following prior cultivation and with very little soil
major benefits: i) uniform moisture disturbance at seeding. In rice-wheat
environment for crops, ii) more level systems, use of a tractor-drawn seed
and smooth soil surface, iii) reduction in drill with 6 to 11 inverted - T tines to
seeds, fertilizer, chemicals and fuel used seed wheat directly into unploughed
in cultural operations, iv) improved field fields with a single pass of the tractor.
traffic ability, v) uniform distribution of This increases the amount of water and
organic matter (nutrients) in the soil and
water in the field, vi) uniform germination
decreases erosion.
and growth of crop and vii) reduction
in time and water required to irrigate In the late 1980s, 34 zero-tillage trials
the field. were conducted on farmers' fields over
three years in the rice-growing belt of the
Pakistan Punjab (Aslam et al., 1993). Some
Zero Tillage
farmers grow long-duration, photosensitive,
Rice-wheat cropping system is the major high-quality basmati rice that matures
cereal production system in Pakistan late. Farmers prefer to grow basmati rice
occupying approximately 70 per cent total despite its lower yields because of its high
cultivated land. The system meets the market value, good straw quality (used
Enhancing Wheat Production through Resource Conservation 185
for livestock feed), and lower fertilizer problems are typically more severe under
requirements. conventional tillage. Longer-term research
is needed to anticipate future consequences
The other major cause of late wheat
of tillage changes on weed populations.
planting is the long turnaround time Early planting is the main reason for the
between rice harvest and wheat planting. additional yields obtained under zero-
Long turnaround can be caused by many tillage. Zero-tillage plots were planted
factors, including excessive tillage, soil as close as possible to 20 November,
moisture problems (too wet or too dry), the optimum date for planting wheat in
lack of animal or mechanical power for Pakistan. Crop cuts have shown that zero-
ploughing and the priority farmers place tillage produces 400-500 kg per hectare
on threshing and handling the rice crop more grain than traditional systems. This
before preparing land for wheat. Coupled is attributed to earlier, timely planting,
with the problems of late planting of wheat fewer weeds, better plant stands and
is the problem of poor germination and improved fertilizer efficiency because
plant stands. Most farmers in the IGP of placement with the seed drill. Some
sow wheat by broadcasting the seed into farmers are now in their 15th year of
ploughed land and incorporating it by using zero-tillage and find no deleterious
another ploughing. Part of the reason for effects that would make them revert back
this is residue management problems in to the traditional system.
fields following rice. The loose straw and
stubbles clog the seed drills. Broadcast seed
results in seed placement at many different
Bed Planting
depths and into different soil moistures, In bed planting system, wheat or other crops
resulting in variable germination. Land are planted on raised beds. This practice
preparation resulted in loose stubble and has increased dramatically in the last
a problem of drill clogging. decade or so in the high yielding, irrigated
wheat-growing area of northwestern bed
Significantly fewer weeds were found
and furrow system of irrigation consists
under zero-tillage than conventional
tillage (Verma and Srivastava 1994), of alternate furrows and flat beds. Most
contrary to the experience in developed of the crops grown in the IBIS are sown
countries (Kuipers, 1991; Christian and on the flat in basins using flood irrigation
Bacon, 1990). This observation has been method. With application losses of around
confirmed at many other locations. In 336 25-40 per cent. Better irrigation efficiency
on-farm trials in Haryana state, India, can be achieved by adopting Bed and
significantly lower weed counts were Furrow irrigation technique. This system of
found in fields with zero-tillage either irrigation has been introduced in Pakistan
before or after herbicide applications .This very recently. Causes of low application
difference can be explained by the fact efficiencies include over-irrigation, improper
that, in the rice-wheat cropping system, irrigation methods and timing, non-specific
most weeds in the wheat crop germinate irrigation scheduling and non levelled
only in wheat season. Because the soil fields (Gill, 1994). The bed-and-furrow
is disturbed less under zero-tillage, fewer system of irrigation for wheat and other
weeds are exposed and germinate. Weed row crops have many benefits over the
186 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
soils possess potential to drain faster, without land preparation in rice standing
make better seedbeds, and improve soil stubbles and heavy rice residue just after
ability to deliver water and nutrients to rice harvesting, ii) uniform drilling of seed,
crops. Burning crop residues lower the soil iii) sowing wheat in the residual moisture,
ability to produce high yields as over 60 iv) saving of irrigation water, v) timely
per cent of the nutrients stored in crop planting of wheat, vi) chopped residue as
residue are lost through burning. Besides, mulch helps in moisture and temperature
burnt soils require increasing amounts conservation, vii) less weed infestation,
of fertilizer to be productive. Chopped viii) enhanced soil fertility, ix) decreased
rice straw is also a valuable commodity pollution, x) saves beneficial insects,
as it can be sold to the local companies xi) enhanced soil microbial activity, xii)
/ industries making products like straw protection of the fertile surface soil against
board and paper. Supplementary income wind and water erosion, xiii) increased
through selling of rice chaff in the market soil NO3 concentration by 46 per cent,
in addition to improving soil structure is xiv) Increased nitrogen uptake by 29 per
its additional importance. The continuous cent and xv) Increased yield.
developments have resulted in the “Combo
Happy seeder/Turbo seeder”, a compact,
Wheat Straw Chopper
light weight, tractor mounted machine
with the capability of managing the total Wheat har vesting through combine
loose straw and anchored rice residue in harvester is gaining popularity in Pakistan.
strips just in front of each furrow opener. The conventional combines are, however,
It consists of two separate units a straw mainly concerned with the grains, which
management unit and a sowing unit. generally leave the straw un-cut and
The Turbo Seeder cuts, lifts and throws un-chopped in the field for subsequent
the standing stubble and loose straw and burning. To manage the straw from
sows in one operational pass of the field combine harvested wheat fields, a tractor
while retaining the rice residue as surface operated wheat straw chopper-cum-blower,
mulch. To reduce the straw load over having the capability to harvest uncut
the seed row, the straw managing rotor straw and to pickup the combine ejected
was modified to cut standing stubbles for straw from the combine-harvested fields
7.5 cm width (just in front of the furrow for subsequent chopping was identified
openers) and leaving the standing stubbles from the region.
in other 12.5 cm strip between the two
One unit of the machine was acquired
furrow openers. It was observed that with
through the Rice-Wheat Consortium.
the above modification nearly 30 per cent
The chopper was initially tested and
of the total straw load was reduced. This
demonstrated at National Agricultural
power tiller operated driven machine can
Research Center (NARC), Islamabad and
be operated with 40-60 HP tractors and
subsequently at farmers’ fields to assess
can cover one acre in 1-2 hours.
its suitability for adoption in the local
conditions. In view of field performance
Benefits of the chopper, the farmers showed their
The major benefits of crop residue keen interest in its use. The machine is
management are: i) planting of wheat capable of converting wheat stubbles
188 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
on one acre into straws in one hour by Christian DG and Bacon ETG (1990). A
consuming just six liters of diesel. The long-term comparison of ploughing, tyne
chopper not only converts stubbles in to cultivation and direct drilling on the growth
and yield of winter cereals and oilseed
straw but also collects wheat spike-lets
rape on clayey and silty soils. Soil and
/ grains from the field left from being
Tillage Research 18: 311-331.
harvested through combined harvester in
a specified chamber in the machine after Gill MA (1994). On-farm water management
separating it from the stubbles. The straw historical overview. In: National conference
on On-farm Water Management, 29–30
so collected in the sac or in the trolley
May, Islamabad, Pakistan.
fitted behind the chopper also reduces
labour requirement to load straw over Hobbs, PR, Singh Y, Giri GS, Lauren JG and
the trolley. In Pakistan, the technology Duxbury JM (2001). Direct seeding and
reduced tillage options in the rice-wheat
has gained the popularity and almost
systems of the Indo-Gangetic Plains of South
2,000 wheat straw choppers are being Asia. In: Proceedings of the workshop on
used by the farmers and more than 30 direct seeding in Asian rice system. IRRI,
manufacturers are making units. The cost Los Banos, Philippians, in press.
of unit is US $ 4,000-5,000.
Kuipers H (1991). Agronomic aspects of
ploughing and non-ploughing. Soil and
Tillage Research 21: 167-176.
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Aslam M, Majid A, Hashmi NI and Hobbs retention and nitrogen management on
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Impact of Climate Change on Wheat Productivity
Cereals hold the major share of food region by 2080-2100 (Rosenzweig and
grains and wheat is the most important Parry, 1994; Fischer et al. 2002; Parry
crop world-wide. Among the 12 wheat et al. 2004; IPCC 2007b) under business
mega-environments (ME), Indo-Gangetic as usual scenario without considering the
Plains (ME1) and Central India (ME4C) future technological developments and
are the major wheat producing regions adaptation by the farmers and policy
in South Asia. Wheat yields need to be interventions. Even though, wheat is
increased from current 2.6 to 3.5 tons irrigated in majority of the regions, about 15
per hectare in coming 25 years (Ortiz et per cent of area, mainly in some parts of
al., 2008) to meet the projected increase central and eastern India, is supported only
in demand due to increase in population. by the residual soil moisture. Generally, it
For India, the projected demand for wheat is sown in the second week of November,
is anywhere between 93 to 103 million after the harvest of monsoon season crop,
tons by year 2020. However, the wheat but in some regions, it is sown late in
production is likely to face challenges from December exposing it to high terminal
climate change apart from several issues heat stress. On the other hand, wheat
like competition for resources such as land, seedlings in some parts of central India
water and labour, in spite of recent gains also experience early heat stress.
in production.
The crop is sensitive to high temperature
Projected increase in temperatures due to which affects photosynthesis, growth and
climate change is likely to affect the crop development and number of grains and
production by 10-40 per cent in Indian thus grain yield. Higher temperatures
190 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
during March in 2004, in the Indo-Gangetic consideration, the impacts are projected
Plains, caused wheat crop to mature earlier to about 18 per cent in 2020, 23 per
by 10-20 days resulting in reduction in cent in 2050 and 25 per cent in 2080
wheat production more than 4 million scenarios, if no adaptation measures are
tons in the country (Samra and Singh, followed. However, adaptation to climate
2002) while terminal heat stress in Punjab change by sowing improved varieties
in 2010 reduced yields by about 5.8 per and employing improved input efficiency
cent (Gupta et al., 2010). Recent analysis technologies coupled with application of
on heat stress on wheat yield in certain additional nitrogen can not only offset the
pockets of IGP indicated a reduction in negative impacts, but can also improve
yield up to 20 per cent due to a 2°C the net yields by about 10 per cent in
increase in seasonal temperatures (Lobell 2020. However, in 2050 scenario, such
et al., 2012). On the other hand, low adaptation measures marginally improve
temperatures can be problematic for seed yields, while in 2080 scenario, the wheat
set. Projected increase in temperatures yields, are projected vulnerable by about
and increased frequency of heat and cold 6 per cent in spite of above adaptation
waves, therefore, can cause significant strategy.
constraints for wheat production in
Apar t from the gradual increase in
future climate scenarios. Assessments on
seasonal temperatures, climate change
the impacts of climate change on wheat
is projected to increase the frequency
indicate the possibility of loss of 4-5 million
of heat and cold waves. On all India
tons in production with every rise of 1°C
basis, a 36 year (1969-2005) simulation
temperature throughout the growing period
analysis indicated that coincidence of
even after considering carbon fertilization
a 3 oC increase in temperature during
but no other adaptation benefits (Aggarwal,
flowering or initial phase of grain filling
2008). With 3°C increase in temperature,
could reduce production by about 6 per
the loss is projected to be 19 million tons
cent while a similar temperature increase
and with 5°C increase this will be about
during grain ripening phase could cause
27.5 million tons (Aggarwal and Swaroopa
about 4 per cent reduction in production
Rani, 2009).
(Kumar et al., unpublished).
Recently, an analysis on the regional In order to meet the demand, wheat yield
impact of climate change on wheat yield should increase to 3.8-4 tons per hectare
in climate scenarios of 2020 (2010-2040), by 2020 (Kumar, 1998) and more than 4
2050 (2041-2070) and 2080 (2071-2100)
tons per hectare by 2050 AD. This target
periods for A1b, A2, B1 and B2 emission
may further increase if area under wheat
scenarios was carried out using InfoCrop-
is reduced in future. In India, past 45
wheat model (Kumar et al., 2012).
years have seen a gradual improvement
The study indicated that climate change in wheat yields and the yield gap reduced
is projected to reduce the timely sown by about 0.5 per cent every year. Since
irrigated wheat production by about 6 a large gap between potential, attainable
per cent in 2020 scenario from existing and actual yields exists, it is important to
values (Fig. 1). When late and very reduce the yield gap through technology
late sown wheat also is taken into targeting. For instance, introduction of
Impact of Climate Change on Wheat Productivity and Adaptation Strategies 191
Fig. 1. Impact of climate change on timely sown wheat yields in India in 2020 scenario
(PRECIS)
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14: 1-3. the heat? Agriculture, Ecosystem and
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Developing Heat Tolerant Wheat
Wheat, the third largest staple food in high temperature environments with high
the world after corn and rice, is largely resolution and the response of genotypes
adapted to low temperature environments. with precision high enough to dissect
Hence, contribution of wheat to global food the mechanisms of tolerance to stress.
security is highly vulnerable to predicted Techniques and screening protocols to
rise in ambient temperatures. With large differentiate environmental effect from the
area sown to wheat in subtropics, South genetic effect of thermal stress on plants
Asian countries rely more on spring can be of immense use in associating traits
wheat, which is better adapted to high with genes. Here, an attempt has been
temperatures relative to winter wheat. made to highlight the possible strategies
However, even spring wheat is highly for genetic improvement of wheat for post
prone to rise in temperature during the anthesis thermal stress tolerance taking into
grain growth phase that often coincides consideration recent advances in science
with declining soil moisture level. The and technologies.
grain growth phase is highly sensitive
to both gradual and sudden rise in
temperatures that often occur during The Target for Thermal
crop season particularly when sowing is Tolerance in Wheat Based on
delayed. Hence, wheat genotypes tolerant Estimated Losses due to Rise
to post-anthesis thermal stresses are crucial
in Temperature
for climate resilience of wheat production
in the region. Wheat improvement for The optimum post-anthesis temperature
thermal stress can be accomplished by for the maximum kernel weight in wheat
integrated efforts to characterize both the is about 15oC (Chowdhury and Wardlaw,
194 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
1978), and each 1oC rise in temperature to reduce the possible damage due to
above the optimum can cause a 3-5 per thermal stress even by 10-20 per cent
cent reduction in single grain weight under can significantly contribute to sustainability
both controlled environments (Wardlaw of wheat production in hot environment.
et al., 1989) and field conditions. This is To accomplish the task, we should assess
also evident from one of the recent studies the causes of high temperature induced
where rise in temperature by 10oC above losses and options available for genetic
20-15oC under controlled environment improvement for thermal tolerance.
reduced grain yield by 33 per cent
(Morteza et al., 2003). Several experiments
conducted under field conditions with Causes of Reduction in Grain
staggered sowing to expose late sown Yield at High Temperature
plant to higher temperature at the time
of grain filling have revealed that delay in
Stress
sowing by a month can reduce the grain The reduction in grain growth duration is
yield of spring wheat genotypes grown the major cause of losses in productivity
across the Indian sub-continent by 25-30 under high temperature environments.
per cent (AICW & BIP Reports). Further, in many of our current cultivars,
Observed variations in average growing- heat stress induces pollen sterility, seed
abortion during early development, and
season temperatures of ±2°C in the main
an early transition to the dry seed stage,
wheat growing regions of Australia can
which results in small shriveled kernels.
cause reductions in grain production of
The decline in the rate of grain growth
up to 50 per cent mainly due to increased
is mostly due to a decrease in the rate
leaf senescence as a result of temperatures
of starch accumulation; protein deposition
more than 34°C (Asseng et al., 2011).
is less temperature sensitive (Bhullar and
Analysis of predicted climate change on
Jenner, 1985). In addition, vulnerability
wheat in Northern India has revealed
of key enzymes such as Rubisco Activase,
that each degree rise in temperature can
rapid leaf senescence is one of the
reduce wheat yield by four million tons
major causes of reduction as it impedes
(Aggarwal et al., 2010). Recent analysis of
supply of current photosynthesis for grain
satellite data on phenology and senescence
development.
in wheat grown in Indo-Gangetic Plains
have revealed that the loss of grain yield
can be as high as 20 per cent with an
Crop Improvement Options
increase in ambient temperature by 2oC.
If extrapolated, grain yield losses can be Persistent efforts are being made to
up to 16 million tons with the present develop wheat genotypes tolerant to high
total production of more than 80 million temperatures. However, the tolerance to
tons per year. Thus, from experiments heat stress is a difficult trait for the wheat
under controlled environmental condition, breeder to select. In addition, tolerance is
field experiments and crop simulation genetically and physiologically complex,
model, One can have a fair idea about and its expression is highly influenced by
magnitude of losses at plant as well as the various environmental factors during
regional scale. Optimistic research efforts growth and development of grains. For
Developing Terminal Heat Tolerant Wheat 195
irrigation. It would be difficult to find a now sufficiently evolved to get the best out
common solution across the heat stress of minimum resources available for the
environments and hence, the success farmers. Previously, agronomic practices
may be ensured by environment specific were designed to suit new genotypes.
approach for genetic improvement. Further, However, new genotypes suited to existing
the knowledge of ground realities can resource conservation technologies needs to
help in developing desired plant types to be designed to avoid technology footprints
suit high temperature environment. For on the environment while sustaining the
example, in the North Western Plains of productivity under hot environments.
India, substantial area sown to wheat is
Escape mechanism in different
irrigated. However, farmers hesitate to
perspective: Since, escaping heat stress
irrigate the field in the month of March
had been the major strategy to develop
which coincides with grain filling mainly
high temperature tolerant genotypes,
because of heavy winds that can lead to
the focus of crop improvement was on
crop lodging. In the absence of sufficient
developing short duration varieties for
irrigation, even those plants that are
high temperature environment. However,
highly capable of keeping their canopy
inherent escape mechanisms, if any, in
cool may not express the tolerance. These
wheat genotypes should be explored to
situations indicate necessity to redefine
avoid high temperature hours for vital
the suitable thermo tolerant varieties.
processes contributing to grain development
Obviously, tolerance to limited moisture
in the diurnal cycle. Genotypes that can
and crop lodging should be integral
flower and release pollen in early hours
components of the thermal tolerance in
of the day may have advantage over
wheat genotypes.
the one which release pollens during
Special emphasis on adaptation to late and hot hours that contribute to
high night temperatures: Most of the pollen sterility. In addition, the genotypes,
studies assume that the trends in day which can quickly recover from heat
temperatures are often followed by trends in stress and those which can utilize night
night temperature. This assumption needs hours for synthetic processes, if any,
to be revisited, taking into consideration the involving translocation of stem reserves
temperature trends emerging from global and carbohydrate accumulation in grain
warming. Studies have indicated that night filling need to be characterized.
temperatures are more crucial and are
Temperature resilient metabolism:
highly correlated with grain yield reduction
Rubisco activase (RCA) constrains the
relative to day temperatures as indicated
photosynthetic potential of plants and
by All India Coordinated Wheat and Barley
endogenous levels of RCA could serve
Improvement Project (AICW&BIP) data.
Hence, the strategies for screening wheat as an important determinant of plant
genotypes for high temperature tolerance productivity under high temperatures
needs to be reoriented. (Ristic et al., 2009). A significant, positive,
linear correlation was found between
Breeding for given resource the expression of wheat 45-46 kDa RCA
management conditions: With long and plant productivity under heat-stress
history of research and practice in real conditions. Results support the hypothesis
field conditions, resource management has that endogenous levels of RCA could play
Developing Terminal Heat Tolerant Wheat 197
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Improving Quality Traits in Wheat
medium and extensible gluten. For pasta (LMW) glutenin sub-units. High molecular
products, hard wheat (T. durum) with weight glutenin subunits (HMW-GS) are
strong gluten, high protein, low yellow components of the glutenin polymer
berry incidence and high β-carotene and, therefore, play a major role in the
content are required. determination of the unique visco-elastic
properties of wheat dough. The HMW
Grain hardness (GH) is an important
glutenin subunits 1Dx5+1Dy10 (‘d’ allele)
parameter, which is used as grading factor
have been associated with high dough
to determine wheat types and also to
strength and good bread making quality,
define end-product quality. The difference
whereas, allelic sub-units 1Dx2+1Dy12
in hardness between hard and soft wheat
(containing the ‘a’ allele) are associated
is due to one major gene, designated as
with poor bread making properties. The
Hardness (Ha), located on the short arm
LMW-GS represent about one third of
of chromosome 5D. A 15kDa protein is
the total seed storage proteins and about
shown to be present in the extracts of water
60 per cent of total glutenins. The low
washed starch granules from soft wheat
molecular weight glutenin sub-units (LMW-
and is absent in those of hard grains.
Thus, this protein is a marker for grain GS) are 30-50KDa in size, comprising
softness and has been called as “Friabilin” approximately 40 per cent of the prolamin
or “Grain softness protein” (GSP). It is fraction of wheat and together with the
primarily composed of two sub-polypeptides, HMW-GS, form the structural backbone of
puroindoline-a and puroindoline-b. the glutenin polymer. In general, the LMW-
GS are associated with dough resistance
Glutenin has the important property of and extensibility and some allelic forms
swelling in various non-reducing solvents of LMW-GS show even greater effects on
(dilute acetic acid, lactic acid and SDS)
these properties than HMW-GS. Gliadins
and the swelling volume appears to be
are monomeric proteins, which are, in
directly related to quantity and quality
their native state, soluble in 70 per cent
of glutenin. SDS sedimentation volumes
aqueous alcohol. In accordance with their
also have been highly influenced by
mobility in Acid-PAGE, they are divided
environment, crop season, and their
into four groups: α–(fastest mobility),
interaction with cultivars. Nevertheless,
β-, γ- and ω-gliadins (slowest mobility).
SDS sedimentation volumes are highly
The molecular weight ranges from 30 to
heritable and can be used for screening
75kDa. Specific ω-gliadin bands have been
early generation progeny.
correlated with both dough strength and
Proteins are classified into different dough weakness.
solubility groups such as albumins (soluble
in water and dilute buffers), globulins The rheological properties of dough are a
(not soluble in water but soluble in saline key determinant of the quality of baked
solutions), prolamins (which are soluble products. The gluten matrix, which encloses
in 70-90 per cent alcohol), and glutenins the starch granules and fibre fragments, is
(which are soluble in dilute acids or a major determinant of dough rheology.
alkalis). Two major classes of glutenin Each class of wheat is characterized by
subunits have been identified in wheat unique rheological properties that determine
endosperm: the high molecular weight its suitability for making specific products.
(HMW) and the low molecular weight Within the cereal industry, there has been
Improving Quality Traits in Wheat 201
a long history of using descriptive empirical extraction rate, wet gluten, dry gluten,
measurements of rheological properties gluten index and high molecular weight
like mixograph, extensiograph, alveograph, glutenin subunits (HMWGS). Promising
etc. These tests are used to predict baking genotypes have been identified showing
performance and behaviour of dough superiority in these quality traits.
during processing before baking.
The 1BL/1RS translocation has been Development of Product
widely used in global wheat breeding, Specific and Nutritionally Rich
even though it has a significant and Wheat Varieties
negative effect on dough qualities for both
bread and Chinese noodle. Selection for The identified varieties for various wheat
products are the result of the spill over
or against the presence of rye chromatin
of the breeding program for high yield
may be accomplished using DNA markers
and disease resistance. They have not
to detect the presence of rye repetitive
came out from any systematically adopted
DNA sequences. Using the gene specific
quality-breeding program. What is needed
primers for ω-secalin, a 1076-bp fragment
is that right from selection of parents
was generated in genotypes with the
and advancement of generation, apart
1BL/1RS translocation, whereas a 636-bp from high yield and disease resistance,
fragment for Glu-B3 locus was amplified the product specific quality requirements
in genotypes without 1BL/1RS. are also taken into account so as to
Diagnostic DNA markers for the prediction develop varieties, which can make various
of wheat quality are a useful addition wheat products of international standard.
to the range of tools available to wheat Focused efforts in germplasm evaluation
breeding programs, especially for early and working out relationship of end
generation screening of wheat lines. products with different yield and quality
DNA markers offer the advantages of components are required. Quality wheat
being applicable to any developmental breeding program has helped in selecting
stage and any tissue of the plant, and of good progenies for chapati and bread
producing results that are independent of quality. Materials are available in F2 – F5
environmental conditions. generations exhibiting more than 8.5/10.0
About ten thousand wheat grain samples chapati quality score and upto 700 ml
belonging to different AICW & BIP trials bread loaf volume. Extensive evaluation
are analysed every year. All the second year of germplasm (both indigenous and
Advanced Varietal Trials entries including exotic) is being done, promising parents
are selected and used in the crossing/back
checks are evaluated for chapati, bread,
crossing block in an attempt to develop
biscuit and pasta. Product specific genotypes
product specific wheat varieties.
were identified for chapati (>8.0 score out of
10.0), bread (>575 ml loaf volume), biscuit
(>8.0 spread factor) and pasta (>6.5 score Use of Molecular Marker
out of 9.0). All the first and second year Technology Approach in Wheat
entries including checks are analysed for
Quality Improvement
quality parameters like grain appearance,
test weight, protein, grain hardness index, Basic studies on identification of bio-
sedimentation value, moisture, phenol test, chemical/molecular markers associated
202 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
with key nutritional components like low in the northern parts of the country
protein, β-carotene, iron and zinc are (10-11.5 per cent) and it improves in
further required to adopt bio-fortification the central and peninsular region where
in wheat. Molecular marker technology it remains between 12-13 per cent. The
approaches have been used for the average extraction rate is the maximum in
improvement of wheat quality. The Madhya Pradesh (70.7%). The baking data
recombinant inbred lines (RILs) have been clearly indicated that the upper part of the
developed for various quality parameters country comprising of Himachal Pradesh,
and wheat end products. Several markers Uttranchal and Punjab is comparatively
(STMS, ISSR etc.) have been identified better in biscuit quality. The middle part of
associated with the quality traits required the country, particularly Madhya Pradesh,
for making excellent end products. The Rajasthan and Gujarat, is good in chapati
RILs and released wheat varieties have quality. Likewise, the lower part of the
been extensively studied for HMWGS, country comprising Gujarat, Maharashtra
LMWGS, Y-gliadin, Ppo loci, pin a, pin and Karnataka is comparatively better for
b and 1B/1R translocation. Construction bread loaf volume. Based on the quality
of framework map and QTL analysis requirements of various end products
has been done. The use marker-aided and the type of wheat available, Indian
selection (MAS) for the improvement of wheat cultivars have been divided into
end product quality is in progress. 5 classes. Depending upon the extent of
physical parameters like hectolitre weight,
damaged kernels, foreign matter, broken
Quality of Indian Wheat and shrunken kernels, total defects and
More than six thousand wheat samples, other classes, 5 grades have been proposed
collected from main mandis of 13 major for Indian wheat.
wheat growing states, have been analyzed
for grading and non-grading parameters, Nutritional Quality
flour characteristic, HMWGS, rheological
properties and baking evaluation of chapati, Minerals although required in very small
bread and biscuit. An atlas has been amounts are very important part of
prepared for all the quality parameters, the metabolism. Most of the mineral
product specific varieties and areas have requirement of the humans is fulfilled
been identified and classes and grades by a balanced diet comprised of cereals,
of Indian wheat have been proposed. fruits and vegetables. But, for populations
This would help in making strategies which are mainly dependent on cereal
for procuring wheat from the mandis based diets or live in the regions where
for domestic and export purposes. The the soils are low in minerals, they often
situation is satisfactory with regard to suffer from malnutrition. Nearly 2 billion
the test weight but the mandi samples people around the world are affected by
need improvement in damaged kernel, micronutrient deficiency and, according to
foreign matter, shrunken and broken the World Health Organization, it is the
kernel. Through proper cleaning and leading cause of death through disease in
grading by machines, samples in lower developing countries. Biofortification has
grades can be upgraded to higher grades. been defined as the process of increasing
The average protein content is relatively the bio-available concentrations of essential
Improving Quality Traits in Wheat 203
elements in edible portions of crop plants for flour decreases significantly with
through agronomic intervention or genetic increased CO2 concentration. Generally,
selection. Biofortifying crops that feed the there is some increase in protein content
world’s poor (wheat or rice) can significantly at high temperature, but there is change
improve the amount of these nutrients in the glutenin/gliadin ratio and thus,
consumed by these target populations. adversely affect the quality. In addition,
The Indian bread and durum wheat increased temperature may influence starch
cultivars possess low levels of grain iron biosynthesis which ultimately can affect
(27-55 ppm)* and zinc (20-50 ppm)* thus starch quantity and quality. Adaptation
emphasizing the necessity for identification such as breeding for heat tolerant cultivars
and utilization of wild germplasm for wheat and changing fertilizer management may
biofortification. be needed to counter changes in wheat
Breeding strategies should generate quality associated with elevated CO2 and
micronutrient enhanced wheat cultivars temperature.
without compromising tolerance to abiotic/ Thus, there is a need to develop product
biotic stress, crop productivity, and acceptable specific and nutritionally rich wheat
end-use quality, thereby increasing the varieties. For this, there is a need to critically
likelihood that farmers will adopt the cultivars evaluate the germplasm (both indigenous
and consumers will accept foods made and exotic) for important quality parameters
from them. There are three breeding sub- alongwith their genetic and molecular
strategies that may be applied individually basis, develop micro-level test requiring
or in various combinations. These are (i) less amount of wheat and time so as to
reducing the level of anti-nutrients such as use them in analyzing early generation
phytate and tannins in staple food, which breeding material, establish relationship
inhibit the bio-availability of minerals of end products with different yield and
(ii) increasing the levels of nutrients and quality components, study starch and other
compounds such as ascorbic acid, b-carotene components and use molecular marker
and cysteine-containing peptides that technology approaches. Simultaneously,
promote the bioavailability of minerals, there is also need for upgradation of quality
and (iii) increasing the mineral content in related facilities at mandis, contract farming,
the grain. segregated procurement, transportation and
storage, market intelligence and pricing
policy and adequate linkages between
Climate Change and Wheat research and industry. To achieve this
Quality target of wheat quality improvement in
totality, the whole chain of production,
Predicted elevated levels of CO 2 and
higher atmospheric temperature are major procurement, transportation and storage
concerns for improving wheat quality. on one side and research and market
The quality traits with high heritability intelligence on the other hand will have
are less influenced by the environment. to be properly streamlined. The policy
For example, gluten strength as measured planners, scientists, traders and above all
by sedimentation is influenced less by the farmers will have to work together to
the increase in CO2 but protein content achieve the desired result.
Strategy for Seed Production in Asia
Wheat is an important staple cereal widely FAO’s estimate, wheat production should
grown in various ecological settings of Asia. increase to 302 million tons by 2050
Its role in food and nutrition security has in Asia to meet the needs for human
been steadily increasing. However, there consumption. Asia is also regarded as a
is a growing concern about stagnation low income region with a large number
in its production and productivity in of small and marginal farmers having
the major wheat growing countries of agriculture as the primary occupation.
the region. During 2010-11, the global
Seed is the most impor tant input
wheat production was about 682 million
tons covering 227 million hectares area of the crop production system and,
with an average productivity of 3.0 tons therefore, deserves special attention as
per hectare. Asian countries produced well as investment, which cannot be
223 million tons of wheat from an area met through public sector only. The
of 101 million hectares during 2009-10 agriculture development, including the
with the productivity level of 2.23 tons seed supply system is shaping up well
per hectare. The world population by the in most of the Asian countries, barring
year 2050 is projected to be 9 billion of a few like Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and
which 5 billion will be in Asia. In order to Uzbekistan. Several measures have been
meet the demand of this huge population, taken by the countries in this region
food production needs to be doubled by to improve the seed system through
that time and 70 per cent of the increase policies, legislation, technical support and
should come from the productivity and establishment of necessary infrastructure.
only 20-30 per cent may be achieved India’s introduction of New Policy for Seed
through area expansion. According to Development in 1988, Protection of Plant
Current Status and Future Strategy for Seed Production in Asia 205
Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act, 2001 Asia), which helped faster dissemination
are some such steps which helped the of the wheat technologies like varieties
industry to grow, fostering better public- and resource conservation technologies
private partnership and attracting more to the farmers' fields. In Bangladesh
investments in this sector. Formation of and Nepal, farmers participatory trial
APSA in 1994 and launching of a SAARC results are embedded in the official
Seed Forum in 2010 also aim at fostering procedures to avoid delay in access to
regional cooperation in building a strong new varieties. The Indian Council of
seed system in Asia-Pacific in general Agricultural Research (ICAR) has also
and South Asia in particular. implemented participatory seed production
as a standard way of accelerating seed
Owing to the low profit margins, the supply availability to farmers. This approach
of high volume-low value seeds such as has been tried in different parts of India
wheat remains the primary responsibility by encouraging partnership between the
of the public seed supply system in most research organizations (that develop new
of the countries. Also, in such crops, a varieties for better performance under
large proportion of the seed (>75 per a wide range of cultivation conditions
cent) is generally farmer-produced and and produce seed) and small farmers in
farm-saved leaving a seed replacement seed production, cleaning, grading and
rate of 10-25 per cent in different safe storage. This also helps farmers in
countries. However, some countries like trying (and evaluating) newly developed
Bangladesh record more than 75 per cent varieties and selecting the best material
SRR in wheat primarily because of poor as per their preference. Farmers, once
storability of seed at high humidity and trained, can either use their skill for the
warm storage conditions at farm level. A production of seed for their own use
higher rate of seed replacement not only or become contract seed producers for
ensures use of quality seed for satisfactory commercial seed producing agencies or
crop establishment under variable field form their own producer companies for
conditions, but also is an effective greater economic returns.
mechanism to introduce better, improved Cost of seed constitutes a small fraction
and new varieties which can perform better (5-10 per cent) of the total cost of crop
under less favourable growing conditions. production in wheat. However, a yield
By using high quality seed, the seed rate advantage of 20-30 per cent is achievable
which is 100-120 kilogram per hectare in simply with the use of quality seed. In
different varieties/conditions, can also be addition, seed is an efficient carrier of
reduced substantially. other supplements such as pesticides,
Farmers’ participation in seed production nutrients, bio-inoculants etc. Hence,
is an effective mechanism of improving concerted efforts are needed to promote
the wheat seed supply system. In the seed enhancement treatments for greater
participatory approach, greater stress is efficacy of pesticides, location-specific and
given on exchange of information between need-based micronutrient management and
farmers and scientists. Such work has been also apply super absorbent seed coats for
undertaken in South Asia through NARS more efficient water use. Physical methods
in collaboration with CIMMYT (South of stimulation of seed quality and vigour
206 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
through electromagnetic treatments have and cocoons made of fused poly ethylene
also shown great promise and can be bilayers with gaseous barrier has also been
applied if adequate infrastructure and reported to be effective for prolonged
appropriate machinery is set up. storage. The organized seed sector and
research institutions have a greater role
To manage the poor storability of wheat to play in this regard. Details of seed
seed in humid and warm conditions, requirement, production and replacement
particularly in the South Asian region, ratio that are important for increasing
several newly developed drying and wheat production in Asia-Pacific region
packaging alternatives, such as super have been presented.
absorbent zeolite drying beads and bags
Annexures
Annexure I
Inaugural Address
Hiroyuki Konuma
Assistant Director General and Regional Representative for
Asia and the Pacific
Bangkok, Thailand
Dear Dr. Thomas Lumpkin, Dr. Raj in 2050. To meet the growing demand,
Paroda, Dr. Masa Iwanaga, distinguished according to new estimates released by
participants, ladies and gentlemen! FAO recently, the world food production
has to be increased by 60 per cent in
It is a great pleasure for me to inaugurate this 2050 from the level of 2005/07 and in
extremely important regional consultation case of developing countries, it has to
on “Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia” be increased by 77 per cent during the
jointly organized by FAO and APAARI in same period.
collaboration with CIMMYT, ICARDA and
JIRCAS. I warmly welcome all of you to Food security of this region largely depends
this consultation. I express my deepest on the availability of rice and wheat-
thanks to CIMMYT, ICARDA and JIRCAS two major food security crops of the
to be with FAO and APAARI in organizing Asian people. Two major rice and wheat
this event jointly. producing countries (China and India) are
located in this region. These two countries
While we are approaching 2015, it is rank first and second in the world in terms
becoming more and more clear that not of population too. FAO-IRRI organized a
all the countries in this region will achieve similar regional consultation on “Increasing
MDG target 1, in spite of their tireless rice productivity in underexploited areas of
efforts. As you all know, FAO has been South Asian countries” on 10-11 March,
assisting member countries for taking 2010. As an outcome of this consultation,
appropriate measures on food security in a project proposal has been developed
a comprehensive and integrated manner which is under consideration of some
since 1996 when FAO organized World donors for possible funding. It indicates
Food Summit (WFS) and the latest FAO’s focused attention to these two
follow-up meeting held in 2009 in FAO important crops that are vital for food
Headquarters, Rome where FAO reminded security in Asian countries. It is also worth
all member countries that we have to work mentioning that the Asian region is the
harder to achieve MDG target 1. The world net importer of wheat and productivity
population is expected to reach 9.2 billion growth of this crop has been slowing
210 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
down. In this backdrop, we are meeting sector bypassing other sector and scientific
today here to discuss how to increase thinking in isolation is one of the main
productivity of wheat in Asian countries obstacles to increasing productivity of
by reversing trends in current productivity this crop. Availability of plant genetic
growth. The other important purpose of resources and creation of greater genetic
this consultation is to inform member diversity; use of molecular genetics and
countries about the development status of biotechnological tools and techniques in
wheat so that they can take appropriate combination with conventional breeding
decision for improvement in time. The systems to develop better varieties; and
challenges ahead of us are enormous. modern crop management technologies
In the past, in this sector we had made will play vital role in achieving productivity
considerable success but at the cost of gains in wheat.
substantial damage to the environment.
We are firmly confident that all these
Future productivity growth should come
issues, among others, will be discussed
in an environmentally sustainable manner.
in this forum in detail in next two days
In view of that, FAO has been advocating
and the consultation will come up with
sustainable crop production intensification
implementable recommendations for
(SCPI) and diversification with ecosystem
further actions in collaboration with
approach which has been clearly described
development partners with ultimate goal
in a recently published book “Save and
to reduce poverty and hunger in this
Grow”. I am also pleased to inform you
region. FAO attaches utmost priority to
that in recently completed APRC held in
this consultation to know more about the
Vietnam on 12-16 March 2012, this new
problems of productivity gains in wheat and
approach has been highly appreciated
their possible solutions. Our expectation
and the Director General, FAO mentioned
from this forum is extremely high and
that sustainable food production and
that is why we have tried our best to
consumption will remain FAO’s main
ensure participation of best scientists of
priority area of intervention.
the region in this consultation. We have
The bottom line is that we have to increase also tried to bring together large number
both productivity and production of wheat of country representatives, development
in an environmentally sustainable way and partners and international institutions so
make wheat production system more stable that a lively scientific and development
and less risky and vulnerable. By increasing oriented discussion can be held for the
productivity and making wheat production betterment of our people.
system sustainable, we can release land
In view of that FAO and APAARI have
from this crop for the use of other crops.
put lot of efforts to make this meeting
Importance of this crop has been increasing
successful. We also hope that we will
due to less water requirement of wheat
work together in future too, to implement
compared to rice which is becoming
the recommendations that emerged from
scarcer. Our understanding is that to
this meeting.
achieve success in this sector, we have
to target improvement both in “breeding” I would like to thank all our development
and “agronomy” simultaneously. Past partners for accepting our invitation and
experience showed that emphasis in one thanks again to APAARI for its excellent
Inaugural Address 211
Welcome Address
Raj Paroda
Executive Secretary, Asian-Pacific Association of Agricultural Research
Institutions (APAARI)
Bangkok, Thailand
Dr. Hiroyuki Konuma, Dr. Thomas Lumpkin, there is little scope for expansion in area
Dr. Masa Iwanaga, Dr. Ronnie Coffman, Dr. under wheat, the only alternative left is
Subash Dasgupta, distinguished participants, the vertical improvement by enhancing the
ladies and gentlemen ! genetic potential of wheat varieties.
At the outset, I would like to extend a Also, the new challenges are emerging on
very warm welcome to you all to this account of the global climatic change, new
important "Regional Consultation on threats of diseases and pests, new weed
Improving wheat productivity in Asia”, flora, herbicide resistance, depleting soil
being jointly organized by Food and health and stagnating productivity levels.
Agriculture Organization - Regional Office There are number of options available
for Asia and the Pacific (FAO RAP), for breaking the yield barriers in wheat
Asia-Pacific Association of Research which include new breeding initiatives for
Institutions (APAARI), in collaboration developing wheat hybrids through CMS
with International Maize and Wheat approach, widening the genetic base of
Improvement Center (CIMMYT), varieties through the use of winter ×
International Center for Agricultural spring variety hybridization, synthetic wheat
Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) and varieties and wild species for increasing
Japan International Research Center for resistance/tolerance against various biotic
Agricultural Sciences (JIRCAS). and abiotic stresses that adversely and
As you all know, the growth rate in wheat significantly affect the wheat productivity.
productivity has come down to less than Since both winter and spring wheat are
one per cent in comparison to much higher grown in different ecological conditions
growth rate of 1.8 per cent in human and both the gene pools have evolved in
population. For achieving the projected isolation, there is likelihood of introgression
global demand of 650 million metric of diverse genetic factors. Winter wheat is
tons of wheat by 2030, there is need to expected to bring improvement in spring
accelerate the overall wheat production wheat varieties with respect to effective
annually by at least 2.0 per cent. Since, tillers per unit area and grains per spike,
Welcome Address 213
besides contributing genes for drought This consultation is very timely and
tolerance, bread making quality, powdery provides opportunity to discuss during the
mildew resistance and resistance/tolerance next two days the major thematic areas
to cold/frost. These breeding strategies such as breeding strategies, applications of
need to be augmented in ongoing research molecular breeding for biotic and abiotic
programs of participating countries to stresses, resource optimization for enhanced
further enhance the yield potential and productivity, management of new races
genetic diversity. of rusts and other emerging diseases,
enhancing value addition and quality
Besides, the narrow genetic base, biotic improvement and managing impact of
stresses such as yellow and stem rust climate change on sustainable production
diseases need special attention to fulfill of wheat in Asia. The scientists engaged
the demand of the new varieties and in wheat research should focus not only
matching production technology for different on improving productivity but also product
production conditions. Synergy between quality parameters. It is high time that we
conventional and new molecular tools to pay adequate attention to conservation
develop new technologies for enhanced agriculture, improving soil health, input use
productivity and input use efficiency is efficiency, mechanization and diversification
extremely important. of cropping system.
The Indian wheat program including the A new race of yellow rust known as 78
All India Coordinated Wheat Improvement S 84 has come to stay in Indian wheat
Project has made breakthrough in the fields and it has knocked down the most
wheat production starting from green popular variety of wheat PBW 343 which
revolution era to the second highest is covering more than 7 million hectares
producer of wheat in the world. This has of area in Indo-Gangetic Plains. Also,
been possible mainly due to well designed, new stem rust race Ug99 posed a serious
multi-dimensional, multi-locational and a threat to wheat cultivation across the globe
model program that enabled the country and starting from Uganda, it has already
to harvest the record wheat production reached Iran. However, to pre-empt the
of 85.97 million tons from 29 million threat posed by new races, the anticipatory
hectares area during 2010-11 and a resistance breeding work have been initiated
record production of 90 million tons is by screening wheat materials from wheat
expected this year from an area of 29 growing countries at hot spot locations
plus million hectares. Although, the wheat where high disease pressure exists under
production in India has been continuously natural filed conditions. Besides, a regional
increasing from the last five years (75.8 network for survey and surveillance of
mt in 2007, 78.6 mt in 2008, 80.6 mt new races by the participating countries
in 2009, 80.7 mt in 2010 and 85.97 needs to be established and strengthened
mt in 2011), the productivity has been to keep watch on the disease scenario
stagnating at 2.7-2.8 tons per hectare. under changing climate.
This calls for intensified efforts to change
the plant ideotype in order to enhance Another crucial factor is terminal heat
productivity potential, early vigour and which is becoming the main hindrance
faster crop establishment. in recent times for achieving new heights
214 Improving Wheat Productivity in Asia
in wheat production. With each degree diseases, insects and pests with respect
rise in ambient temperature beyond 30°C to wheat crop. There is need to breed
during anthesis, wheat yield is reduced varieties suited to zero tillage condition in
by 3-4 per cent. Similarly, each degree particular and also to make efficient use
rise in minimum temperature beyond of limited supply of water and essential
15°C at the time of grain filling leads nutrients. The double cropping pattern
to about 290 kg/ha loss in grain yield. (rice-wheat) over about 12 million ha
More than hundred years ago, Howard in South Asia has adversely affected the
made a statement that wheat production soil health and ground water. Rice-wheat
in India is a gamble due to temperature system should, therefore, be diversified
and this is true in present times as well. by incorporating crops like mungbean,
With climate change shrinking in winter urdbean, soybean, pigeonpea, etc. to
spell coupled with rise in temperature improve the soil health. The efforts already
in February-March has become a usual initiated in this direction should be further
phenomenon in the wheat granary of strengthened. Furrow irrigated raised bed
Indo-Gangetic Plains of India. Several heat (FIRB) technology plays an important role
tolerant genotypes of wheat have been in diversification of rice-wheat system by
providing alternative for raising crops like
identified using physiological techniques
pigeonpea, soybean, maize, vegetable peas
like canopy temperature depression (CTD),
and wheat for enhancing productivity and
cell membrane stability, stem reserve
profitability. Hence, popularization of this
mobilization (SRM), heat sensitive index
system is needed to gain the maximum
(HSI), etc.
profit. Use of laser land levelling which is
Besides, there is great need to focus on proving as a precursor for the adoption
tagging resistant genes, and use of marker of new RCTs, needs to be popularized
assisted selection for gene pyramiding to with a view to increase the area under
breed genotypes with durable resistance. cultivation, economize on the use of
It is necessary to establish maker assisted water and nutrients. Combined use of
selection laboratory facilities in each inorganic fertilizers with organic manures
country. Adoption of transgenic approach and biofertilizer, crop residue management,
to improve the quality and to impart crop diversification, intensification of rice-
resistance to important diseases needs wheat system by introducing vegetable
attention. Survey and surveillance activity pea in between rice and wheat and a
needs to cover more area so that the cultivation of summer mung/ sesbania, etc.
monitoring of diseases and insect-pests can also need to be popularized. In addition,
be done more effectively and emergence efforts are needed for popularizing farm
of new races/virulence can be known machines like rotary disc drill, happy
within a short time through such program seeder, rotavator, etc. for cost effective
at regional level. higher productivity.
In view of changing climatic conditions and I would like to emphasize that the grain
introduction of new resource conservation quality aspects have not been paid
technologies (RCTs), it is imperative to adequate attention and hence, there is an
study the effect of climatic change on urgent need to initiate regional programs
the spectrum and dynamics of different for breeding for quality traits and to
Welcome Address 215
Technical Program
Thursday, April 26, 2012
Registration: 08:30 – 09:00
Inaugural Session
09:00 - 09:15 Welcome and Brief on Consultation Raj Paroda, APAARI
09:15 - 09:25 Special Remarks Masa Iwanaga, JIRCAS
09:25 - 09:40 Chairman’s Address Thomas Lumpkin,
CIMMYT
09:40 - 10:00 Inaugural Address Hiroyuki Konuma, FAO
10:00 - 10:05 Vote of Thanks Subash Dasgupta, FAO
10:05 - 10:30 Tea/Coffee Break and Group
Photograph
Plenary Session
List of Participants