Cassava Utilization As Livestock Feed 1

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Cassava Utilization in Domestic Feed Market in Nigeria,
Technical Report · August 2004
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DRAFT
ROOT AND TUBER EXPANSION PROGRAMME
(RTEP)
(DIVERSIFICATION OF PROCESSING OPTIONS AND MARKET EXPANSION)
CASSAVA UTILIZATION IN DOMESTIC FEED

MARKET IN NIGERIA
BY
ENGR. IKE AZOGU

PROF. OLUMIDE TEWE
DR. CHUMA EZEDINMA
ENGR. VICTOR OLOMO
NATIONAL CENTRE FOR AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION (NCAM)

FEDERAL MINISTRY OF AGRICULTRE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT
NOVEMBER 2004
CASSAVA UTILIZATION IN DOMESTIC
LIVESTOCK FEED MARKET IN NIGERIA
BY
ENGR. IKE AZOGU

PROF. OLUMIDE TEWE
DR. CHUMA EZEDINMA
ENGR. VICTOR OLOMO
FUNDED BY
IFAD/FEDERAL GOVERNMENT OF NIGERIA
NOVEMBER, 2004
Table of Contents
Executive Summary………………………………………………………………..v.
1. Study Background, Objectives and Methodology…………………………………1

 Introduction………………………………………………………………..1
 Study Background…………………………………………………………2
 Study Objectives…………………………………………………………..2
 Terms of Reference………………………………………………………..2
 Justification………………………………………………………………..3
 Methodology………………………………………………………………4
2. Overview of the Nigerian Livestock Industry and Status of Cassava Utilization....7

 Over-view of the Nigerian Livestock Industry…………………………….7
 Status of Cassava Utilization………………………………………………9
3. Raw Material Supply for a Sustainable Cassava-Based Animal Feed Industry….11

 Raw Material Supply-Base……………………………………………….11
 Competition of Cassava in Alternative Uses……………………………..16
4. Optional Feed Scenarios for Livestock and Their Comparative Advantages……21

 Sectoral Status and Possibilities
5. Cassava-Based Feed Formulations In Comparison with Maize-Based Rations…25
6. Process Techniques, Technologies and Infrastructural Requirements for Pilot

Projects…………………………………………………………………………..34
 Infrastructural Requirements…………………………………………….34
 Unit Operations for Transforming Cassava into Animal Feed Inputs…..36
 Process Technology Options…………………………………………….41
 Dried Cassava Analogues and their Processing Methods……………….46
7. Categorization of Cassava Projects Supply to Feed Millers…………………….52

 Supply to Pelletizing Feed Millers………………………………………52
 Supply to Mash Producing Feed Millers………………………………..53
 Supply to Cattle, Sheep and Goats Rearers……………………………..53
8. Feasibility Studies on the Establishment and Management of Various Cassava

Inclusive Animal Feed Operations and Pilot Projects…………………………..55
9. Policy Review and Required Interventions……………………………………..67
10 Pilot Project Design, Implementation and Operations………………………….70

 Project Design
 Programme Targetting
 Budgetary Estimates
11. Project Development, Interventions and Recommendations……………………80
 Project Development and Interventions
 Recommendations
ii
12. Appendices……………………………………………………………………87
13. References…………………………………………………………………….97
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The study team wishes to thank the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural
Development, International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) and the World
Bank for their support in the execution of the study.
We appreciate the contributions of Perin Saint Ange (Country Portfolio Manager),

Esther Walabai (TTL) Frans Goossens (IFAD Consultant), Mallam Baba Fada (Director
of Agriculture), K. C. Oni (Director/CEO-NCAM) and Adeoye Adeniji (Programme
Manager, RTEP-MU) in making of this study possible.
Our sincere appreciation goes to the ADPs, Processors, Poultry farmers, Sedentary Cattle
Rearers and Feed Millers that contributed to the success of the study.
It is our hope that this document would lead to substantial cassava utilization in
the livestock feed market.
iv
CASSAVA UTILIZATION IN DOMESTIC FEED MARKET IN
NIGERIA
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1. Most leading commentators, stakeholders and international partners involved in

Nigerian agriculture agree that the cassava sub sector requires diversification, although
there may be differences in emphasis regarding the scope, phasing and strategies for the
required interventions. The possibilities for diversification are many and varied, but it is
important that resources and derbies are concentrated in areas with potential for the
greatest economic and social returns, and those with clear cut capacities for sustainable
national development. Due to the support received from IFAD’s PA Division, this study
has been undertaken with the benefit of a clear identification of the area to focus, and
issues to cover. These being mainly the animal feed sub sector, and the identification of
the type, scope and strategies required for utilizing cassava in meeting the current and
future energy, and other nutritional requirements of the industry.
2. The general objective of the study was to generate relevant information and
articulate appropriate strategies and action plan necessary to facilitate the sustainable
integration of cassava chips and pellets into the Nigerian animal feed sub sector.
3. The study Terms of Reference covered a whole range of multidisciplinary

(livestock nutrition, economics, research, engineering, human resource development, etc.)
and intersectoral issues considered critical to the realization of a sustainable national
programme on cassava utilization in the domestic feed market. The TOR includes the
compilation and analysis of historical and current information and data, and make
projections regarding Nigerian livestock feed scenarios and requirements (technical,
financial, logistics, etc.)
4. The multidimensional nature of the study objectives and TOR necessitated the
constitution of a multidisciplinary team of specialists, which consisted of a Team Leader,
Livestock Feed Specialist/Animal Feed Nutritionist, Agro-processing Specialist and
Economist. The main strategy for undertaking the study was to structure the activities
into three interrelated components, namely:
(a) Literature review – secondary data in the form of published and unpublished
information.
(b) Field investigations and data collation – generation of primary data.
(c) Desk work, feasibility analysis and report preparation.
v
5. By African standards, Nigeria possesses a substantial livestock resource base with
over 85% of all species managed traditionally, while commercially managed ones are
much lower, 13.8% for poultry and 3.24% for pigs. Feed supply for intensively managed
livestock has witnessed many turbulent periods in the last two decades. Increasing cost
of feed components has led to skyrocketing prices of livestock products. For example,
maize, the major energy ingredient in feed, cost N250/tonne in 1982, but currently has an
average market value of as much as N35,000/tonne (an increase of about 14,000%). This
has had a direct knock-on effect on prices of livestock products. As an illustration, a tray
of averagely sized eggs which cost N3 in 1982, now cost N350 (an increase of well over
10,000%). While fiscal policies to encourage local self sufficiency in maize production
(i.e. import bans) have often indirectly encouraged cassava utilization in feed
formulation, these initiatives have not made cassava a significant ingredient in
commercial feed compounding. Cassava however offers great possibilities for cost
reductions of animal feeds.
6. A number of commercial feed milling operators in the country currently use

cassava in their feed formulation activities on an ad hoc basis. Cassava products used
include chunks, chips and gelatinized grits. An institutional system of cassava
processing, bulking and supply to animal feed concerns opportunities also exist for the
sustainable complementation of traditional feed materials for cattle and goats with such
cassava products as peels and residues.
7. The current ban on imported poultry products by the federal government has led
to significant positive developments in the Nigerian livestock industry. The expected
increases in livestock population is projected to result in animal feed requirements of
about 91% and 3% for the poultry and livestock sub-sectors respectively. Specifically,
the current feed requirements of 762,069 million metric tonnes for commercially-
managed chicken is expected to rise to the pre-1983 figure of some 2 million metric
tonnes soon. An inclusion rate of 50% of cassava products in the annual animal feed
requirements will result in the utilization of 1.5 million tonnes of cassava (or about 4% of
Nigeria’s total cassava production). The Nigerian cassava belt however has the agro-
ecological advantage and other requirements for fully meeting this projection without
jeopardizing national food security.
8. Technically the potential for cassava utilization in feed formulations and its
commercial application in this regard has been known for close to 4 decades. The EU
has been actively incorporating a substantial quantity of cassava chips and pellets in their
feeds for well over 30 years. The non-utilization of cassava in feed compounding in
Nigeria was not due to level of potential, rather it is attributable to limited awareness.
Nigerian researchers have in recent times carried out studies to demonstrate the technical
and commercial feasibility of including cassava products of different rates on a wide
range of livestock feeds. Formulations for poultry, sheep, goats, cattle, pigs, rabbits, fish
etc have been developed and tested by Nigerian scientists without any negative effect on
livestock performance. Cost saving arising from the use of these alternative feed
formulations range between 4 and 43%. The cassava based products used as energy
feedstuffs include peeled and unpeeled chips, grits, chunks, peeled and unpeeled pellets.
Their inclusion rates range from 5 to 100% maize replacement. This formulations are
however yet to be widely adopted and used by operators within the animal feed sub-
sector. The benefit of such uptake will be phenomenal in its effect on the nation’s
agricultural, economic, job creation and rural prosperity.
vi
9. A critical requirement for the widespread utilization of cassava in animal feeds is
the creation of awareness amongst the rural stakeholders (who are the principal
cultivators of the crops) of the processing techniques and technologies required for high
quality dried cassava chips production, and to a limited degree, technologies for pellets
production which should be targeted at commodity bulking agents and nucleus/foster
factory operators who will be involved in direct supply to large scale proprietary feed
millers. The procedures and practices required for cost effective and competitively
priced cassava chips and grits, chunks etc production have been comprehensively
discussed in this document, including their infrastructural requirements and ancillaries
specifications.
10. While Nigeria possesses a substantial inter-state road infrastructure, the

availability of quality rural road network is very limited. Cassava being a bulky, high
moisture content crop cannot be profitably processed at locations very distant from the
farms. This is particularly so in view of the increasingly exorbitant cost of transportation
in Nigeria particularly in the rural areas where the road infrastructure is very poor. It is
therefore necessary to actively promote on-farm processing of cassava to intermediate
products; and provide assistance in the promotion of bulking facilities at the provincial
centres. Initiatives identified as required for a sustainably nationwide supply chain
management include the standardization of various cassava based animal feed (e.g. chips,
chunks, grits etc). There is also the need for government assisted quality/price
mechanism and efficient rural transportation system.
10. The evaluation of different cassava analogues for financial viability provided a
great deal of insight into the commercial possibility for cassava utilization as an energy
ingredient in feed. The products and associated scenarios assessed cassava chips (peeled
and unpeeled with solar drying on trays and concrete flour), cassava pellets (with solar
drying on concrete fours and trays for peeled and unpeeled), cassava grits (gelatinised
and ungelatinised in peeled and unpeeled forms), and cassava chunks/strips. On a rating
of 1 – 10 (decreasing order of viability) the cassava product options were categorized as
follows:
Rank of Cassava based Livestock Feed Investments in Nigeria using IRR

Investment IRR (%) Rank
Cassava chips plant (concrete floor drying, unpeeled) 95 1
Cassava chips plant (wooden tray drying, unpeeled) 56 2
Cassava Pellet plant (wooden tray drying; peeled chips) 23 3
Cassava Chips Plant. (Concrete floor drying; peeled chips) 23 4
Cassava Pellet plant (concrete floor drying; peeled chips) 22 5
Cassava ungelatinised grit plant (peeled) 13 6
Cassava gelatinised grit plant (peeled) 12 7
Cassava chunks/strips plant (peeled; tarpaulin drying) 11 8
Cassava chunks/strips plant (peeled; concrete flour drying) 9 9
Cassava chips plant (drying in wooden trays, peeled) 0 10
Options ranked 1 to 4 had IRR’s of 95, 56, 23 and 23% respectively. With the bank
discount rate officially pegged at 22.5% in Nigeria. This four options were
recommended for promotion as commercially viable ventures. It is the view of the
Specialists, however, the options ranked 5 to 7 may also become very viable if the value-
added through pelleting (i.e. compaction and partial gelatinization in pellets) and
vii
roasting/frying (i.e. partial gelatinisation in grits processing) are reflected in the output
prices. These scenarios will be more comprehensively analysed in the final report
preparation.
12. The proposed project design is based upon a strategy whereby cassava farmers
and rural processors can link themselves to expansive new markets within the livestock
feed sub-sector for their products through the introduction of novel or improved
processing techniques. Drying and gelatinisation operations will be decentralised while
discrete and manageable groups of chips drying and dewatered mash producing
commodities (or clusters) will be nurtured and encouraged to produce the required raw
materials on a relatively sustainable basis. The project will target various stakeholders to
demonstrate local examples and the certainty of success. Four sectors which were
identified as sources for the selection of project implementation partners or champions
are:
Cassava producers and microprocessors

(i) Cassava industrialists or foster factories
(ii) Intensive (commercial) livestock and fish production
(iii) Extensive pastoralists.
The objectives, project activities and resource requirements for each of these champions
have been specified in this document.
viii
CHAPTER ONE
STUDY BACKGROUND, OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) provided support to the
Nigerian Cassava Multiplication Programme (CMP) in response to the need to develop
and disseminate improved varieties of cassava planting materials resistant to the cassava
mealy bug and mosaic disease that ravaged the cassava fields in the 1980s. The CMP ran
from 1987 to 1997 and within the period, cassava yields increased from 7 tonnes/hectare
to 12 tonnes/hectare, which contributed to the increase in national production from 10.6
million metric tonnes in 1987 to 33 million metric tonnes in 1997. While this
intervention was largely successful in terms of increasing production, it enjoyed limited
success in the area of processing, marketing and industrial utilization. The design of the
Root and Tuber Expansion Programme (RTEP) became necessary in order to build on the
gains of the CMP and address the pitfalls in the processing and marketing component of
the programme, and in the process achieve a sustainable and organized movement of
cassava products from production to consumption.
One of the key assumptions in the design of RTEP is the expected demand in cassava
chips by the livestock feed industry as a cheap source of energy in the compounding of
feeds. This has become more compelling in view of the cassava glut recorded recently
and the need to diversify cassava utilization in the country. The total feed requirements
in Nigeria is estimated at 1.2 million metric tonnes and about 90% of that is utilized by
the poultry industry. The poultry industry has, over the years, exhibited a preference for
maize as the energy source for their feeds. Research works by IITA and other research
institutions have, however, documented the clear benefits of utilizing cassava as the
energy source in livestock feeds, especially when the price of cassava is about 65% of the
price of maize. The adoption of these novel research works on cassava utilization in
livestock feeds has remained very low due to lack of awareness within the stake-holders
in the livestock industry.
The interventions by the Federal Government and other agencies in the establishment of
various cassava development programmes such as the Presidential Initiative on Cassava,
Cassava Mosaic Disease Prevention Programme, the Cassava Enterprise Development
Programme, the Root and Tuber Expansion Programme etc. would combine to increase
both the productivity and production levels of cassava in the country. Interestingly, the
Federal Government of Nigeria, through the promulgation of favourable policies to
promote the local industry banned the importation of maize and poultry products. The
combined effect of the numerous programmes on cassava and the promotion of the
livestock industry would create marketing opportunities for cassava and its associated
products. The down-stream effect of job creation and poverty alleviation, which form the
plank of the Federal Government’s policy initiatives, would definitely receive the desired
boost.
This study would, therefore, attempt to look at the various cassava product options in
livestock feed compounding, evaluate their production systems and associated supply
chain requirements, develop feasibility reports on enterprise development for various
feed scenarios, recommend awareness creation strategies and provide a guide for the
1
establishment of pilot projects on cassava based viable feed options. This intervention is
expected to increase the utilization of cassava in the livestock industry substantially from
the present levels of about 10%.
BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
In February 2004, IFAD’S PA Division commissioned a Consultant, Dr. Frans Goosens,

to undertake a mission on the ‘Assessment of Cassava Marketing and Demand
Constraints and Opportunities in West Africa.’ The first phase of this approach was an
investigation to characterize the market demand and identify three or four potential
markets that can be accessed by IFAD Projects and target groups. Arising from the
Report of the Consultant (Cassava Marketing and Demand Constraints and Opportunities
in Nigeria and Ghana. March, 2004) which highlighted the animal feed industry as a
major area for a potentially successful project intervention in Nigeria, the second phase
became immediately necessary. The objective being essentially to undertake detailed
studies of animal feed-related potential markets, and the preparation of an action plan
including concrete steps and activities necessary to make the identified markets
accessible to the principal IFAD target groups and facilitating intermediaries.
STUDY OBJECTIVES
The general objective of this exercise is to generate relevant information, and articulate
appropriate strategies and action plans necessary to facilitate the sustainable integration
of cassava chips and pellets into the Nigerian animal feeds sub sector. Specifically, the
study objective is to prepare a feasibility study for a pilot project which will undertake
the following:
 introduce pelleting equipment at the level of the farmers’ groups and
cooperatives
 promote the utilization of hard pellets in the domestic feed industry.
TERMS OF REFERENCE
Essentially, the TOR derives from the objectives of the study and expected
outputs. In this regard, the TOR of this study will include (but not necessarily
restricted to) the following:
i. Provide a general analysis of the constraints and lessons learned in the

Nigerian animal feed sub sector in the past 10 – 15 years, particularly as it
affects efforts aimed at local sourcing of the energy component of
livestock feeds.
ii. Provide information on the raw material demand and supply scenarios and
price profiles for locally produced and imported feed ingredients; showing
trends and shortfalls in energy supply from maize and other sources (if
any).
iii. Provide information on the degree of access of the different stakeholders

to required processing equipment technologies and techniques for chips
and pellets production, and also to facilitate widespread utilization of
2
chipping, drying, and pelleting technologies, including characterization
and specification of the technologies that are considered appropriate for
adoption and adaptation amongst the target groups.
iv. Provide information on the socio-economic, technical, financial and policy

requirements for nurturing a sustainable private sector-led (formal and
informal) livestock feed industry in which cassava commodities (in the
form of chips, grits and pellets) will play very significant roles (equivalent
or commensurate to their potential).
v. Prepare a detailed project feasibility study in which the conditions

necessary for the viability of commercial small scale chips production,
pellets manufacturing and feed milling operations are specified.
vi. Recommend wide ranging actionable strategies and approaches which

IFAD, its collaborating national institutions in Nigeria and other
stakeholders can implement and follow, to realize widespread cassava
utilization in animal feeds within the country.
vii. Draw up a detailed plan for the establishment and operation of a pilot for
the production and supply of chips and pellets for use in livestock feed
formulation under commercial conditions.
viii. Identify and specify input requirements (human resources, equipment,

research, etc.), training needs and required supplementary studies.
ix Provide detailed information on budgetary requirements and time

frames for realizing recommended strategies and action plans.
JUSTIFICATION
One of the assumptions in the design of Root and Tuber Expansion programme, and
indeed most of the other cassava programmes in Nigeria, is the exploitation of the
international chips and pellets market. Unfortunately, the chips and pellets prices crashed
progressively from 1994, with chips currently selling for about $65.00 per tonne. These
markets cannot be supplied due to the high production and processing costs that put the
chips farm-gate price at between N15,000:00 to N18,000:00 per tonne (or $107.00 –
$128.00). The difficulty in exporting cassava products, coupled with the low level of
awareness of the alternative cassava products for domestic industrial utilisation and the
associated processing machines, have induced a low industrial up-take of cassava
products, causing untold hardship and misery to the farmers.
Fortunately, the ban of maize and poultry products has created opportunities for
utilization of cassava in the livestock industry, and studies suggest that cassava can
economically replace maize as energy source in livestock feed compounding. Estimates
indicate that at only 20% substitution, the major feed millers in the country would require
200,000 metric tones of cassava chips and pellets annually. Grand cereals and Oil Mills,
Jos, has already set the pace by utilizing about 4800 tonnes of cassava chips/year at N18,
000.00/tonne annually in their poultry feed production line.
3
The enormous opportunities that this market is expected to generate demands for a well
organized production, processing and marketing systems that would guarantee an
efficient and sustainable flow of high quality livestock feeds related cassava products.
This study is, therefore, necessary to critically examine the opportunities and constraints
in widespread utilisation of cassava products in the livestock feed industry, and
recommend specific strategies and action plans required to achieve the intervention
objectives.
METHODOLOGY
In view of the multidimensional nature of the Study Objectives, a multidisciplinary team

of relevant specialists was constituted. The collaborating experts consisted of a Team
Leader, one each of an Agricultural Economist, Agro-processing Specialist and Animal
Nutrition/Livestock Specialist.
The activities required for the Effective Execution of this assignment was structured into
three interrelated components, namely:
i) Literature review (of secondary data in the form of published and unpublished
works and materials).
ii) Field Investigations and data collation (i.e. Generation of primary data).
iii) Deskwork, feasibility analysis and Report Preparation.
Literature Review
In view of the increasingly prominent attention cassava has been given in the past two
decades, as an all-purpose crop (food, cash, export, industrial etc), substantial primary
and adaptive research information have been generated in respect of various aspects of
the crop. It was, therefore, only rational that information available on cassava, as they
relate to utilization in animal feed and associated concerns be critically studied, prior to,
during and after the field visits. The information accessed and insights gained from the
reviews, provided useful resources and the required benchmark for the study. The
reviews further highlighted existing information gaps, and enabled the Study Team to
rationally structure the field data collection arrangements and questionnaire design to fill
the identified gaps.
Field Investigations and Data Collation
The field investigations and data collection were designed to capture relevant information
on the status of the animal feed sub sector vis-à-vis the experiences of selected
stakeholders. The identified stakeholders were:
i. Farm gate Processors

ii. Poultry Operators
iii. Cattle and Small Ruminants Operators
iv. Proprietary Animal Feed Millers
4
Stakeholder – specific questionnaires were designed to elicit information from the
different operators with a view to collating required data and information which were
used to directly and indirectly analyse issues itemised in the Study TOR.
Determination of Sampling Frame
Generally speaking, every part of Nigeria can grow cassava. This has become a more
realistic possibility, with the development of drought resistant cultivars which can thrive
in the Semi-arid conditions prevalent in the Northern fringes of the country, most part of
which have substantial access to the fadamas. Nevertheless, in view of the limited time
available for the study, and the fact that farming practices which are either mainly
cassava-based, or secondarily so, are largely located in the southern and Middle Belt
States of the country. Further to the foregoing, the more prominent areas of medium
scale and proprietary feed milling activities and the rearing of livestock and poultry are
located mainly around the Southern and Central States respectively.
The States selected for questionnaire administration were drawn from agro-ecologies
where the bulk of the cassava produced in the country are cultivated and are part of the
26 states nationwide currently participating in the IFAD/FGN-funded Roots and Tubers
Expanded Programme (RTEP). The selected states were zoned as follows:
Middle Belt/Central South West South/South East South/Central

Benue Lagos Imo Edo
Nassarawa Oyo Enugu Delta
Plateau Ogun Cross River Kogi
Kwara Rivers Ondo
Kaduna
Analysis of Primary Data
The complete questionnaires and other ad-hoc information were analysed using simple
analytical tools, such as frequency counts and percentiles. This is with a view to making
deductions and drawing possible conclusions regarding current levels of awareness,
practices, trends and possibilities regarding the expansion of cassava in animal feeding
compounding.
Deskwork, Feasibility Analysis and Report Preparation
Substantial information was collected during the study exercise. The deskwork activities
afforded the sifting of data collected from Stakeholders, institutional officials and
operatives, and published documents. This was with a view to Extracting relevant
information, and integrating them with field findings and the experts’ observations. The
feasibility study analyses were undertaken using input price costs and associated data to
5
assess the comparative benefits of various animals feed inputs and also the production
and processing scenarios on different feed formulations. Sensitivity analyses were also
carried out to determine the relative effects of different inputs and outputs on project
viability and other critical indices. The foregoing was then integrated to produce the
Study Report such that its content and focus will effectively address the issues raised in
the Study TOR.
6
CHAPTER TWO
OVERVIEW OF THE NIGERIAN LIVESTOCK INDUSTRY AND

STATUS OF CASSAVA UTILISATION
Overview of the Nigerian Livestock Industry

The projected Nigerian livestock resources based on RIM (1992) estimates are
24,716,747 cattle; 58,020,071 goat; 37,203,942 sheep; 5,245,827 pigs; 106,209,398
indigenous domestic chickens and 17,046,257 exotic domestic chickens. Traditionally
managed stock is over 85% for all species while commercially managed ones is only
significant for poultry at 13.8% and to a lesser extent for pigs at 3.24% (Tewe, 1997).
The bulk of Nigerian livestock is therefore kept under the traditional free ranging
extensive system. Cattle, sheep and goats depend largely on fodder from rangelands and
grazing resources, while indigenous poultry and pigs are largely scavengers with
occasional feed supplements from household wastes. The commercial poultry and pig
population on the other hand depend on compounded feed from livestock feed mills.
Total number of feed mills in Nigeria as at 1997 was estimated at 465. Capacity
utilization in the mills have however dropped drastically from 92% in 1980 to 26% in
1997 due to shortage of local supplies of livestock feed ingredients and high cost of
imported materials. The result is production and marketing of livestock production at
astronomically high and unaffordable prices.
Table 1: Livestock Populations in Nigeria

2004 Projections2
Species 1992 Total1 Total Traditionally Commercially
Managed Managed
Cattle 13,885,813 24,716,747 24,593,163 123,584
Goats 34,453,724 58,020,071 58,002,665 17,406
Sheep 22,092,602 37,203,942 37,144,416 59,526
Pigs 3,406,381 5,245,827 5,075,862 169,965
Chickens 82,412,179 123,255,655 106,209,398 17,046,257
1
: RIM (1992)
2
: Adapted from Draft Livestock Perspective Plan (1991-2005), Federal
Department of Livestock and Pest Control Services, Abuja
7
Table 2: Output of some major livestock commodities
1998 – 2000 (‘000 tonnes)
Commodity 1998 1999 2000

Beef 226 228 230
Goat-meat 141 144 147
Mutton 90 92 94
Pork 463 487 511
Poultry-meat 250 268 273
Fish 483 477 482
Source: Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development
(Producer prose to describe the trend)
Maize now cost N35, 000/ton as compared to N250 in 1982. In consonance, a tray of
eggs is N350 as compared to N3 in 1982. The high cost in feeds, which accounts for 60-
80% in livestock production has been further compounded by the internally stiff
competition for maize and other ingredients between man and the beast. In such a
situation, the beast must inevitably ‘step aside’ and be disadvantaged. The opportunity for
cassava as an energy source in livestock feeding in Nigeria is therefore tremendous.
8
Status of Cassava Utilisation in the Livestock Feed Industry
Survey Result
Recent survey by the team revealed the following practices as regard cassava utilization.
 Commercial Poultry Feed milling activities thrive in the South Western zone of
the country with the utilization of cassava in feed milling ranging from 5 - 10% in
layers ration and up to 20% in grower rations, particularly when the prices of
cassava are competitively lower than that of maize.
In addition to the cassava chips and chunks that are used by feed millers in this
zone, Adset (livestock) feeds, Ikeja along with their Benin branch also utilises
Sunshine Cassava Grits, a gelatinised cassava product which can completely
replace maize even in the poultry ration. Sunshine cassava grit is obtained from
the Ondo State Government that packages the product, which is produced by
Satellite of microprocessors in their different local governments.
 Vital feeds located in Plateau State in the middle belt and the Bendel feed and
feed mill located in Ewu, Edo State utilise substantial quantities of cassava
chunks and chips in their pelletised feeds at prices ranging from N15, 000 – N
18,000 Naira per ton. The poultry farms in the middle belt zone are already using
pelletised feeds, which are superior to granular feeds in terms of yields. This
could be attributed to partial cooking of cassava during the pelleting process and
the homogeneous distribution of the active ingredients, which is unique with
pellet characteristics. Furthermore, the cassava-based pelleters poultry feed
eliminates dustiness, which hitherto had hindered its utilisation.
 No indication of cassava utilisation was obtained from the Southeastern region.

However, Adset (Livestock) feeds branch located in Aba in this zone is willing to
take up the Sunshine Cassava grits if the supply is steady to avoid changing
foundations abruptly. ECWA Rural Development Feed mill, Jos, Sanders Feeds,
Kaduna and Crown Feeds, Kaduna have all indicated their willingness to utilise
cassava if they as supplied at the right quantity and quality, and the right price.
Other proprietary feed millers across the country have also expressed their
willingness to adopt cassava chips as partial replacement and sunshine cassava
grits as total replacement to maize.
 While cattle rearing is largely extensive, opportunities for cassava usage exists in
the following situations.
(i) There is awareness, collection or purchase and drying of cassava peels for
cattle fattening in peri-urban (semi-intensive) rearing systems. These are
observed in most of the cities of South West notably Ibadan, Iwo,
Abeokuta, Lagos, Kaduna, Lafia and Makurdi.
(ii) Cattle Fulani pastoralists are presently depending entirely on grazing and
migration to areas of forage availability. They also depend on crop
residue available along their grazing routes as they move southwards
during the dry season of the year. They indicate willingness to use cassava
9
residues if available in sufficient quantities particularly for dry season
feeding. Such pastoralists are located mainly in the middle belt and
northern fringes of the South Western zone.
(iii) Niyya farms in Kaduna is already utilising cassava in their ration for dairy
cattle and has recorded 20% increase in milk production – a clear
indication of the superiority of cassava utilisation in dairy production over
other energy sources.
(iv) In the southeast zone goat rearing is very popular. Residues of cassava
from human food processing centres and household wastes are utilised
intensively for supplemental feeding of goats.
 The majority of the products come as cassava chunks largely from the middle
belt. Very few microprocessors of chips exists in the southwestern zone. The only
producer of gelatinised cassava grits consists of Sattelite of microprocessors
organised under the Ondo State Cassava Resolution Project where the product is
marketed to various feed millers as Sunshine cassava grits.
 Cassava peels are usually packed in mounds around cassava food processing
industries. At the homestead level in different parts of the country, cassava peels
are dried and stored for feeding small ruminants and marketed for such purposes
in their local settings.
 Two starch industries were visited during this survey. These are the MATNA
Food Industries in Akure and REAL Food Industries at Asejire, near Ibadan.
They generate 14 tons and 10 tons respectively of semi-dried starch residue from
their plant on daily basis. They have indicated willingness to dispose of this for
cattle feeding as it is being done for such residue pelleted in Thailand and
exported to European industries for cattle feeding.
10
CHAPTER THREE
RAW MATERIAL SUPPLY FOR A SUSTAINABLE CASSAVA

BASED ANIMAL FEED INDUSTRY.
Nigerian livestock feed industry largely caters for commercially managed stock while the
largely pastoral, extensively managed stock depends almost entirely on fodder and
occasional household food, leftovers and residues. The drastic reduction of commercial
livestock population has brought the commercial poultry population from about 40
million in 1983 to 17 million presently. The feed requirement presently put at 762,069
metric tons as in Table 3 for 17 million commercial chickens can therefore rise soon to its
pre-1983 figure of about 2 million metric tonnes for commercial poultry alone.
Production figure indicate that capture fisheries accounts for 92%, while aquaculture
accounts for 8% of the total of 500,000 metric tonnes of fish produced presently.
Aquaculture is on the increase in different parts of the country and they depend largely on
compounded feeds, the feed requirement is bound to increase considerably in the near
future.
Table 3: Annual feed requirement for commercial livestock and fish in

Nigeria
Quantity (Metric tones)
Species 19921 2004 Projections2 Percentage
Poultry 448,276 762,069 91.00
Pigs 14,942 22,852 3.00
Cattle/Sheep/Goats 9,962 23,640 3.00
Rabbit 4,981 7,617 1.00
Fish (Aquaculture) 19,924 19,924 2.00
Total 498,085 836,102 100.00
1
: RIM (1992)
2
: Adapted from Draft Livestock Perspective Plan (1991-2005), Federal Department
of Livestock and Pest Control Services, Abuja
11
The total requirement for commercial livestock feed is therefore about 1 million tones
annually. Assuming 50% content of dried cassava products in feed, the annual
requirement for cassava will therefore be about 500,000 tons dried cassava or about 1.5
million tons fresh cassava tubers. This gives about 4% of total cassava production in
Nigeria. FAO (2002) reports usage of about 5% of total cassava production for livestock
feeds. This will include utilization for commercial feeding and for smallholder traditional
livestock feeding that largely depends on forages and household wastes including cassava
residues. With the annual production of 37 million tonnes, and over 4 million tonnes in
excess of human food, cassava can be obtained sustainably for livestock feeding.
However, the potentials for the use of cassava in livestock feeding in Nigeria far outstrip
those stated figures as captured in the following scenarios in Nigerian livestock sub
sector
The best area to source cassava for livestock feed in Nigeria is the Central states of
Nigeria. The Central states of Nigeria are also the best area to locate pilot plants for
cassava chips or pellets The Central belt States include Benue, Nasarawa, Plateau, Niger,
Kogi, Taraba, and Kwara States. These states together produce about 27% of the cassava
in Nigeria (figure 1) and they have relatively longer sunshine months and a monomodal
rainfall pattern than the southern States. The southern area of Kaduna State and Northern
parts of Oyo, Ekiti, Ondo, Enugu, Ebonyi, Edo, and Cross Rivers States are also
conducive for cassava chips production (See figure 2). These states form the focal point
for locating recommended cassava based pilot plants for livestock feed.
7%
20%
South-east
29% South-south
South-w est
Middle belt
North
24%
20%
Figure 1: Cassava Production by zone in Nigeria
Sun drying is an important processing technology especially in the production of primary

products for livestock feed. The Central States provides a location advantage that
removes the use of expensive artificial drying technology. Longer rainfall and higher
humidity in the southern States implies a higher cost of processing necessitated by the use
of mechanical drying. Cassava production is not relatively important further north of
Nigeria, even though the area has relatively higher sunshine months. Evidence already
shows that farmers and processors in the area take advantage of the abundant sunshine to
produce mainly cassava products for food. For instance Nweke (1994) observed that the
frequency of processing chips and flour decreases from 80% in the north and southern
12
guinea savannah zone where ample rainfall is limited and sunshine is abundant, to only
25% in the humid zone where sunshine is a limiting factor.
Figure 2: Agro ecological zones and administrative States of Nigeria

Source: Geospatial Laboratory, IITA, Ibadan
13
Genotype disease blight mealiness fresh root Matter(%) (t/ha) color
_________________________________________________________________________________________
92/0057 Resistant Resistant Mealy Medium 30 25-30 White
92B/00068 Resistant Resistant Mealy Medium 32 30-35 White
92/0326 Resistant Resistant Mealy Low 30 30-35 White
M98/0028 Resistant Resistant Mealy Medium 30 30-35 White
98/0510 Resistant Resistant Mod. mealy Medium 35 40-45 White
99/1590 Resistant Resistant Mod. mealy Low 35 25-32 White
99/6012 Resistant Resistant Mod. mealy Low 35 35-40 White
M98/0040 Resistant Resistant Mod. mealy Low 32 40-45 White
91/02324 Resistant Resistant Non-mealy Medium 35 35-45 White
92B/00061 Resistant Resistant Non-mealy Medium 30 30-35 White
94/0561 Resistant Resistant Non-mealy Medium 30 30-35 Yellow
96/1089A Resistant Resistant Non-mealy Medium 32 30-35 White
98/0002 Resistant Resistant Non-mealy Low 35 40-45 White
Z97/0207 Resistant Resistant Non-mealy Low 30 35-40 White
M98/0068 Resistant Resistant Non-mealy Medium 35 40-45 White
99/2123 Resistant Resistant Non-mealy Low 35 30-32 White
TME419 Resistant Resistant Mealy Medium 37 30-35 White
4(2)1425+ Mod. Res. Resistant Mealy Low 32 30-40 White
30572+ Mod. Res, Resistant Non-mealy Medium 32 30-40 White
82/00058+ Mod. Res. Resistant Non-mealy Medium 32 30-40 White
_________________________________________________________________________________________
+
= Check varieties.
Figure 2: Agro ecological zones and administrative States of Nigeria
Source: Geospatial Laboratory, IITA, Ibadan
14
Table 6 Cassava Production area and yield by State in Nigeria
State Annual ha Annual Mean yield Rank

planted MT
(x1000) produced
(MT/ha)
(x1000)
1 2 3
Benue 261.1 3551 13.6 1
Kogi 184 2605 14.2 2
Enugu 186.5 2085 11.2 3
Imo 156.5 2052 13.1 4
Cross River 177.5 1958 11 5
Kaduna 206 1835 8.9 6
Rivers 167.5 1735 10.4 7
Ondo 73.2 1267 17.3 8
Ogun 75.7 1178 15.6 9
Oyo 121 1019 8.4 10
Osun 66 915 13.9 11
Akwa-Ibom 117.8 893 7.6 12
Delta 70 811 11.6 13
Ekiti 41.2 651 15.8 14
Anambra 53 627 11.8 15
Edo 45 545 12.1 16
Niger 73.5 535 7.3 17
Bayelsa 30 459 15.3 18
Ebonyi 29 435 15 19
Kwara 30 425 14.2 20
Plateau 26.9 345 12.8 21
Lagos 25.1 300 12 22
Abia 15.7 265 16.9 23
Nasarawa 25 248 9.9 24
Taraba 12 111 9.3 25
Central belt States indicated in bold
Source: PCU Abuja 2002; ICP-IITA Ibadan, 2004
Table 7 also shows the major cassava producing local government areas in the central
States of Nigeria. Information in the table does not include northerly local government
areas in adjacent in the southern States of Edo, Enugu, Cross River, Ekiti, Ebonyi and
Oyo, and the adjacent local government areas in the northern State of Kaduna.
15
Table 7: Major cassava producing local governments in the central States of Nigeria
State Local Government Area
Nasarawa, Doma, Lafia, Wamba
Taraba Zing, Gassol, Wukari, Bali, Ussa, Karim Lamido
Plateau Quan-Pan, Shendam, Langtang, South Langtang, North Wase, Kanka, Mangu, Bassa,
Fobur
Benue Ado, Ukum, Kwande, Vandeikya, Konshisha, Ushongo, Gboko, Tarka, Makurdi,
Otukpo, Oju, Ogbadibo, Bukuru, Ohimini, Gwer West, Gwer
Ifelodun Ekiti Asa Ilorin East Moro
Kwara
Niger Agale Azza Bida Bosso Chanchaga Mokwa Wushisi Doko Lapai Paiko
Competition for Cassava in Alternative Uses
Presently, only cassava chunks/strips is commonly produced in the central belt States of
Nigeria. Technically speaking, it is possible to buy cassava chunks from the traditional
markets, mill and pelletise for animal feed. But this option has several constraints. One is
the inability of assured quality as farmer/processors do not dry the products properly and
so contains mould and aflatoxins. Second, is that the use of cassava chunks, as animal
feed will compete with its traditional use as food. Cassava chunks is an intermediate
product for cassava flour (elubo/lafun), which is a major food staple in Nigeria. It is a
highly traded commodity. The major cassava chunks/strips markets in Nigeria are shown
in table 8. Dry cassava chunks are transported very long distances from these markets to
major demand centers in the urban cities in Nigeria and beyond borders to Niamey,
Ndjamena, Ouagadougou and Libya as reported by traders in Dawanau market in Kano
State (Ezedinma et al, forthcoming).
Figure 3: Cassava Chunks/strips
16
Figure 4 Cassava Chips
In the domestic market, cassava for livestock feed will compete with traditional cassava
food products -- mainly gari and cassava chunks/strips. Furthermore, cassava products for
livestock feed (cassava pellets, chips etc) will compete with local substitute products such
as feed grains especially maize that are locally grown.
In 2003, Henk et al (2003) assessed the Nigerian domestic prices for these products.
Table 9 illustrates how chip prices can be derived from fresh root prices. Chip prices
amount to about 4 - 4.5 times the average price of fresh roots, i.e. somewhat cheaper than
the price of gari. This is understandable as the processing from fresh roots into gari is
more labor and energy demanding than the processing from roots into chips. The demand
for chips by the livestock industry depends partly on the relative price of chips vis-à-vis
the price of maize, and partly on the price of soybean meal as soybean meal needs to be
added to the chips in order to compensate for the lack of protein content in cassava (as
compared with maize).
Various sources in the livestock feed industry reported that their general experience was
that chips become economically attractive as substitute for maize when the price of chips
is about half of the price of maize. However, research indicates percentages of between
60% to 70%. Tables 9 illustrate that such price differential presently does not exist in
S.W. Nigeria. Table 9 (below) shows that in Kogi and Benue states the maize/processed
cassava price differential is more attractive for cassava producers. Indeed, in this area
cassava chips are periodically competitive with maize.
Table 8: Major Cassava chunks/strips markets in the Central States of Nigeria
State Market LGA

Nasarawa Doma Doma
Assakio Lafia
Shabu (Lafia) Lafia
Akurba Lafia
Wamba Wamba
Taraba Zing Zing LGA

Mutum Biyu Gassol
Bye pye Wukari
Bali Bali
Kwesati Ussa
17
Kwarurafa Garol
Karim Lamido Larim Lamido
Kpambai Takum
Plateau Namu Quan-Pan

Kwande Quan-Pan
Kurgwi Quan-Pan
Shendam Shendam
Yelwa(Ushar) Shendam
Kadum Shendam
Mabudi Langtang South
Langtang Langtang North
Wase Wase
Amper Kanka
Dawaki Kanka
Gindiri Mangu
Bassa Bassa
Jengre Bassa
Jos East Fobur
Benue Zakibiam Ukum

Adikpo Kwande
Vandeikya Vande ikya
Ihugh Vande ikya
Korinya Konshisha
Lessel Ushongo
Gboko Gboko
Tsekucha Gboko
Wannune Tarka
Makurdi Makurdi
Otukpo Otukpo
Oju Oju
Otonkon Ogbadibo
Ugbokolo Ogbadibo
Tywanye Bukuru
Adoka Otukpo
Gbem Vande ikya
Ado Ado
Bukuru Bukuru
Otobi Ado
Onyangede Ohimini
North Bank Makurdi
Aliade Gwer
Naka Gwer West
Table 9. Average annual prices during 2000 for gari and maize in three states
(Naira/kg)
State Gari Maize
Ogun 19.46 20.74

Benue 10.79 14.76
Kogi 9.15 12.93
Source: PCU, FMARD, 2003
18
Table 10: Monthly prices for fresh roots, gari, and maize in Ogun State, 2000 (Naira/kg)
Month Roots Gari Maize Roots/Gari Maize/Gari
January 3.88 12.68 18.81 0.31 1.48
February 3.6 13.05 19.46 0.28 1.49
March 3.76 14.47 22 0.26 1.52
April 1.9 15.16 23.01 0.13 1.52
May 2.12 16.84 21.54 0.13 1.28
June 2.66 19.12 23.73 0.14 1.24
August 2.59 21.96 19.78 0.12 0.9
September 2.6 27.4 20.34 0.10 0.74
October 3.53 22.08 20.04 0.16 0.91
November 4.53 25.56 19.63 0.18 0.77
December 4.57 25.81 19.82 0.18 0.77
Average 3.25 19.46 20.74 0.19 1.07
Source: PCU, FMARD, 2003
Henk et al (2003) noted during their survey that maize prices were quoted at Naira 20,000
– 25,000 per MT. Assuming a price of Naira 25,000 for maize, livestock feed enterprises
would be willing to offer Naira 12,500 per MT chips. Assuming 3 kg fresh roots per kg
of chips, this would imply a price of Naira 4 per kg fresh roots. Such low roots prices are
not common in the southern part of Nigeria, but are common in the central belt (Kogi,
Benue and Nassarawa). As at the time of this study, a ton of maize was group for
N35000, while a ton of cassava chips sold for N15,000 to N18000. The magnitude of the
price variation between the two commodities has not changed since last year.
Rural Transport and Costs
The central States of Nigeria has a low road density (figure 4). Intercity roads are paved
but community and village roads are not such that roads are impassable especially during
the peak rainy season months of June to September. One plus with respect to setting up
cassava based livestock feed plants is that production has to be done only in the dry
season months when the dirt roads to rural communities are easily accessible especially
in the central regions of the country. But on the other hand, it has to be pointed out that as
the dry season advances towards the months of March to April, cassava becomes very
difficult to harvest because of caked soils.
In a recent survey, Ezedinma et al (2004) have shown that rural urban transportation
costs may account for as high a 40 percent of processing cost for cassava chunks. Rural
transportation may range from N500/t of cassava within a 5km radius to as high as
N2000/t within a 30km radius to the destination point (e.g. farm to rural markets). Prices
also vary depending on the condition of the dirt road and the season (wet or dry). Rural
road infrastructure is poor and necessitating the high rural transportation costs. It follows
that the sighting of cassava-based feed processing plants should be within a maximum of
15km radius to the source of raw material.
19
Road Density map of Nigeria
Cassava is both perishable and bulky. To avoid losses from root deterioration and to
minimize transport costs, the processing plants of cassava for livestock feed should be
close to the major production areas. Fresh roots should be processed on the day they
arrive at the processing site. In Thailand the processing strategy is based on linking
small-scale producers with small to medium-scale processors.
20
CHAPTER FOUR
OPTIONAL FEED SCENARIOS FOR LIVESTOCK AND THEIR

COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGES
Poultry Sub sector:
Cassava is supplied in its dried forms mainly as peeled chunks of tubers to commercial
feed milling industries. They are milled into powder before incorporation into the
ingredient mixes. Two forms of feed exist in the poultry industry, pelleted or mash
proprietary feeds. The majority of feed millers produce mash feeds where levels of
incorporation of dried cassava varies from 5% in broiler feeds to a maximum of 14% in
grower mash. It is rarely used for chick starter feeds. In medium and small scale poultry
farms, (which largely patronize toll milling feed industries that are becoming popular,
particularly in the south west zone), levels of incorporation of cassava flour can increase
to 20% depending on the amount of oil or fat inclusion and the sieve dimension used in
milling the cassava chunks or chips. Still in others, dried cassava peels are incorporated at
levels up to 10% in poultry feeds.
The other scenario is the use of cassava chunks or chips in their milled form in pelletized
feeds. Two large feed milling industries in Plateau and Edo states are currently using
large quantities of cassava in their compounding of poultry feeds with satisfactory results.
Levels of inclusion of cassava in these rations are not known. However, use of cassava in
feeds from the European Union indicates up to 20.5% in broiler feeds and 24.5% for
layers (Wood, 1992). The dustiness in milling of cassava chunks is a problem in feed
milling industries and preference is therefore for the smaller sized chips, which is
gradually emerging from microprocessors equipped with chippers. The microbial content
of cassava chunks and chips used in Nigerian feed milling industry is also high and
variable thereby predisposing poultry to microbial induced diseases including diarrhoea
and aflatoxicosis, particularly when mashed feeds rather than pellets are used. Different
forms of cassava have also been used in Nigerian research stations for poultry feeding.
Studies by Tewe and Bokanga (2001) show that using dried unpeeled cassava roots in
place of peeled dried chunks gave better performance in poultry. Similarly, use of
pelletized unpeeled cassava root as complete replacement for maize by Tewe (2004)
show satisfactory performance when farm-gate processed cassava is incorporated at up to
45% in starter chick rations. Tewe and Bokanga (2001) have also demonstrated the
feasibility of pelletizing cassava root meal plus dried leaves in rations for layers with
improved egg yolk pigmentation. Such opportunities also exist for inclusion in rations for
growers, broilers and turkeys. The sieve dimension of the crumbled pellets is very
important in feed mixing for different classes of poultry. The problem of sun drying
pellets on the farm particularly during the rainy season raises the possibility of microbial
infestation when moisture content of such pellets are not reduced below 10%. Two
ton/day motorized pelletizer has been introduced by fabricators in Nigeria as a useful tool
in the production of soft cassava pellets particularly in toll milling and fish farming
enterprises. Artificial drying of pellets increases cost as compared to sun drying.
21
Unpeeled, grated and roasted cassava roots have been used as cassava grit to replace all
of maize in rations for poultry. This product, which is gelatinized due to roasting,
eliminates the dustiness of cassava and enhances the digestibility of cassava starch from
48% to 78%. Studies by Tewe (2004) reveal comparable and satisfactory performance in
pullet chicks with inclusion of up to 22.3% cassava grit and up to 45% inclusion for
growers. Cassava grits can also store for over 12 months, as the roasting dehydrates it to
about 8% moisture. It makes the product storable and useful for domestic and export
market. The opportunity for its use as substitute for maize becomes obvious in the rainy
season of the year when the price of maize usually escalates beyond the reach of poultry
farmers. During such periods, cassava grit can still be produced as the rain allows for
easier harvest of the roots and dehydration is not solar but fuel wood dependent. The
processing method also uses gari processing equipment, which is available in most rural
communities.
With the possibility of complete replacement of maize in poultry feeds, a total volume of
1.5 million metric tons of cassava tubers can be available for poultry feeding at its present
population of 17 million birds.
Pig Sub sector:

Cassava root is used for pig feeding in Nigeria in both dried and fresh forms. Medium
and small-scale scale pig farmers depend largely on cassava grown on their farm or as
purchased from neighbouring farms in addition to cassava wastes from homestead
processing of cassava into human foods. These are either fed fresh or boiled along with
feed supplements.
Dried cassava root in form of chunks or chips are also fed to pigs in balanced rations on
larger farms where the cassava can totally replace maize in the rations. Dustiness of
cassava chips is less critical for pigs as compared to poultry. Farmers usually moisten
dried cassava based feeds in daily ration to check dustiness. Dried cassava leaves can also
be used to enhance nitrogen and carotene content of such feeds.
Studies on pigs by Tewe and Bokanga (2001) reveal the possibility of replacing maize in
compound pig rations with dried, threshed, milled or pelletized cassava in the ration.
Performance shows that growth rate of pig on pelletized cassava ration surpassed that of
cereal-based ration and doubled that of a sole palm kernel cake supplement. Cassava root
meal can also be mixed in mash or pellet form in ratio of 4:1 for pig-based rations.
Cassava peels have been satisfactorily used for pig grower/finisher rations at levels
between 10% and 40% level as replacement for maize. The level increases with age of
pigs; and inclusion level of fats and oils to boost the energy content of the feed, reduce its
dustiness and douses the toxic effects of the peels. Cassava peels should either be offered
in the fresh or boiled form to pigs.
Cassava flour wastes from dried, fermented and peeled cassava roots for human
consumption is also a cheaper source of carbohydrate purchased from open markets by
pig farmers. Such waste flours usually contain high level of contaminants, including
22
sand, stones, plastic and nails, which have to be sorted out through sieving before feeding
to pigs. Such sieved flours give satisfactory performance as total replacement for corn in
grower/finisher pig rations.
The production of cassava grits from whole cassava tubers also opens up avenue for use
of this product as total replacement of corn in pig rations. When cassava grits are sieved,
the residue (or sieviate) is also a suitable energy source in pig grower/finisher rations.
Ruminant Sub sector:

Cattle, sheep and goat constitute the largest biomass population of livestock in Nigeria.
They however depend largely on pasture from rangelands. Opportunities for the use of
cassava in ruminant feeding exist in three scenarios as follows:
 The pastoralist Fulani cattle rearer migrates to greener pastures during the dry
season with communal clashes resulting from their trampling on farms as they
move southwards. They depend almost entirely on grazing without recourse to
supplements. Cassava residue in form of peels, sieviates, leaves, in dried or
sievates pelleted forms can be packaged and offered for their use particularly as
dry season feeding. Residues from starch industries offer great opportunities if
they are dried or pelletized as is the practice in Thailand, Indonesia and European
Union countries.
 The peri-urban cattle rearers presently use dried cassava peels collected from
cassava processing sites or markets for cattle fattening. They will be well
disposed to buying such feeds from cassava residues if packaged in their dried or
pelleted forms.
 Intensive dairy centers and cattle fattening can benefit tremendously from the use
of dried cassava tubers as substitute for maize. Studies by Olaloku et al., (1997)
show that cassava tuber as complete replacement for maize in White Fulani cattle
give improved yield and fat levels. Our recent survey of Niyya Farmsi n Kaduna
confirmed higher milk yield of up to 20% on cassava-based feeds in intensive
dairy cattle production. Cassava leaf silage is also of benefit to cattle production
systems as practised in Brazil.
There is need to explore the use of drought resistant, dual purpose cassava varieties with
high foliage yield and greenability of leaves to enable harvesting of substantial quantities
of leaves for the ruminant stock. Studies by CLAYUCA in South America reveal the
possibility of obtaining up to 90 tons/hectare cassava leaves when such high foliage
cassava varieties are cultivated primarily for their leaves (Sicco 2002).
Rabbit and Fish Sub sectors:

Commercial rabbit production depends on pelletized feeds. Cassava tubers and peels in
their dried forms offer considerable promise in such feeds. Studies by Omole (1992) have
23
demonstrated the feasibility of cassava in life cycle feeding of rabbits. Additionally,
cassava leaf meal has similar nutritive value to alfalfa meal, which has proved to be a
very desirable feed for rabbit and is the largest single component in the United States of
America (Cheeke et al., 1989). Cassava leaves can therefore be exploited for rabbit
feeding in Nigeria.
The suitability of cassava root meal as a binder and energy substitute for maize has been
demonstrated for fish feeding in Nigeria. The expanding aquaculture industry in Nigeria
offers considerable opportunities for use of cassava in pelletised fish diets. In this regard,
fresh pellets can be in form of sinking hard or soft pellets. They can also be in form of
floating or suspended pellets depending on fish species, which can be surface or bottom
feeders. Equipment for the production of hard floating or suspended pellets is yet to be
developed in Nigeria.
24
CHAPTER FIVE
CASSAVA-BASED FEED FORMULATIONS IN COMPARISON

WITH MAIZE BASED RATIONS
A major limitation to adoption of cassava-based feeds in Nigeria is the absence of

necessary information on cost-effective formulations for different livestock species. Such
rations need to be packaged for different production systems in different agro-ecologies
of the country. Information provided in this regard will build the confidence of livestock
farmers and feed producers to substitute cassava for maize in commercial rations where
the price favourably dictates a competitive advantage for cassava. This is envisaged to
happen with the rapid spread of disease resistant high yielding TMS varieties when this is
combined with modern production techniques with resultant yield increase and reduced
cost of production per metric tonne. Tables 1 – 10 provides linear programmed cost
effective formulations in rations for poultry (chick starter, growers, layers and broilers),
growing pigs, beef cattle, sheep, goats, dairy cattle, rabbits and catfish. These
computerised formulations include partial or total substitution of maize with cassava root
meal. Peels and leaves are included in some formulations. Prices are based on the
Nigerian market prices of ingredients except the cassava products which are novel fed
ingredients developed at the IITA (Tewe and Bokanga, 2001) with costs of the cassava
products being about 40 percent lower than that of maize. While the formulations are not
exhaustive, they provide a useful baseline for cassava feeds and can be manipulated to fit
specific production systems and different agro-ecologies in the country.
Table1: Maize and Cassava-based Feed Formulations for Poultry

(Chick Starter) by Least Cost Linear Programming
Maize-based Cassava-based Formulations

Ingredients Formulation Level 1 Level 2
Maize 40.50 33.00 -
Cassava flour - 10.00 -
Cassava grit or pellets - - 45.00
Cassava leaves - - 10.30
Soybean meal 20.00 - -
Toasted Soya - 20.00 27.00
Ground nut cake 6.00 10.00 -
Maize offal 17.00 11.00 7.00
Wheat offal 6.80 6.30 -
Fish meal 4.00 4.00 5.00
Oyster shell 2.00 2.00 2.00
Bone meal 3.00 3.00 3.00
Salt 0.25 0.25 0.25
Premix 0.25 0.25 0.25
Methionine 0.10 0.10 0.10
Lysine 0.10 0.10 0.10
Cost (Naira/tonne) 42,862 41,332 39,369
Cost Reduction (%) 3.57 8.15
US $ = 136 (Naira)
Source: Tewe, O.O. (2004)
25
Table 2: Maize and Cassava-based Feed Formulations for Poultry
(Growers) by Least Cost Linear Programming

Maize 24.00 13.0 -
Soybean meal 2.00 3.00 7.50
Corn offal 29.00 21.50 18.00
Palm Kernel Cake 19.00 19.00 18.50
Wheat Offal 16.50 16.50 15.00
Fish meal (65%) 1.00 1.00 1.00
Bone meal 2.00 2.00 2.00
Salt 0.25 0.25 0.25
Premix 0.25 0.25 0.25
Cost (Naira/tonne) 23,881 22,016 21,391

US $ = 136 (Naira)
26
(Broilers) by Least Cost Linear Programming

Maize 50.00 27.00 -
Palm oil - 3.00 3.00
Soybean (full fat) - - 20.00
Soybean meal 12.00 12.00 -
Ground nut cake 20.00 20.00 15.25
Wheat offal 6.30 3.25 -
Fish meal (65%) 6.00 6.00 6.00
Salt 0.25 0.30 0.30
Premix 0.25 0.25 0.30
Lysine 0.10 0.10 0.10
Cost (Naira/tonne) 43,528 41,147.50 41,665

US $ = 136 (Naira)
27
(Layers) by Least Cost Linear Programming

Maize 40.00 34.00 -
Corn Bran 15.50 7.00 10.00
Soybean (Full fat) - - 10.00
Soybean meal 5.00 6.00 5.00
Wheat offal 10.00 10.00 6.00
Palm Kernel Cake 8.00 11.00 6.00
Fish meal (65%) 2.00 2.00 2.00
Bone meal 2.00 2.00 2.00
Salt 0.25 0.25 0.25
Premix 0.25 0.25 0.25
Lysine 0.10 0.10 0.10
Cost (Naira/tonne) 31,771 30,346 28,212

US $ = 136 (Naira)
28
Table 5: Maize and Cassava-based Feed Formulations for Pigs’
Supplement by Least Cost Linear Programming
Ingredients Maize-based Cassava-based

Formulation Formulations
Level 1 Level 2
Maize 30 - 20.00
Maize bran - - 10.00
Cassava grit/pellet - - 20.00
Cassava peels/sieviate - - 10.00
Cassava leaves - - -
Palm kernel cake 43.00 38.00 13.00
Palm oil - - -
Wheat offal - - 14.00
Wheat bran 14.00 14.00 -
Blood meal 5.0 5.00 5.00
Soybean (Fullfat) 5.00 5.00 5.00
Bone meal 2.00 2.00 2.00
Salt 0.50 0.50 0.00
Premix 0.50 0.50 0.00
Cost (Naira/tonne) 24,296 17,946 22,546

US $ = 136 (Naira)
29
Table 6: Maize and Cassava-based Feed Formulations for Beef
Cattle’s Feed Supplement by Least Cost Linear Programming

Maize 25.00 - -
Cassava flour/grit/Pellet - 30.00 -
Cassava leaves - 10.00 20.00
Cassava peels/sieviate - 18.00 21.50
Palm Kernel cake 25.00 20.00 30.00
Brewers’ dried grains 18.00 - -
Poultry droppings 13.50 13.50 25.00
Wheat offal 10.00 - -
Bone meal 2.00 2.00 2.00
Premix 0.50 0.50 0.50
Salt 1.00 1.00 1.00
Cost (Naira/tonne) 19,181 15,331 10,756

US $ = 136 (Naira)
30
Table 7: Maize and Cassava-based Feed Formulations for Sheep and
goats’ supplement by Least Cost Linear Programming
Ingredients Maize-based Cassava-based Formulations

Formulation Level 1 Level 2
Maize 20.00 - -
Cassava flour/grit/pellet - 20.00 -
Cassava leaves - 8.0 5.00
Cassava peels/sieviate - - 15.00
Wheat offal 8.00 - -
Corn offal - - 20.00
Palm Kernel cake 30.00 30.00 30.00
Groundnut cake 5.00 5.00 3.00
Brewers’ dried grains 20.00 20.00 -
Poultry droppings 15.00 15.00 25.00
Bone meal 1.00 1.00 1.00
Salt 1.00 1.00 1.00
Cost (Naira/tonne) 15,858 12,378 11,678

US $ = 136 (Naira)
Table 8: Maize and Cassava-based Feed Formulations for Dairy

cattle’s feed supplement by Least Cost Linear Programming
Ingredients Maize-based Cassava-based Formulations

Formulation Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
Maize 57.00 34.50 9.5 -
Cassava flour/grit/pellet - 20.00 45.00 57.00
Cotton seed cake 28.00 28.00 28.00 28.00
Palm kernel cake 15.00 8.50 8.00 4.50
Wheat offal 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00
Urea - 0.50 1.00 2.00
Premix 2.50 3.00 3.00 3.00
Salt 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50
Cost (Naira/tonne) 40,290 37,440 33,265 32,050

Cost Reduction (%) 7.07 17.44 20.45
US $ = 136 (Naira)
31
Table 9: Maize and Cassava-based Feed Formulations for Rabbit
feed supplement by Least Cost Linear Programming
Maize-based
Ingredients Formulation Cassava-based Formulations
Level 1 Level 2
Maize 38.00 - -
Cassava flour/grit/pellet - 38.00 35.00
Maize bran 10.00 10.00 15.00
Cassava peels/sieviate - - -
Groundnut cake 11.00 13.00 -
Palm kernel cake 20.00 18.0 15.00
Brewers’ dried grains 12.50 12.50 15.50
Fish meal 5.00 5.0 2.50
Bone meal 3.00 3.00 3.00
Premix 0.50 0.50 0.50
Cost (Naira/tonne) 31,544 25,484 20,059

US $ = 136 (Naira)
32
Table 10: Maize and Cassava-based Feed Formulations for
Fish (Cat fish) by Least Cost Linear Programming
Maize Cassava
Ingredients Pellets
Maize 15.00 -
Cassava flour/grit/pellet - 12.00
Cassava leaves/peels/sieviate - 3.00
Palm oil 1.50 2.00
Groundnut cake 15.00 14.50
Soybean meal 20.00 20.00
Fish meal 20.00 20.00
Blood meal 25.00 25.00
Oyster shell 1.00 1.00
Bone meal 1.00 1.00
Salt 0.50 0.50
Dicalcium phosphate 0.40 0.40
Vitamin C 0.10 0.10
Premix 0.50 0.50
Cost (Naira/tonne) 62,540 60,040

Cost Reduction (%) 4.00
US $ = 136 (Naira)
The cassava-based formulations as presented in Tables 1 – 3 shows that they are cheaper
in all instances than the maize-based formulations. Specifically, the poultry diets show a
cost reduction of between 3.5% in chicks’ starter diet to 11.2% in layer rations. Cassava-
based pig rations cost 26.14% less than the maize diets. For ruminants, cost reduction
varies from 7.07% for dairy concentrate formulations to 43.92% for beef cattle feed
supplements. Rabbit feed shows a cost reduction from 19.21% to 36.41% of cassava-
based rations. Catfish ration shows a mere 4% reduction in price for the cassava ration as
compared to maize and this is due to low input of energy ingredients as compared to
protein sources in fish ration.
The economic feasibility of using cassava in livestock and fish rations in Nigeria is
therefore demonstrated. It is important to note however, that these are baseline
formulations and specific rations needs to be computed for peculiar settings in different
agro-ecological zones of Nigeria.
33
CHAPTER SIX
PROCESS TECHNIQUES, TECHNOLOGIES AND INFRASTRUCTURAL

REQUIREMENTS FOR PILOT PROJECTS
Implementation of the pilot project will bring together all aspects of production,
processing and marketing of the cassava-based animal feed inputs identified for
promotion. (i.e. dried peels, chips, gelatinized and ungelatinized grits and pellets).
Technologies which have been proven as appropriate under real-life situations would be
made available to selected farmers groups. This will make it possible to avoid such
problems as variable product quality of farmer-processed chips and grits. Further to this,
quality control parameters will need to be established and taught to the farmers and
processors, and clear channels of communication opened and nurtured between the
farmers, processors and users. Table x shows the space and installations required for a
village-level processing operation, and others.
INFRASTRUCTURAL REQUIREMENTS
Supply and sorting area
Fresh roots are supplied to this area and higher quality roots separated for processing.
This area is most important at the processor level where it is a part of the processing area.
The roots are weighed, graded, grouped and sequentially processed according to their
time of harvest. Ideally, all roots should be processed no later than 24h after harvest.
Processing area
Cassava roots are peeled, washed, soaked, grated, chipped and pressed in this area
(models 1 and 2). The area should have a brick or plastered platform with sufficient
slope to provide good drainage and easy cleaning. In model 3, milling and packing are
also done there. The size of the processing area for model 3 is about 15 x 20m. Satellite
producers (i.e. models 1 and 2) require less floor space and may undertake their
processing activities at the backyards or other locations near the farmstead.
Table 11: Infrastructure required by three models of the cassava chips and
grits agro-industry.
Infrastructure Model 1 Model 2 Model 3
(Individual farmers) (Farmers’ group) (Processor as nucleus)
Supply and sorting 4-8 10-16 20-30
area (m2)
Processing area 10-15 30-40 300-500
(m2)
Drying area (m2) 20-30 80-100 800-1000
Storage room for 8-12 20-30 200-300
2
chips (m )
Storage room for 1000
grits (in tons)
Adapted from: Damardjati et al. (1996)
34
Drying area
Sun drying is the most appropriate and cheapest method for all the three models to dry
peels, chips and grits. The drying area must be completely exposed to the sun, with a
small shaded area where workers can spread the wet cassava products on either concrete
pads or trays before moving them into the sun. If meshed trays are used, the area should
be completed with a wooden or bamboo rack to hold the trays during drying. Ideally,
trays should be of 0.8 x 2m dimension and can carry 7 – 10kg of wet chips or peels.
Dewatered mash are best dried on well-swept concrete floors or on tarpaulin (or high
density propylene) – covered flat surfaces. Model 3 may have a drying area capacity in
excess of 10 to 12,000kg depending on the loading density.
Storage space for dried products
Following the sun-drying of the intermediate animal feed stuff, they are to be weighed,
packed and stored in a room or any other appropriate enclosure. The floor is platformed
to protect the materials from direct contact with the concrete or brick floor. In model 3,
the storage space may be used to store more than one product. The dried products are
stored until milled or sold. In models 1 and 2 no storage space was provided for grits.
This is however not sacrosanct as the intensity of operations and access to resources may
determine otherwise.
Water supply
Agro-industrial operations normally require relatively large quantities of water, and

cassava processing is no exception. Suspensions of sand, iron and other undesirable
materials can lead to very significance loss of product quality. Water quality can be
improved by filtration, addition of chemicals or the cultivation of floating water – plant in
the purification tanks (Grace, 1977, Bruinsma et al, 1983). Ideally good quality water for
processing should possess the same characteristics as for potable water (i.e. should be
tasteless, colourless and odourless).
In locations where there are pipe borne water or flowing stream to pump and filter etc
then a deep well will be required to assure reasonably reliable clean water supply for
processing operations. An over head tank of 250 gallons may be installed with the well
for model 3 activities.
Electric Power
In view of the very unreliable power supply situation in Nigeria, particularly in the rural
areas, motorised agro-processing operations as a rule are normally powered by internal
combustion engine-type prime movers (i.e diesel or petrol engines). In cases where
electric lighting is required to facilitate processing activities, a small capacity
petrol/diesel engine driven electric generator is installed. The foregoing disseminatory
power sourcing arrangement is expected to be used in Models 1 and 2 operations, which
are to be largely village and small town – based respectively.
35
Most pelleting machineries are electric-motor powered, and they often require high
capacity three-phase prime movers. Therefore for medium to large scale Pelleting
(Model 3) operations, the use of electric motors may not be avoidable. This will imply
that most installations would be at the urban centres, and may require the provision of a
standby generating set.
Access Roads
In view of the bulky nature of cassava roots, it is important that the haulage/transfer of
fresh roots from the farms to the primary processing centres (i.e. chipping or grating
locations) is made as easy as possible. On-farm processing of cassava to chips and
dewatered mash may moderate the quantities of fresh roots moved to processing sites;
nevertheless, efficient and economic transfers are facilitated with a good network of
simple but motorable roads servicing the producing villages and the processing centres.
The unhindered flow of chips directly to feed processors or Pelleting plants is also
significantly affected by the availability of good access roads.
It is very important to assess the degree of access which groups and communities have to
this infrastructure when identifying and selecting pilot project locations.
Concrete Aprons/Pads
The construction of durable concrete drying aprons is a high cost investment, which is
nevertheless required by cassava drying communities. The provision of support in the
construction of this facility will greatly promote chips, chunks and mash drying activities
amongst cassava farming and processing groups.
Well constructed concrete pads may last upwards of 20 years, and can also serve as a
resource for a large number of other income generating farm-related activities.
Unit Operations For Transforming Cassava Into Animal Feed

Inputs
Due to its high moisture content (normally between 60 and 70 percent) cassava roots are
highly perishable, and require processing in order to increase their shelf life, and reduce
transportation costs to distant processing sites. Furthermore, in view of the fact that the
roots deteriorate within two to three days after harvest, and because they contain varying
amounts of cyanogeric glucosides, cassava requires processing into dry, more durable
and stable products to guarantee their long term preservation and safety for human (and
often times animal) consumption.
Cassava is mostly used as an animal feed ingredient in its dried unmodified forms; and
there are a number of major unit operations associated with cassava processing into
animal feed inputs. A number of these processing activities are best carried out on-farm
or at the farm gate since the bulk of cassava roots consist of water. The transportation of
fresh cassava over long distances for factory processing is economically unviable, as the
high transportation costs cannot be justified for a low-value raw material like cassava.
36
General Procedures
The procedures and techniques used by the satellite village / cooperative processor
(model 1/2) and the nucleus/foster plant (Model 3) to process cassava products (peels,
chips and ungelatinized grits in the former, and chips, gelatinized grits and pellets in the
latter) include the following:
a) root handling
b) peeling
c) washing and soaking
d) chipping
e) grating
f) pressing
g) drying
h) gelatinization
i) milling
j) pelletizing
k) packaging
Root handling: The characteristics and quality of the eventual cassava products
influence the way roots are handled by farmers. Root handling includes time and
methods of harvesting, transport from the field and storage. For a good quality product,
roots should be processed in less than 24h after harvest.
Peeling: Mechanical peeling of the roots in the pilot phase is not envisaged, except if an
efficient mechanical peeler can be sourced. Roots will be peeled manually with a knife
or hand-held knifepeeler device which moderates the depth of peel into the root flesh.
Washing and soaking: Peeled (or unpeeled depending upon the end product) cassava is
washed thoroughly, then soaked overnight (for high-cyanogenic cultivars), or for a few
minutes (low-cyanogenic cultivars) while waiting to be chipped. Soaking is not required
(irrespective of the cultivars) if the root will be subjected to the grating and pressing
operations.
Chipping: Peeled (and sometimes soaked) roots are chipped using mechanical chippers.
The chip size may vary depending on the processing considerations and the end product.
For cassava destined for use in livestock feed compounding, it is desirable that drying
time is reduced in order to discourage fermentation, thereby avoiding the breakdown of
the starch granules (which are the main energy component in cassava). Since chip size
and configuration are very much correlated to drying time a chip size of between Ø0.2 –
0.5 x 1.5cm is recommended, while chip loading density may vary between 5 and
12kg/m2 depending on the sunlight’s intensity, relative humidity and the expected final
chip quality.
Grating: Any of the common motorized cassava raspers available in Nigeria will suffice
for size reduction to a mash.
Pressing/Dewatering: Grated mash is dewatered with either a screw or hydraulic press.

Substantial gains in speedy mash dehydration can be achieved if a design incorporating a
37
combined screw and hydraulic jack dewatering system is installed, as the residual
moisture in the mash is significantly reduced.
Drying:
i. Mash
Dewatered mash is spread out on a tray or concrete pad for sun drying,
chips may require intermittent turning on the concrete, and take 2-3 days
to dry to a moisture level of between 13-15%. Dewatered mash is best
dried on concrete or tarpaulin or high-density polyethylene sheeting, as its
granular nature will not allow drying on meshed trays.
ii. Chips
The two most important unit operations in chips production are size
reduction and drying. Fresh roots may be peeled or left unpeeled
depending on the end-use of the dried chips. For example, chips destined
for compounding animal feeds may not be peeled before chipping.
Generally, four major factors affect the drying rate of an agricultural

material. These are:
(i) the physical and chemical properties of the product, i.e. shape,
size, composition and moisture content;
(ii) the geometrical arrangement of the product in relation to heat

transfer surface (i.e. tray loading;
(iii) the physical properties of the drying environment i.e. air

temperature, humidity and velocity;
(iv) The characteristics of the drying equipment i.e. its heat transfer
efficiency
Studies on the drying characteristics of cassava chips have shown that there is no constant
drying rate period for cassava, but two falling rate periods; the second being slower than
the first, with the moisture removal being controlled by liquid diffusion rates. According
to UNIFEM (1989), drying processes can be classified into two moisture removal stages:
(i) removing `surface moisture’

(ii) removing `internal moisture’ from within the material.
The drying rate in the first stage is solely dependent on the ability of the air to absorb and
remove moisture from the chips. The rate of drying in the second stage is slower (if air at
same temperature is used) as it is dependent on the rate at which moisture can diffuse
through the tissue to the surface before being evaporated by the passing air. In this latter
stage, drying rate is determined by moisture content of the agricultural material and air
temperature rather than air speed.
38
Figures X and Y show the tray drying curve for the two-stage drying behaviour of chips
(Frank Wright Feeds). At the initial stage, the fresh chips loose moisture rapidly and air
movement is more important than air temperature or humidity. However in the final
drying stage, when the moisture content of the chips has fallen to about 30%, the removal
of water is very low. Frank Wright Feeds reported that during this stage, the relative
humidity of the air must fall below 65% for the moisture content of the chips to reach a
safe storage value. When the relative humidity remains over 65%, particularly during the
rainy season, drying time will be prolonged until the weather improves. As long as the
initial drying stage has been completed, the chips will not deteriorate for two or three
days.
Drying of cassava chips are of three types namely natural drying on concrete floors or
trays using solar energy, artificial drying using fossil fuels or agricultural wastes in
mechanical dryers and a mixed drying using a combination of both solar and mechanical
drying. Mechanical drying is not encouraged because it is expensive in Nigeria and
available dryers may not give an acceptable output. Several factors affect the drying time
and quality of cassava chips. These include the ambient weather conditions such as air or
wind velocity, temperature, and humidity. The initial amount of water in the roots also
varies by season with fresh roots carrying relatively more water in the wet/rainy season
and less water in the dry season. Other critical operational factors are the geometry of the
chips and the loading density. A triangular shape has been recommended to give greater
surface area for drying with a loading density of 14 - 16kg/m2 has been recommended
with trays and 5kg/m on drying floors (CIAT).
The advantages of drying in concrete floors is that the infrastructure is simple, the
process is easy to carry out by small farmers, the method is economical compared to
artificial drying, the energy source is free and cooperative groups especially women can
produce cassava ships at the farm gate using this method. The major disadvantages are
that an almost continuous labour is needed, drying is subject to the climate, and the
concrete floor is expensive and may not payback its investment.
Drying in trays seems to have greater yield advantage. A loading density of 14 - 16kg/m2
has been recommended in the case of drying trays with wire mesh (www.ciat.cgiar.org,
2004). This implies that a 1000m2 area of trays in a chipping facility will give a total
output of 14 – 16t after two days of drying or 42 - 48t a week. About 115 trays of 1.4m2
dimensions will be required to dry 1t of dried cassava every two days. About 2.5t of fresh
roots will give 1t of dried chips while yield is estimated at 40%. About four (4) persons
will be required to produce a ton of cassava chips. Therefore a facility with a 100x100m2
compound area will take a peeling, chipping and storage building and 242m2 (i.e. 1.4m2
x115 trays) drying area for the drying trays.
The advantages of processing cassava chips with trays are the fact that the process is
simple and can be carried out by small producers, the wind is more effective for drying,
less labour is needed as the chips do not need so much turning over (only once a day),
larger quantities of chips can be dried per square meter of surface and cooperative groups
can be created for production, processing and marketing. It is recommended that women
cooperative groups should own such plants in the central belt of Nigeria.
The disadvantages include the fact that the trays’ useful life is short, more careful
management is needed and it is of low processing capacity. However, for small farmers
39
in the central belt of Nigeria, this may be a more appropriate technology than the
construction of floors that are capital intensive. Similarly the trays are easy to construct
and the materials are readily available locally.
Best and Gomez (1982) had investigated the effect of ambient conditions (temperature,
wind velocity, relative humidity and solar radiation) on the drying time of chips on
concrete floor.
Cassava Chips Loading for Drying
The rate of sun drying of cassava will depend on factors such as chip size, loading
density, initial moisture content, ambient conditions, and the type of drying surface
employed (black painted or plain concrete floor, trays etc). The rate of mechanical
drying also depends on the chip size, loading density and initial moisture; it is also
affected by the drying air condition and flow rate.
Best (1979) has researched the relative drying performance of plain concrete floors and
black – painted concrete floors and obtained results similar to that of Thanh and Lohani
(1978) who investigated the relative rates of drying for a range of chip sizes and shapes
on different drying surfaces. It was also shown that greater outputs were possible at
higher loading despite the longer drying time. Faster and more uniform drying was
obtained by spreading them at intervals during the day.
In Nigeria, the chips are spread on the concrete drying surfaces at varied densities (with
an average of 5Kg/m²) depending on the weather at the period. It takes 3 – 5 sunny days
for chips to dry in the Northern and Southern parts of the country respectively
(Manurung, 1974; Onwueme, 1978).
Table 12: Effects of Chips Loading Density on Drying Times
Drying Method Loading Drying Time Output

(Kg/m2) (hr) (kg/m2/hr)
Plain Concrete 5 12 0.42
10 19 0.53
Block Concrete 5 10 0.50
10 17 0.59
Source: Best, 1979
Gelatinization: Granulated dewatered mash can be gelatinized by frying or roasting in a

metal pan at around 3000C. At this temperature, the starch grains gelatinize making them
easier to digest. Partial gelatinization of the small crumbs of the mash keeps the
attractive crumb structure. Table 2 shows the different mesh gelatinization devices/
machineries available, rated capacities and the production models to which they are best
suited.
40
Table 13: Model Adaptation to Gelatinization Devices
Available mash Gelatinization Rated capacity per Most adapted
Devices / Machineries unit processing model
1. Circular (Aluminium) Frying 80 – 100kg/day Model 1
Pots 200-250kg/day
2. Rectangular Tray Fryer 150-440kg/hr Model 2
3. Rotary Frying Kiln Model 3
Source: Cassava Utilization in the Domestic Feed Survey, 2004
Milling: Any of the various dried cassava-based feed input can be milled to desired
particle sizes by the use of different size reduction devices, the most popular of which are
the plate and hammer mills. These machineries can be powered by either electric motors
or petrol/diesel engines.
Pelleting: When whole cassava meal (or its mixtures with other ingredients) of a
moisture content that is normal for home-mixed rations are subjected to high pressure, the
mixture becomes hot, the individual particles stick together, and the hard lumps that are
formed take on the shape of the container in which the meal is compressed. The
principles on which Pelleting is based is discussed further in the chapter.
Packaging: Dried cassava materials can be packed in pre-determined quantities inside

double plastic bag, polythene, polyethylene or sisal sacks amongst others, depending on
the conditions and length of storage, and the preferences of the intending product end-
user.
Cassava Extrusion and Pellets Production

Extrusion Processes
The frontiers of cassava utilization in animal feed and other nutritional applications can
be vastly expanded through the use of the extrusion process to handle mixtures of cassava
meal and other carefully selected feed ingredients. Extruders utilize friction as the sole
source of heat accompanied by pressure and attrition. Heat and pressure are developed by
pressing the product through a barrel by means of a screw and meeting increasing
restrictions. This process take less than thirty seconds, and when the material is
discharged from the barrel, the following functions are complete:
(a) Cooking: The material has been fully cooked at rapidly increasing
temperatures up to a maximum of 120 – 175ºC, depending on the raw
materials. The cooking process increases digestibility and palatability and
reduces the anti-nutritive components.
(b) Sterilization and Detoxification: The heat and pressure created in the
barrel can destroy harmful organisms such as salmonella. This means that
extrusion can be safely used to process such materials as slaughter house
wastes. Toxins from bacteria and fungal activity can be destroyed or
reduced to manageable levels.
41
Expansion: The raw material is expanded. Starch is gelatinized and oil cells are
ruptured.
Mixing and Grinding: Although most materials must be coarse-ground and thoroughly
mixed before extrusion, the attrition and shear-action inside the barrel continue to mix
and grind so that a homogeneous product emerges.
Dehydration: At the point of extrusion from the barrel, the high temperature of the
extruded material causes up to 50% of the moisture to be flashed off.
Stabilization: The heat and pressure deactivate destructive enzymes such as those which
causes rancidity.
Extrusion Effects on Food Components
The composition of the cassava root varies as shown in Table 14 below.

Table 14: Proximate Composition of Cassava Roots
Components Percentage Range

Water 65 – 70%
Starch 20 – 30%
Sugar and Fats 5%
Protein 1 – 2%
Fibre 1 – 2%
Ash 0.5 – 1%
Source: Edwards, 1974
Extrusion accomplishes various effects on these components as shown below:
Protein: The cooking action of an extruder increases the digestibility of amino

acids by breaking down the secondary bonds of the protein molecules. The heat
produced and the short dwell time are not sufficient to destroy the amino acids. In
ruminants, the proportion of rumen non-degradable protein is significantly
increased by extrusion, allowing more efficient protein digestion in the small
intestine and improved animal performance.
Starch: The digestibility of starch is greatly improved by extrusion through a

combination of gelatinization and expansion. As it passes through the extruder it
can be gelatinized in under 30 seconds by the effect of heat and moisture under
pressure. On expulsion from the extruder barrel there is a dramatic and immediate
drop of temperature and pressure causing instant expansion.
Fat: Dry extrusion affects fat in three ways:
(a) The attrition and shear action unique to extrusion, ruptures the
walls of the oil bearing cells. This increases the availability of oil
for digestion and hence the energy value of the raw material.
42
(b) If starch is present when an oil seed is extruded, the fat and starch
form a complex in the ratio 1 : 10. an acid hydrolysis is considered
necessary to measure the correct and actual fat level.
(c) The stability of fat is improved because enzymes such as lipase,

which cause rancidity are destroyed by extrusion. Natural
stabilizing components such as lecithin, and tocophenols remain
fully active. The material is exposed to the maximum processing
temperature for only 5 – 6 seconds, whereas oxidation can only
occur with higher temperatures and longer exposure.
Fibre: The shear-action and attrition which occur in the barrel crush fibrous
materials, causing an increase in the proportion of digestible fibre.
Palatability: Experience has shown that extruded materials are very palatable;
and there are several reasons for this:
(a) Starch is broken down into its sweeter, simpler components.

(b) Unpleasant volatile flavour components, such as the beany taste of soya,
are flashed off as the product is extruded from the barrels.
(c) The homogenous nature of the end product improves the texture of raw
materials.
Pellets Production:
Finely ground cassava is dusty to handle and bulky to transport over long distances.
These problems can be overcome by pelleting the meal immediately after chipping, and if
the chips are in sufficiently small sizes then grinding the dried chips will not normally be
found necessary.
When whole (100% cassava) or meal mixtures of a moisture content that is normal for
home-mixed rations are subjected to high pressure, the mixture becomes hot, the
individual particles stick together, and the hard lumps that are formed take on the shape
of the container (i.e. die) in which the meal is compressed. The hardness and resistance
to crumbling of the product depends on several factors, such as the composition of the
mixture, the fineness of grinding, the moisture content and the pressure to which the
mixture is subjected. Cubing machines are usually designed to produce short cylindrical
sticks of various sizes, the larger sizes being called ‘cubes’ and the smaller ones ‘pellets’.
The large cubing machines used in mills where compounding is done on a commercial
basis often use steam and molasses to assist the cubing operation, but most small scale
cubes can work without the addition of either steam or molasses, though addition of a
binding material helps to make a stable cube. Cassava is advantaged in this regard as its
large percentage of starch (with potentially high viscosity when gelatinized) facilitates
binding of its particles either wholly or when compounded with other ingredients.
Mode of Operation (Roller/Die Pelletizer)
The meal is normally fed via a conditioner (steam mixing device) into the die. As the die
revolves, the rollers rotate and force the meal into the meal where compression takes
43
place. The cubes or pellets extruded from the die are cut off to the required length by
adjustable knives before falling through an outlet near the base of the machine. The
cubes may then pass on to a perforated sifting tray which helps to remove any small
fragments. They are thereafter cooled in a cooler/dryer before being bagged in hessian
bags or other appropriate packaging materials.
Typical cubes are ⅝ in (10mm) or ½ in (12mm) in diameter, while pellets may be of ⅛ in

(3mm) diameter. In general, the smaller the diameter, the lower is the output of a given
machine, so the large sizes are usually for adult cattle and the smallest size only for
poultry.
Mode of Operation (Screw/Barrel/Die Pelletizer)
Pellets production is essentially an extrusion process, and when horizontal screw

extruders are used, friction, accompanied by pressure and attrition are utilized. Heat and
pressure are developed by pressing the product through a barrel by means of a screw, and
meeting increased restrictions. Pellet shapes and sizes are determined by the type of
shaping accessories which are attached to the end of the extruder barrel.
Characterization and Specification of Pelleting Equipment

Pelletizers Characterization:
Cassava gelatinization (either partial or complete) before incorporation into animal feed
is considered as desirable for various reasons, the most important of which is the
increased digestibility of the carbohydrates. Pellets production (involving meal
gelatinization) from cassava chips or meal can be achieved through the application of two
major types of equipment. Table 15 shows the characteristics and features of the two
Pelleting modes.
44
Table 15: Characterization of 2 types of Pelleting Machines
Extruder Technical and Economic Features

Types Drive Barrel Power Condi- Products Product Capacity Cost
Reqmt tioning Modifica- Versatility
tion
Roller/Die Vertical Rotating Low to Steam or Minimal Limited Extensive Lower
& Hori- with High 5hp dry Initial
zontal multiple upwards possible Cost
Drive perfora- (optional)
Shafts tions
Screw- Mainly Stationary High Steam or Very Very Extensive Higher
Shalf/Die Horizon horizon- Normally dry High High. Initial
tal tal barrel 30hp possible More Cost
with die minimum (optional) shapes
head at and sizes
the orifice possible
Source: Cassava Use in the Domestic Feed Market Survey (2004)
The two types of pelletizers characterized above are suitable for Satellite operations. It is
our view however that the roller/die models are more appropriate for Nigerian conditions
(where a non industrial installation is required).
Roller/die Pelleting presses are suited for Model 2 or 3 pelleting operations in which a
nucleus or provincial processing plant receive chips from satellite operators and
processes same to pellets or cubes. Pelleting presses of capacities between 750kg and 1.5
tons per hour can be installed at strategically located Local Government headquarters.
Larger capacity units can be installed by large scale chips procurement and Pelleting
operators, located either at state capitals or in major cities (within and around which are
substantial intensive livestock operations).
Pelletizers’ Specifications
The major parameters for roller/die pelletizer specification are pellet size and power
rating; while the specifications of the screw shaft/barrel/die units are more diverse.
Tables 16 and 17 below show the common range of specifications available for the
roller/die Pelleting presses.
Table 16: Roller/Die Pelleting Press Specifications

Power Ratings: 5 – 25 hp
Pellet Sizes Outputs in Kgs/Hr

5 hp 7.5 hp 10 hp 25 hp
2.4 – 3.1mm 100 – 150kgs 150 – 200 kgs 200 – 250 kgs 400 – 550 kgs
3.9 – 5.6mm 150 – 200kgs 200 – 250 kgs 200 – 300 kgs 500 – 750 kgs
7.9mm 200 – 250 kgs 300 – 350 kgs 350 – 400 kgs 650 – 750 kgs
11mm 200 – 250 kgs 300 – 350 kgs 350 – 450 kgs 750 – 1000 kgs
15.9mm 150 – 200 kgs 200 – 250 kgs 300 – 400 kgs 750 – 1000 kgs
Source: R. A. Lister, Farm Equipment Ltd., UK (1980)
45
Table 17: Roller/Die Pelleting Press Specifications
Power Ratings: 50 – 200 hp
Pellet Sizes Outputs in Kgs/hr

50 hp 75hp 100 hp 125 hp 150 hp 200 hp
3.2 mm 1500-2500 3000-4000 4500-5500 6500-8000 7500-9500 9500-11500
4.8 mm 2500-3500 4500-5500 7000-8000 8500-10000 10000- 13000-
12000 14000
9.5 mm 3500-4500 6000-7000 8000-10000 10000- 12000- 16000-
12000 14000 17000
19 mm 2500-3500 4000-5000 6000-7500 8000-9500 9500-11500 12000-
13000
38 x 16 mm 2000-3000 3000-4000 5000-6000 6000-7000 6000-8000 8000-10000
Source: Alvan Blanch Dev. Co. U.K. (1982)
Dried Cassava Analogues and their Processing Methods
A fairly wide range of dried cassava products (i.e. from the entire crop – root, stalks and
leaves) can serve as inputs for animal feed compounding. These products and their
processing procedures are as described below:
 Peeled Cassava chunks:

Cassava root is usually sundried to obtain the chip, as sunlight constitutes the
cheapest heat source for dehydrating the tubers. Areas of high sunshine as in the
savannah and semi arid regions therefore have advantage in producing dried chips. In
areas of high rainfall, product quality deteriorates rapidly in the wet seasons unless
roots are shredded into thin slices and turned frequently during sunny periods of the
day.
Cassava roots are harvested fresh, detailed, peeled and washed with water. The tubers
are then dried as such or slashed with cutlass into large chunks. This common
practice of using a cutlass to slice the tubers into large chunks or leaving whole
peeled tubers to dry in the sun is undesirable as it encourages mould proliferation due
to long periods of drying. The colouration also usually turns from white to brownish
particularly where the solar radiation is not intense or during wet seasons. Cemented
floors elevated at the sides should be used for drying. Polythene sheets or tarpaulins
can also be used for drying cassava tubers into chunks. Drying on bare soil is
unacceptable. Drying on rock surface can be practiced where feasible. The drying
surface should be swept clean in all cases.
 Cassava chips:
This more recent development of cassava processing is an improvement over the
production of chunks. Harvested fresh, detailed, peeled and thoroughly washed
cassava tuber is passed through a manual or mechanical shredder. This is then spread
on swept and washed cemented floors or on polythene sheet or tarpaulins. Drying can
also be done on swept rocky surfaces. The drying chip should be regularly turned at
least twice daily for effective drying. Where there is rainfall, facilities should allow
covering of chip or quickly moving them in the tarpaulin or polythene sheets away
46
from rain into a covered area. Drying of such evacuated chip should commence as
soon as possible after the rains and at the sunny periods to arrest mould growth.
Drying area should be as much as possible sited in areas where roaming animals do
not have access to in order to prevent contamination with animal dung. Dried samples
should be white and the moisture content below 13%. Dried chips should be kept in
aerated bags or polythene sheets before use.
 Whole Cassava Root Chip:

The process is similar to that of cassava chip except that it is unpeeled. Fresh cassava
tubers are harvested, detailed and thoroughly washed free of mud and sand before
shredding into strands for drying. The cost of peeling is removed in this process. Use
of white skinned variety CMC 4(2) gives a more acceptable golden colour rather than
brown shredded colouration in brown skinned varieties.
 Whole Cassava Root Meal:

Fresh cassava tuber is harvested and detailed. This is thoroughly washed free of mud
and sand and passed through the grater. The grated mass is packed in jute bags and
sent through the press to dewater it. The dewatered mass is then pulverized with hand
or grater and immediately spread out to dry in the sun. The drying surface is either a
cemented surface, polythene or tarpaulin sheets. It usually dries to less than 13%
moisture during intensive heat of the drier season. In wet season, it should be kept
away from rain and respread after such until it dries to the specified moisture content.
They are packed in jute bags or polythene bags prior to use. The cost of peeling is
also eliminated.
 Cassava Grit and Sieviate:

Due to the longer wet season in the southern part of Nigeria, cassava processing
methods preferred revolve around using fuel wood for roasting the processed tubers
for preservation rather than sun-drying as rains can be unpredictable and can reduce
the quality of the earlier mentioned products.
Production of cassava grit commences with uprooting of fresh tubers, detailing and
thoroughly washing the unpeeled tuber. They are then grated and dewatered with the
press immediately or within twenty-four hours to reduce fermentation time and
reduce the loss of starch. The dewatered mass is then pulverized and roasted like gari
until moisture content is reduced below10%. The roasted material is then sieved
through a 2mm diameter mesh to separate the cassava grit from the more fibrous and
coarse cassava sieviate. The materials are spread to cool after which they are bagged
into jute or polythene bags. They can store for over 12 months if moisture content is
below 10%.
 Cassava Pellets:
Dried, milled cassava flour is mixed with lukewarm water in a ratio of 4 parts of
cassava flourmill to 1 part of water. This is thoroughly mixed after which it is passed
through the die of a manual meat mincer to give the wet cassava pellet. This is sun
dried before use. It is desired to get the moisture content of the pellet below 13% as
soon as possible. This will prevent the proliferation of microorganisms during and
after drying. At least 25kg pellets can be produced per man-day by this technique. A
motorized pelleting machine presently available in Nigeria and producing about 2
47
tones per day can also be used in pelletizing the mixed cassava flour and lukewarm
water in ratio 4:1.where available. This machine produces pellets of very limited
compaction and little or no gelatinization. The product is therefore described as ‘soft
pellet’ because of its fragility and limited structural integrity. Artificial drying can be
used to bring the moisture content of pellets below 13% as soon as possible. The
additional cost of artificial drying favour cheaper sun drying when available.
Cassava pellets can be fortified to raise its protein content. In this regard, dried milled
cassava leaves are first mixed with the dried milled cassava flour in ratio 1:4. After
this it is thoroughly mixed, lukewarm water is added to this in ratio of 1 part water to
4 parts cassava mill leaf mixture. This is also mixed and passed through a manual or
motorized pelletizer to produce a protein fortified cassava pellet. The protein level
can rise to about 5% when dried, thus reducing the extra fortification of cassava when
used as a substitute for maize.
 Cassava Leaf Meal:

Fresh cassava leaves are harvested along with its tender stems. This is shredded and
spread on a cemented surface for sun drying. It is turned over with rake twice daily
and should dry to almost 13% moisture within hours. It should also retain its
greenness if properly dried. It is then milled into flour and stored for mixture with
cassava flour or other livestock feed ingredients.
 Cassava silage:
Fresh cassava leaves plus tender stems are harvested and wilted for 48 hours It is
compressed in a black polythene sheet and tied round with twine rather tightly. It is
usable after 6 weeks of ensiling
 Cassava Peels:
The peels of cassava constitute a substantial by-product of the cassava food industry.
It is about 10-13% of total tuber weight and it can form a reliable source of
degradable energy for ruminants and to a lesser extent for poultry and pigs.
Cassava peels consist of the thin pericarp and the thicker rind. Most processes remove
both along with some pulp adhered to the peels. This by-product should be
thoroughly washed to remove dirt, drained and sun-dried. The cassava peels should
be preferably shredded before sun drying to allow faster dehydration and reduction of
microbial growth. Most of the toxic effects of dried cassava peels can be attributed to
their high level of microbial infestation rather than its cyanide level, which
consistently receive the blame. Fresh cassava peels can also be boiled before serving
to pigs. This reduces its toxicity and improves its digestibility.
Tapioca Spent Pulp
Tapioca spent pulp is the by-product or residue from cassava starch extraction. It
contains soluble carbohydrates and small amounts of protein and mineral nutrients
derived mainly from the skin of the tubers. The spent waste is dried either artificially or
in the sun and then pulverized. The final product is a coarse powder having a creamy
white to light brown colour. It should be free from adulterants and extraneous matter and
48
should not possess any musty, stale or other peculiar odours. It should also be free from
fungus and insect infestation. The requirements prescribed for spent pulp are similar to
those for chips and flour for livestock feed except that a higher limit for crude fibre
content (up to the maximum of 15 is allowed compared with 2.5% in the case of chips
and flour). The Indian official standards for tapioca spent pulp are as shown in Table 18
below:
Table 18: Indian Specification for Tapioca Spent Pulp
Parameter Level Percent

Moisture Max 10
Crude protein Max 2
Crude fibre Max 15
Total ash Max 3
Source: Feasibility study on the production of industrial starch, FDRD, 1984.
The composition of dried tapioca spent pulp from Nigerian starch factories is yet to be
undertaken, however, the analysis of the product from Malaysian cassava starch factories
is as shown in Table 19.
Table 19: Composition of Dried Tapioca Spent Pulp

Parameter Percentage Percentage Percent
(1) (2) (3)
Starch 88.2 90.1 88.3
Crude Protein 2.5 1.2 1.9
Crude Fibre 7.5 6.8 8.3
Ash 1.5 1.9 1.5
De-watering of Spent Pulp.
The pulp from the starch processing activities can be dewatered to a moisture content of
about 89% in a dewatering sieve. The following possible scenarios may follow
thereafter.
 The pulp can be delivered wet as cattle food. In this arrangement, the day’s
production can be stored in a bunker, under which the lorries can drive in to load
the wet pulp and transport it to the customers.
 The pulp is sun dried.
49
 The pulp is pressed out to reduce the water content to about 80% moisture content
and then is sun dried.
 The pulp can be dried after pressing in a drum drier. In view of the low value of
spent pulp however, the use of an artificial dryer may not be economically
feasible due amongst others to high fuel costs.
Further dewatering of the pulp to about 50% moisture content will facilitate more
effective sun drying and handling. It should be possible to locally build dewatering
facilities, which should be able to handle the materials.
A formal system of industrial compounding of cassava pulp/fibre-inclusive animal feed

will result in the production of a completely balanced ration for ruminants in an
extremely palatable form for ad lib feeding. The dried spent pulp will serve as roughage.
Standards Of Various Cassava Products For Livestock Feeds
Quality Specifications and Standards
The Nigerian Standards Organisation has listed quality specifications for cassava chips
with the reference number NIS 343, 2004…. (See appendix for full details) There is no
quality specification for cassava pellets in the SON document. The standard requirement
for cassava chips as provided in the document is shown in Table 20. Table 21 also shows
the standard requirement for cassava pellets.
Table 20: Standards of quality for dried cassava chips in Nigeria
S/N Parameters Requirement

1. Moisture % (m/m) Max 10.0
2. Ash % (m/m) Max 3.0
3. Crude Fibre % m/m Max 3.0
4. Total Acidity % (m/m) Max 1.0
5. Hydrocyanic acid and its glucoside measured as 10
hydrocyanic acid mg/kg Max 100g.
6. Starch content (%) min 75
50
Table 21: Standards for dry cassava pellets
Quality criterion Pellets

Starch (% minimum, EU method) 65%
Crude fibre (% maximum) 5%
Sand (% Maximm) 3%
Moisture Content (% maximum) 14%
Hardness (minimum, kg/ft2, Kahl method 12
Flour % maximum, 1mm mesh 8%
Foreign matter None
Sources: Atthasampuna (1992); EU
51
CHAPTER SEVEN
CATEGORISATION OF CASSAVA
PRODUCTS SUPPLY TO FEED MILLERS
Cassava for livestock feed is more convenient in its dry form. It is therefore necessary to
organize its supply to feed milling industries and subsequently to livestock producers in
its dewatered form. Sun drying constitutes the cheapest means of reducing moisture
content of cassava. The semi and derived Savannah belts constitute the areas with
relatively higher solar intensity that can guarantee reduction in moisture content to 10%
and below. In terms of cassava production however, the more humid rainforest and
mangrove belts with a substantial part of the derived savannah part in the middle belt
zone produce the highest yield and quantity of cassava tubers on a national scale.
Processing techniques that will be economically feasible must therefore be targeted at
specific zones to ensure that cassava products reach feed millers and livestock producers
at competitive prices. Fortunately, a good number of cassava varieties have been
developed which give satisfactory yields in the drier semi arid zones of the North. The
supply systems that must be adopted for effective nationwide supply chain management
are therefore as follows.
 Production and supply of dried, peeled and unpeeled cassava chunks, chips and
ungelatinized cassava grits (or cassava root meal) in the North East, North West
and Middle belt zones.
 Production and supply of dried, peeled and unpeeled cassava chips and
ungelatinized cassava grits or gelatinized cassava grits in the drier seasons in the
more humid derived savanna belts of the southern states. Also gelatinized cassava
grits can be produced in these zones all year round
 Production of most gelatinized cassava grits in the most southern rainforest and
mangrove belts of the southern states as this product is fuel wood dependent.
This supply scenario is sectorally presented in figure 10.1.
These cassava products can be produced at the farm-gate in all instances, thus reducing
the cost of cassava delivered to feed millers and livestock producers. The suppliers to
feed millers must also recognize these scenarios in the sourcing of cassava products.
Supply to pelletizing feed millers:
Existing large scale pelletized feed milling industries in Nigeria have demonstrated
success in the incorporation of dried cassava chunks and chips as total replacement for
maize in their rations. Their pelleting process also involves heat treatment which
gelatinizes the starch in these products. Therefore they may not pay for the premium of
gelatinized cassava grits.
52
Supply of chunks, chips and ungelitinized cassava should therefore be concentrated to
such feed millers. The more available chunks is less preferred as there is an additional
cost of milling the chunks and more importantly, the accompanying dustiness during the
milling process is undesirable. Cassava chips (peeled or unpeeled) should therefore be
encouraged through promotion and dissemination of the cassava chipping technology
among cassava producers and processors.
Supply to mash producing feed millers:
These feed millers constitute the majority of compound feed producers in the country.
Their ability to utilize chunks and chips is limited by the resultant dustiness at levels
higher than 10% in their poultry rations and oil is required to douse higher levels for
other rations. Since their products are not precooled as in the pelletizing process, the
variability in quality of chips or chunks adversely affects the quality of their feeds and
subsequent performance in poultry and livestock that depend on them. They will certainly
prefer the gelatinized grits that guarantee qualities similar to cassava pellets exported
from Thailand to European Union markets. These feed millers should therefore be in a
position to pay premium price for gelatinized cassava grits. Recent experience in the
supply of gelatinized cassava grit branded as sunshine cassava grits produced by the
Ondo State Government of Nigeria shows a high acceptance among such feed millers as
they describe the product as the long sort solution to the use of cassava in livestock
feeding in Nigeria (Omotosho Livestock Feeds Lagos, 2004).
Supply to Cattle, Sheep and Goat Rearers
Cassava residues from human food processing in the form of peels, residues from
harvests in form of leaves and tender stems and residues from starch industries need to be
properly harnessed particularly for cattle, sheep and goat feeding particularly during the
drier periods when forage can be very scarce and communal clashes occur due to cattle
pastoralists forcefully trampling on farms (notably cassava farms) for feed during such
periods. Similarly, the processing can be sectionalized into the following categories.
 Production of sundried peels, leaves and starch residues in the drier northern states
and middle belt.
 Production of pelletized composite peels, leaves and starch residue in the more humid
southern states.
 Production of silage from these residues on farm in the different zones of the country.
The silage must be well packaged in quantities that can be transferred within the
shortest possible time to areas of utilization for cattle, sheep and goat feeding.
Similarly, the starch residue can be used in its fresh and ensiled forms for these
ruminants. The main target for these residues are the cattle, sheep and goats which are
extensively reared and do not benefit significantly from compound feeds from feed
millers.
53
Another major problem in the supply of cassava products to feed millers is the high cost
of transportation occasioned by high fuel and maintenance costs. Considerable reduction
can be achieved through building efficient bulking systems where rugged tricycles
(picture attached) are used to convey either cassava tuber to processing sites or in
conveying dried products from unmotorable paths of their production to centrally located
stores where trailers and rail roads when subsequently developed can be used in
transporting their dried products to the feed millers and livestock producers.
The cost of transporting fresh tubers to processing sites can be further reduced by grating
and dewatering on the farm and transporting such semi-dried material to drying, frying or
pelletizing sites.
54
CHAPTER EIGHT
FEASIBILITY STUDIES ON THE ESTABLISHMENT AND MANAGEMENT OF

VARIOUS CASSAVA-INCLUSIVE ANIMAL FEED OPERATIONS AND
PILOT PROJECTS
Financial Analyses for establishing cassava-based products

ventures for livestock feed
The viability of cassava livestock enterprises was evaluated under different scenarios.
Ten possible investment scenarios were considered. They include cassava chips (peeled
and unpeeled with solar drying on trays and concrete floors), cassava pellets (with solar
drying on concrete floors and trays for peeled and unpeeled), cassava grits (gelatinised
and ungelatinised in peeled and unpeeled forms), and cassava chunks/strips. The
evaluation followed the process technique described in figure 5 above. The basic data for
the cash flow analysis were based on the enterprise analyses provided in appendix No…..
The bank discount rate is officially pegged at 22.5% in Nigeria. However, lending rates
are less (16%) for processing activities in the credit schemes of the Nigerian Agricultural
Credit and Rural Development Bank and 19% in some commercial banks. The IRR is
used to rank the 10 investments in the following table. Further details are provided in
Tables 23 to 32 below.
Table 22: Rank of Cassava-based Livestock Feed Investments in Nigeria using IRR
Investment IRR (%) Rank

Cassava chips plant (concrete floor drying, unpeeled) 95 1
Cassava chips plant (wooden tray drying, unpeeled) 56 2
Cassava Pellet plant (wooden tray drying; peeled chips) 23 3
Cassava Chips Plant. (Concrete floor drying; peeled chips) 23 4
Cassava Pellet plant (concrete floor drying; peeled chips) 22 5
Cassava ungelatinised grit plant (peeled) 13 6
Cassava gelatinised grit plant (peeled) 12 7
Cassava chunks/strips plant (peeled; tarpaulin drying) 11 8
Cassava chunks/strips plant (peeled; concrete flour drying) 9 9
Cassava chips plant (drying in wooden trays, peeled) 0 10
Economic feasibility indicate that Cassava chips plant (concrete floor drying, unpeeled),
Cassava chips plant (wooden tray drying, unpeeled), Cassava Pellet plant (wooden tray
drying; peeled chips), Cassava Chips Plant. (Concrete floor drying; peeled chips), and
Cassava Pellet plant (concrete floor drying; peeled chips) are profitable investments.
Financial feasibility over five years however indicates that some of the investments may
not generate sufficient cash inflows to meet the required cash outflows especially in the
first two years. We presume that project funds will be available to make up for the
negative cash flow.
55
Given the uncertainty that may exist about the future prices and costs used to estimate net
cash revenues a sensitivity analysis was performed for each of the proposed investments.
First we considered a 15% increase (and decrease) in current price levels and a 15 %
decline (and increase) in variable costs. The unpeeled cassava chips enterprise with
concrete drying floors seems a viable venture even at a 15% decline in prices and at a
15% increase in variable costs. Investment in cassava pelleting plant (with drying of the
chips in concrete floors) may be viable especially with a 15 percent increase in output
prices and an IRR of 38%. This venture is not viable at a 15% increase in variable costs.
Even with a 15% decline in prices, the cassava pellet plant (with wooden tray drying)
may still be viable.
With an IRR of 23% we may advise investment in the pelleting enterprise (with peeling
and drying on trays for the chips) especially with a 15 percent increase in output prices.
With an IRR of 12% we do not advise investments in a cassava gelatinised grit plant
(from peeled cassava), unless there is a 15 % increase in general price levels. Similarly
we do not advise investments in ungelatinised cassava grit unless there is an increase in
output prices by 15%. Investment in mechanised cassava chunks enterprise is only
advisable with a 15% increase in current output prices. For further information, the cash
flow tables for sensitivity analysis are attached in the appendix. The magnitude of fixed
costs required to set up each investment is also presented in the enterprise analysis
provided in the appendix.
56
Table 23. Cash flow and Internal Rate of Return of a Cassava Chips Plant (Drying in concrete floors; Unpeeled Chips)
YEAR 0 1 2 3 4 5
ITEMS
Gross Income 28,080,000 28,080,000 28,080,000 28,080,000 28,080,000

Sales of Cassava Chips 28,080,000 28,080,000 28,080,000 28,080,000 28,080,000
(N 18000/t)
Other Services 0 0 0 0 0
Processing Services N 2500/day –
100 days/year 0 0 0 0 0
Taxes (10% of Gross Income) 2,808,000 2,808,000 2,808,000 2,808,000 2,808,000
Gross Operational Income 25,272,000 25,272,000 25,272,000 25,272,000 25,272,000
Fixed Costs 500,000 500,000 500,000 500,000 500,000
Variable Cost 14,365,000 14,365,000 14,365,000 14,365,000 14,365,000
Gross Margin 10,407,000 10,407,000 10,407,000 10,407,000 10,407,000
Commercial Expenses (10% of Gross
Income) 1040700 1040700 1040700 1040700 1040700
(Adverstisement, sales
representation, etc)
Administrative Expenses (2% of
Gross Income) 208140 208140 208140 208140 208140
(Paper, calls, mail, transportation
allowance, others)
Margin Before Taxes (MBT) 9,158,160 9,158,160 9,158,160 9,158,160 9,158,160
Social Contributions (10% of MBT) 915816 915816 915816 915816 915816
Education, pension, health, insurance
plans
Taxes 0 0 0 0 0
Net Margin 8,242,344 8,242,344 8,242,344 8,242,344 8,242,344
Depreciation 596700 592800 592800 592800 592800
Investments 5,967,000 -6000000
Working Capital
Residual Value 2964000
Cash Flow -5,967,000 2,839,044 8,835,144 8,835,144 8,835,144 11,799,144
Discount Rate : 22.5%
Internal Rate of Return (IRR) 95%
67
Table 24. Cash flow and Internal Rate of Return of a Cassava Chips Plant.Drying in wooden trays (Unpeeled Chips)
YEAR 0 1 2 3 4 5
ITEMS
Gross Income 5,850,000 5,850,000 5,850,000 5,850,000 5,850,000
(N 18000/t)
Processing Services N 2500/day - 100
days/year 0 0 0 0 0
Taxes (10% of Gross Income) 585,000 585,000 585,000 585,000 585,000
Fixed Costs 30,000 30,000 30,000 30,000 30,000
Variable Cost 3,177,000 3,177,000 3,177,000 3,177,000 3,177,000
Gross Margin 2,058,000 2,058,000 2,058,000 2,058,000 2,058,000
Income) 205800 205800 205800 205800 205800
(Advertisements, sales representation,
etc)
Administrative Expenses (2% of Gross
Income) 41160 41160 41160 41160 41160
allowance, others)
plans
Taxes 0 0 0 0 0
Net Margin 1,629,936 1,629,936 1,629,936 1,629,936 1,629,936
Depreciation 136870 129395 129395 129395 129395
Investments 1,368,700 -2000000
Working Capital
Cash Flow -1,368,700 -233,194 1,500,541 1,500,541 1,500,541 2,406,306
68
Table 25. Cash flow and Internal Rate of Return of a Cassava Pelleting Plant (Drying in wooden trays; Peeled Chips)
YEAR 0 1 2 3 4 5
ITEMS
Gross Income 4,485,000 4,485,000 4,485,000 4,485,000 4,485,000
(N 18000/t)
days/year 0 0 0 0 0
Fixed Costs 500,000 500,000 500,000 500,000 500,000
Variable Cost 2,334,500 2,334,500 2,334,500 2,334,500 2,334,500
Gross Margin 1,202,000 1,202,000 1,202,000 1,202,000 1,202,000
Income) 120200 120200 120200 120200 120200
etc)
Income) 24040 24040 24040 24040 24040
allowance, others)
plans
Taxes 0 0 0 0 0
Net Margin 951,984 951,984 951,984 951,984 951,984
Depreciation 299365 299365 299365 299365 299365
Investments 2,993,650 -1300000
Working Capital
Cash Flow -2,993,650 -48,651 1,251,349 1,251,349 1,251,349 2,748,174
69
Table 26. Cash flow and Internal Rate of Return of a Cassava Chips Plant. Drying in concrete floors (Peeled Chips)
YEAR 0 1 2 3 4 5
ITEMS
Gross Income 21,060,000 21,060,000 21,060,000 21,060,000 21,060,000
(N 18000/t)
days/year 0 0 0 0 0
Taxes (10% of Gross Income) 2,106,000 2,106,000 2,106,000 2,106,000 2,106,000
Fixed Costs 500,000 500,000 500,000 500,000 500,000
Variable Cost 13,975,000 13,975,000 13,975,000 13,975,000 13,975,000
Gross Margin 4,479,000 4,479,000 4,479,000 4,479,000 4,479,000
Income) 447900 447900 447900 447900 447900
etc)
Income) 89580 89580 89580 89580 89580
allowance, others)
plans
Taxes 0 0 0 0 0
Net Margin 3,547,368 3,547,368 3,547,368 3,547,368 3,547,368
Depreciation 592800 592800 592800 592800 592800
Investments 5,928,000 -6000000
Working Capital
Cash Flow -5,928,000 -1,859,832 2,954,568 2,954,568 2,954,568 7,104,168
70
Table 27. Cash flow and Internal Rate of Return of a Cassava Pelleting Plant (.Drying in concrete floors; Peeled Chips)
YEAR 0 1 2 3 4 5
ITEMS
Gross Income 4,485,000 4,485,000 4,485,000 4,485,000 4,485,000

(N 18000/t)
Processing Services N 2500/day - 100 days/year 0 0 0 0 0
Fixed Costs 500,000 500,000 500,000 500,000 500,000
Variable Cost 2,334,500 2,334,500 2,334,500 2,334,500 2,334,500
Gross Margin 1,202,000 1,202,000 1,202,000 1,202,000 1,202,000
Commercial Expenses (10% of Gross Income) 120200 120200 120200 120200 120200
(Advertisements, sales representation, etc)
Administrative Expenses (2% of Gross Income) 24040 24040 24040 24040 24040
(Paper, calls, mail, transportation allowance, others)
Education, pension, health, insurance plans
Taxes 0 0 0 0 0
Net Margin 951,984 951,984 951,984 951,984 951,984
Depreciation 315500 315500 315500 315500 315500
Investments 3,155,000 -1300000
Working Capital
Cash Flow -3,155,000 -32,516 1,267,484 1,267,484 1,267,484 2,844,984
71
Table 28. Cash flow and Internal Rate of Return of a Cassava Ungelatinised grit Plant.(Peeled Chips)
YEAR 0 1 2 3 4 5
ITEMS
Gross Income 3,510,000 3,510,000 3,510,000 3,510,000 3,510,000

(N 18000/t)
Fixed Costs 500,000 500,000 500,000 500,000 500,000
Variable Cost 2,010,350 2,010,350 2,010,350 2,010,350 2,010,350
Gross Margin 648,650 648,650 648,650 648,650 648,650
(Paper, calls, mail, transportation allowance,
others)
Margin Before Taxes (MBT) 570,812 570,812 570,812 570,812 570,812
Social Contributions (10% of MBT) 57081.2 57081.2 57081.2 57081.2 57081.2
Taxes 0 0 0 0 0
Net Margin 513,731 513,731 513,731 513,731 513,731
Depreciation 166452.5 166452.5 166452.5 166452.5 166452.5
Investments 1,664,525 -1300000
Working Capital
Residual Value 832262.5
Cash Flow -1,664,525 -619,817 680,183 680,183 680,183 1,512,446
72
Table 29. Cash flow and Internal Rate of Return of a Cassava gelatinised grit Plant. (Peeled)
YEAR 0 1 2 3 4 5
Gross Income 3,510,000 3,510,000 3,510,000 3,510,000 3,510,000

(N 18000/t)
Fixed Costs 500,000 500,000 500,000 500,000 500,000
Variable Cost 2,010,350 2,010,350 2,010,350 2,010,350 2,010,350
Gross Margin 648,650 648,650 648,650 648,650 648,650
others)
Social Contributions (10% of MBT) 57081.2 57081.2 57081.2 57081.2 57081.2
Taxes 0 0 0 0 0
Net Margin 513,731 513,731 513,731 513,731 513,731
Depreciation 195952.5 195952.5 195952.5 195952.5 195952.5
Investments 1,959,525 -1300000
Working Capital
Residual Value 979762.5
Cash Flow -1,959,525 -590,317 709,683 709,683 709,683 1,689,446
Discount Rate: 22.5%
73
Table 30. Cash flow and Internal Rate of Return of a Cassava Chunks/strips Plant. (Peeled; Tarpaulin drying)
YEAR 0 1 2 3 4 5
ITEMS
Gross Income 2,340,000 2,340,000 2,340,000 2,340,000 2,340,000

(N 18000/t)
Fixed Costs 100,000 100,000 100,000 100,000 100,000
Variable Cost 1,679,000 1,679,000 1,679,000 1,679,000 1,679,000
Gross Margin 327,000 327,000 327,000 327,000 327,000
others)

Taxes 0 0 0 0 0
Net Margin 258,984 258,984 258,984 258,984 258,984
Depreciation 122790 136190 136190 136190 136190
Investments 1,227,900 -700000
Working Capital
Cash Flow -1,227,900 -318,226 395,174 395,174 395,174 1,076,124
74
Table 31. Cash flow and Internal Rate of Return of a Cassava Chunks/strips Plant.(Peeled Concrete flour drying)
YEAR 0 1 2 3 4 5
ITEMS
Gross Income 2,340,000 2,340,000 2,340,000 2,340,000 2,340,000
(N 18000/t)
Fixed Costs 100,000 100,000 100,000 100,000 100,000
Variable Cost 1,679,000 1,679,000 1,679,000 1,679,000 1,679,000
Gross Margin 327,000 327,000 327,000 327,000 327,000
others)
Taxes 0 0 0 0 0
Net Margin 258,984 258,984 258,984 258,984 258,984
Depreciation 136190 136190 136190 136190 136190
Investments 1,361,900 -700000
Working Capital
Cash Flow -1,361,900 -304,826 395,174 395,174 395,174 1,076,124
75
Table 32. Cash flow and Internal Rate of Return of a Cassava Chips Plant (.Drying in wooden trays; Peeled Chips)
YEAR 0 1 2 3 4 5
ITEMS
Gross Income 3,510,000 3,510,000 3,510,000 3,510,000 3,510,000

(N 18000/t)
Fixed Costs 30,000 30,000 30,000 30,000 30,000
Variable Cost 2,429,500 2,429,500 2,429,500 2,429,500 2,429,500
Gross Margin 699,500 699,500 699,500 699,500 699,500
(Advertisement, sales representation, etc)
others)
Taxes 0 0 0 0 0
Net Margin 554,004 554,004 554,004 554,004 554,004
Depreciation 129395 129395 129395 129395 129395
Investments 1,293,950 -2000000
Working Capital
Cash Flow -1,293,950 -1,316,601 424,609 424,609 424,609 1,330,374
76
CHAPTER 9
POLICY REVIEW AND REQUIRED INTERVENTIONS
Cassava in Nigeria as in many other African countries is largely used for human food. Increase
in its demand for food therefore raise its price beyond levels where it can compare favourably as
an individual raw material for feed, and other agro allied industries. Indeed for cassava to
compete globally in the feed market, it must be recognized and treated as an industrial rather
than a domestic food crop. The policy issues that need to be addressed are as follows:
 Cassava products need to be modernized. Its traditional system of production in small

hectares cannot sustain an industrial market. Its present production cost of US$43.00/tonne
on smallholder farm in Nigeria as compared to a price of US$27.00/tonne in Thailand and
US$20.00/tonne in South Africa makes it uneconomical for feed or any other industrial raw
material. There is therefore a need to drive down the cost of cassava production per tonne in
order to give this crop the price competitiveness it requires in comparison with maize and
other cereal crops. In the interim, subsidies must be seriously considered for cassava farmers
and guarantee market of excess in periods of glut must be a consistent policy of government.
With storable products like cassava grits and pellets, cassava products for livestock feeds
should be accepted into the strategic grain reserve scheme in the country.
 Cassava needs to be seen in the true light as a national crop rather than a southern crop. This
is adequately attested to by the tremendous success with high yielding drought resistant
cassava varieties in the drier northern states. The added advantage of intense solar radiation
in the north as compared to the south makes it more economical to convert cassava into dried
products in the northern states that have the advantage of producing all dried products almost
all year round than the more humid southern states. In this regard, it is therefore necessary to
recognize the relative neglect that cassava has had in comparison to cereal crops in terms of
research development activities and findings. There is a need for systemic improvement of
the productivity of the entire cassava production processing and utilization system to
accelerate cassava transformation and competitiveness as an industrial crop in Nigeria.
 The present tempo of protecting the domestic cassava market in Nigeria needs to be sustained
by the Government. The inconsistent policy of banning and unbanning importation of non-
cassava foods in Nigeria has drastically affected the cassava economy in Nigeria. A
fundamental problem is the need to remove subsidies on imported maize and wheat in order
to provide a level ground for cassava to compete in the feed industry
 The poor rural infrastructure and high cost of fuel adversely affects cassava transportation
and its supply chain. Transportation means that can ply rural roads in form of rugged
tricycles and small tractors (8 hp and 12 hp) which now exists in some states of Nigeria need
to be popularized for cassava movement from farms. The paradigm shift presently adopted in
India and some Asian countries of moving away from the old development mantra of
‘produce more food, feed more people’ to a new call of ‘create more jobs and provide
income to buy food’ should be embraced by Government and through provision of such
cheaper and affordable tricycles achieve transporting cassava and other foods through
77
peasant farms to the urban areas. This will effectively lessen poverty and enhance a reduction
in transportation cost of cassava in the supply chain system.
 There is need for injection of various technologies or production and processing of cassava at
the micro process or satellite levels to the industrial or foster factory levels. Cost saving and
shelf life prolonging devices of chipping, grating, drying, frying and pelletizing need to be
perfected and disseminated through relevant national and international agencies including
proven non-governmental organizations. Technologies on production and harvesting of
cassava also need to be disseminated.
 Land reforms to encourage aggregate farms or contiguous cassava plantation need to be put
place to enhance cassava production mechanization and organized processing and marketing
outlets.
 Promotion of information technology to capture market demand for cassava products in the
feed industry must be put in place. Similarly, diffusion of information on sustainability of
whole unpeeled cassava root should be promoted to negate the deceptive ‘cyanide scare’
based on ignorance of practitioners in the feed milling industry. Information on cassava-
based feed formulation and on-farm data on performance of livestock and fish reared on
these diets need to be widely disseminated and demonstrated in pilot projects in Nigeria.
Cassava farmers and industrialists need the Internet connectivity to enable them take
advantage of domestic and export marketing and utilization opportunities.
 The erroneous notion that cassava is a women’s crop has been recently debunked by Nweke
et al (2002). Cassava therefore needs to be seen as a crop that provides opportunities for
poverty alleviation for both men and women. Indeed as cassava becomes an industrial crop,
both men and women become visible in the mechanized production and processing scene.
 Environmental issues need to be seriously considered in setting up cassava industries.

Policies should be put in place to encourage the recycling or packaging of wastes and
industrial cassava residue into wholesome by-products. The livestock feed industry offers
tremendous opportunities for totally utilizing the entire cassava crop except the planting
stems and utilization of wastes from food and other agro allied industries. Indeed, mixed
farming systems involving rearing of livestock and cultivation of cassava can be an
environmentally friendly and fertility sustaining system as the manure from livestock can be
very useful in maintaining soil fertility while the cassava leaves peel are pulp wastes can still
serve as valuable livestock feed. A policy to entrench processing of wastes into livestock
feed ingredients by cassava processing industries is therefore highly desirable to check
environmental pollution and encourage the total crop utilization concept in Nigerian cassava
industry.
Certainly, it is necessary to take a holistic approach and introduce modern, environmentally

friendly policies for improved production and processing of cassava to dive down its cost and
affect its competitiveness with cereals in the livestock feed industry in Nigerian and export
markets.
78
CHAPTER 10
PILOT PROJECT DESIGN, IMPLEMENTATION AND OPERATIONS
PROJECT DESIGN
The project design is premised upon a strategy consisting of the setting up of integrated
development projects for catalyzing technical, financial and organizational resources such that
cassava farmers and rural processors can link themselves to expansive new markets (within the
livestock feed sub-sector) for their produce and products through the introduction of novel or
improved processing technologies. The projects’ net benefits reach cassava farmers in the form
of profits (through expanded market outlets) and ability to manage their own resources.
The design ensures that efforts to promote cassava utilization in animal feeds are matched with
the capacity of the livestock sub sector to absorb the identified cassava-based feedstock for
completely or partially replacing maize in feed formulations. The project will provide the
required processing infrastructure and organizational support to assist participating farmers and
processors in the management of the facilities. These facilities must also have a regular and
ample supply of roots and other necessary inputs. Activities related to cassava processing into
animal feeds, inputs supply, and marketing to feed compounders will be coordinated, and a
favourable disposition toward cassava-based feedstuffs created amongst producers and end-
users.
A Model For Group-Based Cassava Products Processing And

Bulking Operations
Certain basic realities must be put in proper perspective, when considering the appropriate
production model requied to ensure a sustainable cassava based raw and intermediate materials
supply network. They include the following:
 The physical, chemical and rheological characteristics of cassava, particularly, its high
moisture content, does not recommend it for long distance haulage before it is processed.
This is due to both intrinsic and derived economic implications (i.e. it will begin to
deteriorate within 24 hours of harvest, and secondly, the transportation costs of the fresh
roots cannot be justified in view of its low-value status).
 Arising from the exorbitant cost of moisture removal using artificial dryers, the most cost
effective means of drying cassava peels, chips and ungelatinized grits, is through the natural
means (i.e. wind movement and sun-drying). Similarly, considerations of energy efficiency
and its relation to economies of scale will suggest that gelatinized grits production on a large
scale is best undertaken in a satellite, intermediate processing and centralized ‘finishing’
arrangement.
As a consequence of the foregoing realities, drying and gelatinization operations cannot be

excessively centralized, rather, discrete and manageable groups of chips drying and dewatered
mash producing communities (or clusters) must be nurtured and encouraged to produce the
required raw materials on a relatively sustainable basis. The scope of operation (i.e. size of
chipping and drying; and grate/press and frying facilities) will be determined by the quantities of
79
surplus cassava, which can be accessed within the operational areas. Transportation costs and
profit margins of competing cassava-based enterprises will determine the realistic supply radii.
It is advisable to start small, and expand organically, based on field realities and the interplay of
the forces of demand and supply.
PROGRAMME TARGETTING:
The pilot projects for the Nigerian cassava livestock industry must target different stakeholders
to demonstrate local examples and certainty of success. In this regard, champions must be
identified in four sectors of the cassava production and processing industries. These are as
follows:
 Cassava producers and microprocessors:
These constitute the source of fresh raw cassava tubers as well as the intermediate semi-dried
or completely dried products, which can be produced through farm-gate processing. They
must consists of organized cooperative groups made up of at least a balance of male and
female producers and processors in cassava producing areas. They can be organized into
cluster groups for effective linkage to market outlets. They constitute the satellite, essentially
rural based partners.
 Cassava industrialists or foster factories:
These constitute the feed millers who will receive the cassava products from microprocessors
for use in the compounding of various proprietary feeds for different livestock and fish
species. They must have necessary interaction to acquaint them with formulations of cost-
effective cassava diets as well as the guarantee of cassava products in required quantity and
quality all year round.
Similarly, starch producing industrialists must be targeted for the conversion of their starch
residues to wholesome, storable dried or pelletized products for the cattle feeding industries
particularly during the dry (lean) periods of the year when forage is scarce.
Cassava food industrialists who generate considerable wastes from peels and pulp residues
also need to be targeted for drying of their by-products for cattle, sheep and goat
supplemented feeding.
 Intensive (commercial) livestock and fish production:
On-farm pilot projects need to be set up with these producers on large, medium and small
scale farms to demonstrate the suitability and profitability of cassava based feeds on their
farms. These pilot projects will generate confidence in the livestock industry in Nigeria. The
need for demonstrating this in the large, medium and small livestock production settings is
that the feed management systems, the personnel requirement and interaction will differ.
Particular mention should be made of small cooperative or organized groups in rural areas
who can engage in such livestock production activities as well as micro processing of cassava
80
into products utilizable by their stock of poultry, cattle, sheep or goat or selling to market
outlets in feed milling industries.
 Extensive pastoralists:
There is a huge gap in the feed requirements of the Fulani cattle, sheep and goat pastoralists,
particularly in the drier seasons of the year. Pilot schemes need to be organized for the supply
of cassava residues (peels, leaves, starch residues, sieviates) to supplement feeding of
weaners and dairy stock in the Fulani settlements in different parts of the country. The need
to also target peri-urban cattle fatteners who already know the value of these residues in the
pilot projects is also highly desirable.
It must be noted that for these four schemes, marketers, transporters must fit into the cassava
supply chain system for a sustainable industry. The design and implementation of the pilot
projects are provided here under
Organisation of Pilot Operations and Strategies for Technology

Transfer
The development of cassava-based livestock feed enterprises will be guided by available
scientific evidence, technical feasibility and economic viability. The cassava livestock feed pilot
project will follow a market driven approach. The process will involve the development of
linkages on both the up and down stream sectors of the cassava livestock feed commodity chain.
The point of intervention will be at the small-scale community processor level (See diagram).
The approach will rely heavily on small farmer/processor groups as the key owners of the pilot
plants. The relevant activities will begin with the identification of a market for specific cassava
based livestock feed commodities namely chip, pellets or grits. Following this, will be to support
the organization of processors into groups in rural areas to establish a pilot plant and produce for
the identified markets. Other key activities will include linking producer/processor groups to raw
materials and building capacity through several training programs. The focus of the project will
be to create sustainable linkages between small processor groups and agribusinesses through the
formation of formidable processor groups that can independently access markets and receive
fairer product and input prices and effectively utilize improved technologies. It is expected that
this process will be scaled out to other suitable areas with a vision to grow a vibrant small-scale
livestock processor groups and industry in Nigeria.
81
Upstream
Cassava Policy/Capacity
Farmer Building
Primary
Point of Intervention
Processor
Livestock Feed millers

Farmer
Down Stream
The key expected outputs in this project include the following:
a) Establish at least three community based-cassava feed product pilot processing plants in
Nigeria namely a cassava based pelleting plant, cassava chips plant and a cassava grit plant.
b) Introduce, demonstrate and promote technologies from pilot processing plants with a view to
expand markets and agro-enterprise opportunities
c) Develop and improve capacity of entrepreneurs, potential investors and end users in the
cassava- based livestock feed sector
d) Assess the impact of the project on the direct and indirect beneficiaries.
PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION AND OPERATIONS
It is envisaged that this project will last for five years. The key activities of the project over the
five years will be to establish pilot processing plants, organise producer groups to own and
manage these pilot plants, build the capacity of these producer groups in enterprise development
and link them to large livestock feed mills such as Vital Feeds, SEEPC Feeds and Crown Feeds
as well as large scale livestock farmers, and settled Fulani cattle farmers.
A summary budget for this activity over the five years is provided in the next section.
82
Pilot Project for Microprocessors
Infrastructure and Equipment:
Items Cost
Processing building
Shreder
Chipper
Grater
Press
Mechanised Fryer
Tricycle for transportation
Well (Water supply)
Pump and overhead tank
Dry surface (cement, tray or tarpaulin)
Weighing scale
Miscellaneous
Brush
Boots
Containers
Jute sacks and polysterene
Rakes
(2) Project Activities:
 Identification of microprocessors (through ADPs)

 Identification of micro processing sites
 Sensitization of microprocessors
 Identification of needs for the processing sites
 Training of microprocessors on production of grits, chips and composite cassava residue
(leaves, tender stems, peels and sieviate)
 Training on small scale business enterprise management
 Identification of end-users (Feed millers and livestock producers)
 Linkage of microprocessors to end-users
 Supervision of project
 Quarterly monitoring of project
 Data compilation including economic analysis of project
 Final report writing
Activities For End-Users
83
(A) Feed Millers:
Activities
 Sensitization of feed millers on cassava products for feed production

 Compilation of feed formulations from base-line in project report (area specific and class
specific formulations)
 Compilation and demonstration of economic benefits of cassava-based feed formulations
(B) Commercial Poultry Producers:

Activities
 Sensitization of large, medium and small poultry producers on the availability and
economic benefits of cassava-based feeds from feed millers
 On-farm demonstration of economic viability of cassava-based diets on identified and

selected large, medium and small-scale commercial poultry producers.
On-farm activities will include:

 Supply of finished cassava products to poultry farmers
 Inclusion of such cassava products in feed formulation of these poultry producers or
procurement of same from feed millers
 Where necessary, conducting of short-term training on formulations with cassava-
based diets to poultry producers who owns their feed mills or carry out flour mixing
(C) Extensive Livestock Producers:

(1) Sedentary Fulani Cattle Pastoralists:
Activities
 Identification of suitable sedentary cattle Fulani holdings

 Sensitization of pastoralist of benefits of supplemental feeding and the use of cassava
residue
84
 On-farm trials with cassava residue for fatteners and lactating cows on selected
sedentary cattle Fulani holdings.
The on-farm trial would include training of Fulani pastoralists on the use of
supplemental feeding
 Monitoring and supervision of on-farm trial
 Linkage of microprocessors with the Fulani pastoralist for supply of residues
(2) Small holder Family poultry Producers:
These are involved in household rearing of indigenous and exotic chickens largely on
household waste. They constitute about 90% of total poultry producers in Nigeria (RIM,
1992).
Activities
 Identification and selection of micro poultry producers

 Sensitization of the micro poultry producers on the use of supplemental feeds for
meat and egg production
 Short-term training on the use of supplemental feeding using cassava-based feed for
meat and egg production
 Linkage with microprocessors and feed millers
(3) Small holder Ruminant Producers:
(A) Peri-Urban Cattle Producers
Activities
 Sensitization on availability of cassava-based feeds and residues

 Linkage with microprocessors and feed millers
 Short-term training on the use of cassava-based feeds
85
(B) Family Unit Sheep and Goats Producers
These constitute a significant proportion of cassava residue utilized particularly in the

south-eastern zone (Survey Report, 2004)
Activities
 Identification of household sheep and goats producers

 Sensitization on the benefit of supplemental feeding
 Training on appropriate feeding system in the utilization of wholesome cassava-
based residue from household waste
 Linkage with microprocessors
(C) Community Based Cassava Pellet Production

Project
The unavailability of locally sourced, small-scale cassava pelleting machine and its
requirement of considerable energy usage for the pelleting process necessitate the
establishment of distinct pelleting unit to handle cassava products from microprocessors
(i.e. chips, dry leaves, peels sieviate) and from industrialists (i.e. starch residue).
Short term R&D activities for the local fabrication and promotion of a small scale/ semi-
industrial pelletizer and its ancillaries (i.e. steam conditioner and cooler/dryer) will be
required for project facilitation and sustainability.
The pelletizer will, therefore, be in a position to produce whole cassava tuber pellets,
composite cassava pellets consisting of leaves, residue and peels with cassava tubers as
binder. It will also produce pelletised feeds particularly for fish in different forms
(floating and sinking pellets).
(1) Infrastructure and Equipment:
Items Cost (N)
Land and Production building + 2.5M

Hammer mill 0.4M
Mixer 0.5M
1 Pelletizer including dryer 5.0M
2 Weighing scale 0.2M
Quality control laboratory 2.5m
Store
1 50KVA generating set 1.0M
1 Saloon car 2.0M
86
1 Truck lorry 4.0M
Miscellaneous
Bags
Boots 0.5M
Other disposables
+ Equipment costing are based on the assumption that they will be procured from overseas suppliers.
(2) Activities:
 Establishment of pilot plant

 Test running of pilot plant
 Training of community members and related personnel on the use of pilot plant
 Recruitment of staff for pilot plant
 Linkage with microprocessors
 Procurement of cassava and other feed ingredients for pilot plant
 Production of feed from pilot plant
 Packaging and marketing of produce
 Publicity of produce (Radio, TV, Exhibitions, Fliers etc.)
 Linkage with specific end users
87
Budgetary Estimates for a Five-year Programme
Cassava Livestock Feed Enterprise Development Project Year 1-5
Total
Coordination
1 Project Management Staff 90,000
2 Local Support Staff 69,750
3 Procurement 59,400
4 Workshops & meetings 69,000
5 Vehicle maintenance and supplies 14,700
6 Communications (telephone, fax, email, etc.) 3,750
7 Consumables 3,750
8 Travel 19,000
Sub-total (a) 329,350
O1: Establish Community based pilot processing plants
9 Personnel 25,455
10 Subcontract
11 Procurement
12 Activities 15,000
13 Vehicle maintenance and supplies
14 Consumables 4,500
15 Travel 9,000
Sub-total (b) 53,955
O2: Technology transfer Agro enterprise Development and Market Expansion
16 Personnel 41,453
17 Subcontract 9,000
18 Procurement
20 Communications (telephone, fax, email, GSM etc.) 3,750
22 Local pelletizer/ancillaries R&D (designs, prototypes, drawings, brochures etc. 40,000
23 Travel 15,000
Sub-total ( c) 149,703
O3: Capacity building and training
24 Personnel 128,588
28 Vehicle maintenance & Supplies 58,800
30 Travel 30,000
Sub-total (d) 963,423
O4: Impact of project activities monitored and evaluated
31 Personnel 73,485
36 Travel 12,000
Sub-total (e) 146,235
Grand total 1,642,666
88
CHAPTER ELEVEN
PROJECT DEVELOPMENT, INTERVENTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Project Development and Interventions:
Livestock Feeding Systems
Nigeria’s livestock industry is very much in its infancy in terms of intensive or commercial rearing of
stocks. Therefore, the different feeding systems in the largely extensive and restricted commercial
settings must be integrated to adapt cassava into the livestock feeding systems in Nigeria.
The traditional extensive system of the pastoralist Fulani limits the ability of producers to input
supplemental feed for rearing stock. However, to ensure stable productivity it is critical to practice
supplemental feeding even in such an extensive system. The problem of dry season feeding also
creates an opportunity for the use of cassava and its by-products.
The necessary intervention is to harness cassava by-products particularly peels, sieviates from food
and starch industries, leaves and tender stems of the cassava plant which can be sub-divided and
stored for sales or pelletised for the domestic and export markets. These can be marketed to
pastorialist Fulanis or those settled as smallholder or large-scale cattle fattening and dairy enterprises.
Apart from its use for dry season feeding, it should be noted that the quality of forage in Nigeria is
usually highly fibrous, and offers poor initial value. It therefore requires supplementartion particularly
with energy sources for efficient utilization and improved productivity of stock throughout the year.
While the poultry and pig populations are still largely extensive, opportunity exists for the use of
cassava in the form of mash, grit or pellet for household level and rural poultry and pig production.
These have to be identified and pilot projects developed to target their adoption for supplemental
feeding particularly cassava and its by-products. Most of the scavenging animals pick up insects,
weevils and vegetables smaller than the required energy supplements, which becomes a limiting factor
to their productivity.
For the commercial stock, cassava root meal has to be popularized to feed millers and poultry farmers
in the country. Since a sizeable number of the existing feed mills in the country pelletize compound
feeds, cassava chips production opens a wide opportunity for their usage in such plants. On the other
hand most of the 468 feed mills in the country produce mash feeds. Such mash feeds can only tolerate
a partial substitution of maize with cassava chips, whereas gelatinised cassava grits can completely
replace maize, in such livestock rations. This product, which is only available as Sunshine Cassava
Grits in Ondo State, is already popular with some notable feed millers in Nigeria. Its production needs
to be commercialized to satisfy demand in such industries and its feasibility demonstrated in pilot
projects on both small and large-scale pig and poultry enterprises in the country.
The unavailability of small scale pelleting technology has limited the conversion of cassava into
pelletised forms for the feed industries. There is a need to establish pilot pelletising units in specific
89
locations in the country for the production of compound feed for livestock and fish. The case for fish
must also take into consideration the floating and sinking pellets for different species of fish.
Production of cassava leaves in large quantities is a worthwhile intervention. The possibility of

harvesting about 90 tons of leaves per hectare if cultivated for such has been demonstrated
(CLAYUCA – Personal communication). High foliage varieties, which are available particularly
through IITA, should be utilized in specific cropping system strategies to generate cassava leaves for
protein supplementation of its roots.
It is noteworthy that price of cassava roots should be brought down from its present N6, 000 per ton to
N3, 000 per ton though large scale cultivation and mechanization with appropriate cultural practices.
This is imperative to make cassava products competitive with maize. In the interim, price of cassava
products for animal feeding can be subsidized by government to the tune of 50% to enable it enter as
an alternative ingredient to maize in cost-effective rations. In the alternative, Government can
purchase such cassava product at guaranteed prized to the strategic grain reserve in different parts of
the country. Such products can then be sold to feed millers at subsidized prices.
Cassava Processing:
The processing of cassava for livestock feeding must be approached through satellite microprocessors
on one hand and foster factories on the other. The satellite microprocessors would be responsible for
the production of chips, gelatinized and ungelatinized grits and dried residues from food, starch and
from wastes which constitutes the composite cassava residue. It is necessary to encourage production
of cassava production without peeling in order to reduce peeling cost at the microprocessor level.
Intervention for such microprocessors would include provision of simple machineries including
chipper, graters, press and garifryers, which are all locally available.
The aggregate of cassava product available through these microprocessors might however be
insufficient to meet the needs of large-scale industries that would require a continuous supply of such
products hence the need for foster factories which can produce on a larger scale. Such foster factories
will be responsible for the production of specific products viz:
(i) Cassava pellets from chips supplied by microprocessors

(ii) Composite cassava pellets supplied in dry form by the microprocessors and
(iii) Production of gelatinised cassava grits from dewatered unpeeled cassava pulp also obtained
from microprocessors that of course have been provided with grater and press to produce the
dewatered pulp.
The advantage of different climatic zones on the production of different cassava products needs to be
recognized. In this regard the production of chips, chunks and dry residues which require high solar
radiation should be concentrated in the northern and middle belt while the production of gelatinized
grits should be concentrated in the southern zone as it is fuel dependent and not affected by heavier
90
rainy seasons in this zone. The foster factories can also be located with this in mind to receive the
product from microprocessors for finishing
Marketing of Feed
The limited price competitiveness of cassava products as a replacement for maize and wheat in
livestock feeding remains a major bottleneck to its wide spread adoption for domestic and export
market. Significant reductions in the production cost of cassava is therefore primary to expanding the
market for cassava usage in the livestock industry.
Farm gate processing is therefore necessary to reduce the transportation cost, while the use of
unpeeled dry roots would also cheapen such costs. The production of cassava grits by gelatinizing and
cassava pellets will also promote the shelf life of such cassava products over 12 months. This will
allow such processors to take advantage of the scarcity of maize during some periods of the year when
maize prices skyrocket. The high storability of these products also makes it possible to exploit export
markets particularly in North and South Africa.
Promotion of Cassava-based formulations
The need for promotion of appropriate cassava-based formulations, processing technologies and
livestock husbandry systems to optimize the performance and profitability of cassava-based feeds in
different agro-ecological settings of Nigeria cannot be over-emphasized. Cheaper cassava-based feeds
can bring down the price of livestock products thus stemming the tide of animal protein scarcity in the
country.
Capacity Building
The establishment of microprocessor units across the country necessitate training in appropriate
processing technologies, enterprise management and market information accessibility.
There must be rigorous capacity building programmes for such cassava farmers and processors in
order to guarantee acceptable quality criteria of cassava products for livestock industries.
It is also important to note that the rate of adoption of developed livestock technology has been
disastrously low in Nigeria in the last decade. There is a need to mount programmes in appropriate
livestock management, particularly at the small holder’s level. It is past the experiences indicate that
small and medium scale livestock producers tend to be more receptive to novel products particularly
cassava even long before t he large scale producers will accept such. It is therefore a useful strategy to
promote appropriate livestock production technology to such farmers who can be the immediate
source of utilizing the cassava products to be supplied by microprocessors in their immediate vicinity.
It needs to be emphasized that high quality cassava products alone will not give economic
performances unless when this is coupled with appropriate livestock production technologies.
Due to a low ratio of extension agents to farmers in the country, poor rural roads and mass illiteracy,
development of rural capacity for cassava production, processing and marketing have been greatly
hampered. Capacity building for cassava development in Nigeria must therefore take cognizance of
91
the needs for researchers, extensionists, cassava farmers and processors, and would-be industrialists.
The need to target cooperative farmers and processors in capacity building is also imperative to
facilitate cassava adoption in the livestock feed industry.
Research and Development
The identified areas of research include the following:
(i) The Agro-Industrial Development Unit, AIDU, (now merged with NCAM) reported that it has a
preliminary design of a small scale hard pelleting press which can be developed to operate with
either electric motor or diesel engines. The pelletizer is expected to have a capacity output range
of 100 – 500 Kg/hr depending on the die size. Considering the critical importance of this
machinery and the very high cost of imported units, it is suggested that support be given to
develop, test and produce a prototype pelletizer with specifications amenable to rural level or
semi-industrial operation. This will pupularize decentralized pellets production and the
utilization of cassava in animal feed. Other devices and machineries regarding which
AIDU/NCAM should be given support to develop and popularize locally, include steam
conditioner, pellets cooler/dryer and a semi-industrial grits production plant. Local manufacture
of these machineries will facilitate acess to appropriate technologies by all stakeholders in the
animal feed sub-sector.
(ii) Rigorous agronomic practices, organized bulking and collection centers for cassava, to cut down
cost and enhance its competitiveness in the livestock feed industry
(iii) Appropriate cassava processing methods, for the production of high quality chips, grits and
pellets at the microprocessors and foster factories levels needs to be developed and introduced
for adoption. In this regard the use of unpeeled roots in farm-gate processing methods should be
adopted.
(iv) Cassava grit is a new and promising product that is obtainable from small-scale microprocessors
and large-scale producers. Small scale mechanized garifyers should be developed to expand the
capacity for production of this material.
(v) Livestock production systems in Nigeria are still largely extensive. Feeding systems to
incorporating cassava as a supplement in extensive and semi-intensive systems need to be
developed to take advantage of the need for energy supply to the usually malnourished cattle,
sheep and goats reared in such systems.
(vi) A total utilization concept of the cassava plant need to be developed whereby the roots, leaves
and tender stems are utilized in practical formulations for different types of livestock and fish in
different agro-ecologies. In this regard manipulation and promotion of recommended rations will
go a long way to impact on this.
(vii) On-farm feeding trials to evaluate the performance and economic value of the prescribed rations
need to be undertaken extensively across zones in order to win the confidence of the commercial
92
feedmillers and livestock farmers to adopt them. Their wide publicity after adequate testing will
enhance dissemination and adoption.
(viii) Establishment of pilot project s to demonstrate the feasibility of such cassava-based feeding
systems needs to be carried out in different settings to enhance their adoption.
Policy and Environmental Intervention
Cassava is an orphan crop crying for a level playing ground with maize in terms of favourable and
consistent policies. The present policy thrust of Government which places heavy tariff on imported
cassava products should be sustained. Minimum guaranteed price for cassava products produced
locally for the livestock industry must also be put in place. Adequate subsidy for added value cassava
products should be an incentive for microprocessors and feed industrialists.
There is a need for an Act of the National Assembly specifying the mandatory incorporation of
minimum of 19% of cassava into livestock feeds in order to boost its adoption by feedmills and
livestock producers.
Cassava may constitute an environmental menace particularly when fresh tubers are processed on a
large scale. It is therefore a useful intervention if farm-gate processing as opposed to urban based
processing is encouraged. This would mean enhancing the capacity of many microprocessors in form
of easy access to credit and market. It should be emphasized that livestock production systems are
environmental friendly as the animals consume most of the residues from cassava processing in
homesteads. The possibility of using peels, sieviate, tender stems, leaves and other residues of cassava
processing for livestock feeding makes encouragement of livestock production an essential
components of an environment-friendly strategy for the country.
Recommendations On The Future Utilization Of Cassava In Animal Feed
The main interacting participants in the use of cassava for animal feed are the following:
(i) Farmers or farmers’ groups

(ii) Farmgate processors (chips, ungelatinised, grits and chunks)
(iii) Nucleus foster factories (Pellets and Gelatinised Grits) and Distributors
(iv) Livestock Operators/Feed Millers.
The recommendations on the follow-up initiatives and activities which need to be undertaken are
targeted at the aforementioned participants or stakeholders.
(i) Farmers or Farmers’ Groups
It is recommended that basic policy be articulated using inputs from the farmers’ level. For
example, it is very important to determine a suitable floor price for the identified products (i.e.
chips, grits and pellets) so that farmers are motivated to process the fresh crop. Further to this,
small scale farmers should be sensitized and assisted to access credit from banks through simple
93
procedures and flexible guarantees. Farmers should also receive extension and training on skills
for the production of chips, chunks and grits by the homestead.
(ii) Farmgate Processors
This group of stakeholders should also be assisted with access to bank credit which require
simple procedures and flexible guarantees. Demonstrations and awareness creation activities
regarding the processing, packaging and utilization of cassava products in animal feed should
also be undertaken for their benefit. To ensure the agro-industry’s continuity at the village level,
each small industry’s share of production should be protected. Chip prices should also be
sufficiently competitive to sustain producer interest.
Majority of existing rural (village) processors are very resourceful but have relatively low
management capabilities, and therefore require guidance on the operational management of
commercial chips and grits production and drying activities. Also, access to simple and easily
installed equipment with locally available spare parts is required by rural processors.
(iii) Nucleus/Foster Factories and Distributors
Factory operators will require assurances of continuing availability of markets for the uptake of
their products, and a guaranteed minimum price for their products (i.e. pellets, and gelatinized
grits). Preferential access to credit and/or concessionary interest on loan would be desirable to
this group of stakeholders. Product standardization and quality control guidelines would
strengthen the regulation and monitoring of factory procedures.
Policy stability such as the continuation of the ban on the importation of poultry products would
also strengthen the operations of these factories and the distributors of their products.
(iv) Livestock Operators and Feed Millers
It is recommended that sensitization and awareness creation programmes on the opportunities

and benefits of cassava inclusion animal feeds be targeted at this group of stakeholders. This
should be channeled through intensive liaisons with the relevant registered associations and their
umbrella organizations on state by state basis and nationally.
Technical support should also be provided to feed millers and livestock operators on the
formulation and use of cassava – inclusive feed rations.
94
APPENDICES
Appendix A
NIS 343:2004: Nigerian Standard for Cassava Chips
Scope
This standard prescribes the quality requirement, method of sampling and tests for cassava chips
Terminologies
For the purpose of this standards the following shall apply.
Definition of the product

Cassava chips shall be prepared from clean fresh cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) by washing,
peeling, chipping and drying.
Essential Composition And Quality Factors
Raw materials
The cassava root from which the cassava chips is prepared shall be peeled, washed, cleaned and in
good physical condition.
Organoleptic Properties
The taste and odour of cassava chips shall be characteristic of the product. Cassava chip shall be
white.
Food Additives
No food additives shall be added to cassava chips
Analytical characteristics
Cassava chip shall conform to the requirement given in Table 1
95
TABLE A1: REQUIREMENT FOR CASSAVA CHIPS
Method of test (Ref.)

S/N Parameters Requirement Standard for food Grade
Cassava Starch
1. Moisture % (m/m) Max 10.0 Appendix A
2. Ash % (m/m) Max 3.0 Appendix D
3. Crude Fibre % m/m Max 3.0 Appendix E
4. Total Acidity % (m/m) Max 1.0 Appendix B
5. Hydrocyanic acid and its 10 Appendix F
glucoside measured as
hydrocyanic acid mg/kg Max
100g.
6. Starch content (%) min 75 Appendix C
Table 6: Standards for Dry Cassava Pellets

Quality Criterion Pellets
Starch (% minimum, EU method) 65%
Crude fibre (% maximum) 5%
Sand (% Maximum) 3%
Moisture Content (% maximum) 14%
Hardness (minimum, kg/ft2, Kahi method) 12%
Flour % maximum, 1mm mesh 8%
Foreign matter None
Hygiene
It is recommended that the product shall be processed and packaged in accordance with the
regulations for Food Hygiene recommended by National Agency for Food and Drug Administration
and Control (NAFDAC).
- To the extent possible in good manufacturing practice, the product shall be free from
objectionable matter
- When tested by appropriate methods of sampling and examination, the products shall not
contain any substance originating from microorganisms in amounts, which may present hazard
to health.
- When tested by appropriate methods of sampling and examination, the product:
 Shall be totally free from pathogenic micro-organisms;

 Total aerobic count shall not exceed 10,000 (CFU)/g and
 Shall not contain any other poisonous extraneous or deleterious substances in amount,
which may present hazard to health.
96
Contaminants
Pesticide Residue
Pesticide residue limits for cassava chips shall be in conformity with Table 2
TABLE A2: MAXIMUM RESIDUE LIMITS FOR PESTICIDES
Residue Maximum Level (mg/kg)

Pirimiphos Methyl - 0.10
Malathion - 0.10
Hydrogen Cyanide - 0.05
Permethrin - 2.0
Deltamethrin - 2.0
Dichlorvos - 2.0
Fenitrothion - 10.0
Chlorpyrifus - 10.0
Bromoethane - 5.0
Hydrogen Phosphide (Phosphine) - 0.1
Metallic Contaminants
Metallic contaminants limits shall be in conformity with Table 3
TABLE A3: MAXIMUM LIMITS FOR METALLIC CONTAMINANTS
Contaminants Maximum level (mg/kg)

Arsenic - 0.1
Copper - 20.0
Lead - 1.0
Mercury - 0.1
Tin - 15.0
Zinc - 50.0
Iron - 22.0
Packaging, Labelling and Storage

Packaging
Cassava chips shall be packed, transported and stored in containers, which will safeguard the hygienic
and organoleptic qualities of the product. The packaging materials shall be such as to protect the
product against microorganisms and other contaminants; it shall protect the product as far as possible
against any infiltration of moisture, insect infestation and leakage. The packaging material shall not
impart any odour, taste or colour and any other extraneous property to the product and shall not result
in contamination of the product with substances of which the packaging material is made
97
Labelling
The packaging shall be sealed and marked with following:
Name of the Product: The name of the product shall be clearly and boldly written on the container.
Net Weight: Net weight shall be declared in metric system
Name and Address: The name and address of Manufacturer and /or packer shall be declared.
Country of Origin: The Country of origin of the product shall be declared
Date Marking: The date of manufacture or packing shall be declared. The expired or best before date
shall be boldly written on the label.
Batch Number: The batch number of the product shall be clearly stated on the label.
The NIS Certification Mark, if the manufacturer is a licensee.
Storage: Cassava chips shall be stored in a dry cool place on pallets.
Methods Of Sampling And Analysis

The method of sampling and analyses shall be in accordance with the methods prescribed in clause 9.0
of standard for starch.
Criteria for Conformity

A lot shall be declared as conforming to this standard if each sample inspected/analysed conform to all
provision of this standard.
98
Appendix B
An inventory of some on-going cassava initiatives in Nigeria (2004)
Initiative Country Executing Agency Funding Thrust

1. Root and Tuber Nigeria NARS IFAD, FGN, R&D
Expansion Program SGN
(RTEP)
2. Presidential Nigeria NARS, IITA FGN Development
Initiative on cassava
production and Export
3. Pre-emptive Nigeria NARS, IITA FGN, SGS, R4D
management of NDDC, NNPC,
cassava mosaic disease
4. Special program on Nigeria NARS, IITA FGN, SGS Development
food security
5. Cassava enterprise Nigeria NARS, IITA USAID, Shell Marketing
development project SPDC
6. GM-cassava field- Nigeria NARS, IITA USAID-DC thru R4D
testing in Nigeria DDPSC from
ABSP II
99
Appendix C
Enterprise Analysis
Table C1 Enterprise Analysis for small-scale cassava chips production for livestock feed with trays
(Farm gate processing)
Peeled Chips Unpeeled
Chips
Capacity 2.5t/day 2.5t/day
Output per annum 195t 325t
Price Naira/t 18000/t 18000/t
1
Number of working days 180 days 180 days
Dry load density 16kg/m2 16kg/m2
Conversion factor 3:1 2.5:1
Total Income/annum (Naira) 3,510,000 5,850,000
Variable costs
Raw material required/annum 585t/annum 812t/annum
Raw material costs @N3000/t 1,755,000 2,436,000
Transport costs @ N500/t per annum 292,500 406,000
Machinery, fuel and repairs (N) 20,000 25,000
Drying labour expenses (4 persons@N500/day) 156,000 260,000
Peeling labour expenses (4 persons @N500/day) 156,000 -NA
Packaging and storage material2 (4000 50kg bags, 50,000 50,000
ropes, packaging funnel (2), wooden pallets)
Drying material (e.g. 115 trays, 8 rakes, 8 shovels, 75,000 75,000
wheel barrow, etc)
Weighing Scale 25,000 25,000
Basins/tanks for washing and chipping (10 nos) 10,000 10,000
Installation & other expenses @10% 253950 328700
Interest on capital @ 22.5% 628526.25 813532.5
Total Variable Cost 3,421,976.3 4,429,232.5
Fixed Cost
Processing building 750,000 750,000
Chipping machines (2 unit double chipper of 1t/day) 160,000 160,000
Well (water source) 20000 20000
Total Fixed Cost 930000 930000
Total Cost 4351976.3 5,359232.5

Gross Margin 88023.7 1,420,767.5
Net Income -841976.3 490767.5
1. If cassava is not peeled, output from the plant is estimated at 5 days per week. If cassava is peeled before chipping, it estimated that
output from the plant would be once every two days or three days per week.
2. It is assumed that livestock mills will collect chips from the processing plant.
3. The plant will need to work at full capacity during the dry season months and would need storage space to stock output.
4. Transport cost is based on N500/t for a 5km radius around the processing plant.
100
Table C2: Enterprise analysis for cassava chips production for livestock feed with concrete floors
(Farm gate processing)
Option 1 Peeled Option 2

Chips Unpeeled Chips
Capacity 15t/day 15t/day
Output per annum1 1170t 1560t
Price Naira/t 18000/t 18000/t
Dry loading density 10kg/m2 10kg/m2
Conversion factor 3:1 2.5:1
Variable Costs
Transport costs @ N500/t per annum 1,755,000 1950000
Machinery fuel and repairs (N) 80,000 80,000
Drying labour expenses p.a. (15 585000 585000
persons@N500/day)
Peeling labour expenses p.a. (25 persons 975000 -NA
@N500/day)
Packaging and storage material2 (32000 50kg bags, 50,000 50,000
Drying material (e.g. 20 rakes, 20 shovels, wheel 100,000 100,000
barrow, etc)
Weighing Scale 25,000 25,000
Basins/tanks for washing and chipping (10 nos) 30,000 30,000
Interest on capital @ 22.5% 3497175 3593700
Total Variable Cost 19,040,175 19,565,700
Fixed Cost
Processing building 2,500,000 2,500,000
Chipping machines (4 units double chipper of 640000 640000
2t/day)
Concrete floors 1500m2@N800/m2 1,200,000 1,200,000
Total Fixed Cost 4,360,000 4,360,000
Total Cost 23,400,175 23,925,700

Gross Margin 2,019,825 8,514,300
Net Income -2340175 4,154,300
1. If cassava is not peeled, output from the plant is estimated at 4 days per week. If cassava is peeled before chipping, it is estimated
that output from the plant would be once every two days or three days per week.
2. It is assumed that livestock mills will collect chips from the processing plant.
3. The plant will need to work at full capacity during the dry season months and would need storage space to stock output.
4. Transport cost is based on N500/t for a 5km radius around the processing plant.
101
Table C3: Enterprise analysis for small-scale cassava pelleting plant for animal feed
Option 1 Option 2
With concrete floor With Wooden Tray
Output per annum1 195t 195t
Price Naira/t1 23000/t 23000/t
Conversion factor 3:1 3:1
Variable costs
Raw material costs @N3000/t 1755000 1,755,000
Transport costs @ N500/t per annum 292500 292,500
Machinery fuel and repairs (N) 20000 20,000
Drying labour expenses p.a. (3 117000 117000
persons@N500/day)
Peeling labour expenses p.a. (3 persons 117000 117000
@N500/day)
Packaging and storage material2 (3000 50kg bags, 50000 50,000
Drying material (e.g. rakes, shovels, wheel 15000 50,000
barrow, trays2 etc)
Weighing Scale 25000 25,000
Basins/tanks for washing and chipping (10 nos.) 10000 10,000
Installation & other expenses @10% 240,150 243650
Fixed Cost
Chipping machines (1 units double chipper of 160,000 160,000
2t/day)
Concrete floors 250m2@N800/m2 200,000 NA
Well (water source) 20,000 20,000
Pelleting machinery (steam conditioner, mill, 1,735,000 1,735,000
pelleting press, cooler/dryer)
Total Fixed Cost 2,865,000 2,665,000
Total Cost 6,101,021.3 5,948,183.8

Gross Margin 1,248,978.7 1,201,816.2
Net Income -1616021.3 -1463183.8
1. . Price for cassava pellets is estimated at 65% the price of maize.
2. Cost of trays are included only for option 2
102
Table C4: Enterprise analysis for cassava gelatinised and ungelatinised grit
Option 1 Option 2
Gelatinised Sun dried
Conversion factor 2.5:1 2.5:1
Total Income/annum (Naira) 3510000 3510000
Variable Costs
Raw material required/annum 487.5t/annum 487.5t/annum
Drying labour expenses p.a. (3 persons@N500/day) 117,000 117,000
Peeling labour expenses p.a. (3 persons @N500/day) 117,000 117,000
Packaging and storage material (3000 50kg bags, 50000 50,000
Drying material (e.g. rakes, shovels, wheel barrow, NA 50,000
trays etc)
Weighing Scale 25000 25,000
Basins/tanks for washing and grating (10 nos) 10000 10,000
Fixed Cost
Processing building 750000 750,000
Motorised grater, combined screw jack, Centralised 950,000 400,000
rotary dryer, cooler dryer1
Concrete floors 250m2@N800/m2 NA 200,000
Total Fixed Cost 1,720,000 1,370,000
Total Cost 4,475,974.4 4,193,349.4
Gross Margin 754,025.6 2,823,349.4
Net Income -965974.4 -683349.4
1 Machinery includes grater, screw press for option 2
103
Table C5: Enterprise Analysis for cassava chunks/strips
With concrete flour With tarpaulin

Capacity 2t/day 2t/day
Conversion factor 2.5:1 2.5:1
Variable costs
Drying labour expenses (3 117,000 117,000
persons@N500/day)
Peeling labour expenses (3 persons 117,000 117,000
@N500/day)
Packaging and storage material2 40,000 40,000
(2000; 50kg bags, ropes, packaging
funnel (1), wooden pallets)
Drying material1 (e.g. rakes, shovels, 30,000 90, 000
wheel barrow, tarpaulin, etc)
Basins/tanks for washing and chipping 10,000 10,000
(10 nos)
Installation & other expenses @10% 171,900 177,900
Interest on capital @ 22.5% 425,452.5 440,302.5
Fixed Cost
Cutting/slicing machines (1 units 200,000 200,000
cutter of 2t/day, weighing scale, deep
well water source)
Concrete floors 250m2@N800/m2 200,000 NA
Total Fixed Cost 1,150,000 950,000
Total Cost 3,466,352.5 2,398,152.5

Gross Margin 23647.5 -.57202.5
Net Income -1126352.5 -58152.5
1. Includes cost of Tarpaulin/high density polyethylene
104
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Cassava Utilization in Domestic Feed Market in Nigeria,

Technical Report · August 2004

Chuma Ezedinma Victor Olomo

Iita integrated cassava project View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

CASSAVA UTILIZATION IN DOMESTIC FEED

ENGR. IKE AZOGU

NATIONAL CENTRE FOR AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION (NCAM)

ENGR. IKE AZOGU

IFAD/FEDERAL GOVERNMENT OF NIGERIA

1. Study Background, Objectives and Methodology…………………………………1

2. Overview of the Nigerian Livestock Industry and Status of Cassava Utilization....7

3. Raw Material Supply for a Sustainable Cassava-Based Animal Feed Industry….11

4. Optional Feed Scenarios for Livestock and Their Comparative Advantages……21

5. Cassava-Based Feed Formulations In Comparison with Maize-Based Rations…25

6. Process Techniques, Technologies and Infrastructural Requirements for Pilot

7. Categorization of Cassava Projects Supply to Feed Millers…………………….52

8. Feasibility Studies on the Establishment and Management of Various Cassava

9. Policy Review and Required Interventions……………………………………..67

10 Pilot Project Design, Implementation and Operations………………………….70

We appreciate the contributions of Perin Saint Ange (Country Portfolio Manager),

1. Most leading commentators, stakeholders and international partners involved in

3. The study Terms of Reference covered a whole range of multidisciplinary

(b) Field investigations and data collation – generation of primary data.

(c) Desk work, feasibility analysis and report preparation.

6. A number of commercial feed milling operators in the country currently use

10. While Nigeria possesses a substantial inter-state road infrastructure, the

Rank of Cassava based Livestock Feed Investments in Nigeria using IRR

Cassava producers and microprocessors

STUDY BACKGROUND, OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY

BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

In February 2004, IFAD’S PA Division commissioned a Consultant, Dr. Frans Goosens,

i. Provide a general analysis of the constraints and lessons learned in the

iii. Provide information on the degree of access of the different stakeholders

iv. Provide information on the socio-economic, technical, financial and policy

v. Prepare a detailed project feasibility study in which the conditions

vi. Recommend wide ranging actionable strategies and approaches which

viii. Identify and specify input requirements (human resources, equipment,

ix Provide detailed information on budgetary requirements and time

In view of the multidimensional nature of the Study Objectives, a multidisciplinary team

Field Investigations and Data Collation

i. Farm gate Processors

Determination of Sampling Frame

Middle Belt/Central South West South/South East South/Central

Nassarawa Oyo Enugu Delta

Plateau Ogun Cross River Kogi

Kwara Rivers Ondo

Analysis of Primary Data

Deskwork, Feasibility Analysis and Report Preparation

OVERVIEW OF THE NIGERIAN LIVESTOCK INDUSTRY AND

Overview of the Nigerian Livestock Industry

Table 1: Livestock Populations in Nigeria

Commodity 1998 1999 2000

 No indication of cassava utilisation was obtained from the Southeastern region.

RAW MATERIAL SUPPLY FOR A SUSTAINABLE CASSAVA

Table 3: Annual feed requirement for commercial livestock and fish in

Quantity (Metric tones)

Species 19921 2004 Projections2 Percentage

Poultry 448,276 762,069 91.00

Pigs 14,942 22,852 3.00

Cattle/Sheep/Goats 9,962 23,640 3.00

Rabbit 4,981 7,617 1.00