The rise of the Internet and the growing centrality of cyberspace to all facets of the

modern world corresponded with the rise of the United States as the world’s lone superpower 
(ref 1). Following the end of the Cold War, the US attained a level of military and economic
dominance at the international stage. However, state and non-state actors have been willing to
challenge American hegemony by using both conventional and unconventional warfare. Some of
the unconventional warfare methods include asymmetric engagements and hybrid warfare. These
occur when a power faces a challenge from a state or non-state actor whose relative military
power differs significantly. The emergence of cyberspace has fundamentally changed the nature
of warfare. Cyber-attacks, espionage, sabotage, and misinformation are some examples of
asymmetric means used by such actors. State actors are particularly dangerous, however, as they
have the human and financial resources to use these techniques at large-scale, as seen in Russia’s
interference in the 2016 US elections. While foreign actors sometimes promote particular
candidates, policies or ideologies, they may also seek to undermine government legitimacy,
exacerbate social discord, or erode citizens’ trust in democratic institutions and each other (ref
2). Hybrid warfare is defined as a type of warfare that blends conventional/unconventional,
regular/irregular, and information and cyber warfare. The Russian approach during the conflict
of Crimea involved cyber-attacks, media coverage, fake news, and conventional and asymmetric
means. By simply ignoring the facts, Russia’s tactic consisted of blending fantasy and reality to
create a narrative in which facts no longer mattered. Chaos is the strategy the Kremlin pursues to
create an environment of unrest and division within an enemy state. Through the use of hybrid
warfare, in particular information warfare, Russia has been able to achieve relative geopolitical
gains without the use of force. The influx of information that the internet provides has been used
by the Russian state to operate and utilize old Soviet techniques with 21 st century tactics and
capabilities. Spreading propaganda, disinformation tactics, and manipulation were common
features of Soviet campaigns to spread information. The cyberspace threat exists in a realm that
does not conform to the physical limits of land, sea, air, and space. Unlike these traditional
domains, cyberspace fosters an unpredictable threat that can adjust, morph, and reproduce
without a national identity or face (ref 3). This military domain has been defined as a complex
operating environment marked by instability and ambiguity; where acts of violence, influence,
and leverage are conducted in a nonlinear and often indirect way and include low-level
operations of subtlety and guile (ref 4). Therefore, it is not surprising to see that a large number
of states are exploring the possibility to develop cyber operations and establish active cyber-
based capabilities for offensive and defensive purposes. In 2018, the U.S introduced a National
Cyberspace Strategy which emphasized the importance of this military domain. Competitors and
adversaries view cyberspace as an arena where the United States’ overwhelming military,
economic, and political power could be neutralized and where the United States and its allies and
partners are vulnerable (ref 5). Recently, the Covid-19 crisis and the economic downturn that
followed has instigated people in Washington to use the term “New Cold War” referring to
Sino–American tensions. In a similar geopolitical scenario, the conceptualization of outer space
experienced a dramatic shift in 1957 when the first man-made satellite, Sputnik, was put into
orbit by the Soviet Union. Soviet actions in space were soon followed by American operations,
and thus initiating a space race between the two superpowers. The rise of the U.S. innovation
system in the second half of the 20th century was profoundly tied to U.S. World War II and Cold
War defense science and technology investment (ref 6). Following the launch of Sputnik, the
Eisenhower administration vowed to make the U.S an initiator of technological breakthroughs
and strategic capabilities. The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), known
as ARPA at the time, became the primary inheritor of the WWII connected science model
embodied in Los Alamos and MIT’s Rad Lab. DARPA came to play a larger role than other U.S.
research and development mission agencies in both the Cold War’s defense technology and the
private sector economy that interacted with it (ref  7). The geopolitical context played a huge role
during the course of these events. The U.S National Cyberspace Strategy highlights the need for
a highly skilled cybersecurity workforce as a strategic national security advantage. The United
States will fully develop the vast American talent pool, while at the same time attracting the best
and brightest among those abroad who share our values (ref 8). Cyberspace will continue to play
an important role in international politics and warfare in the years to come. 
In the context of today, the U.S faces challenges from multiple state and non-state actors
and thus agencies such as DARPA maintain the same values and philosophy. To continue
making breakthrough technologies and adjust to the future. As the nature of warfare changes,
DARPA continues to pursue projects and initiatives that touch upon matters of national security.
Digital threats are among the security-related issues that DARPA prioritizes. DARPA is certainly
not the only agency or organization attempting to tackle cyber-related issues. However, its role
as a partner and link to R&D organizations encourages cross-institution collaboration and close
contact with the Department of Defense (DoD). DARPA constitutes a projects agency that
thrives on risk and rewards. DARPA projects address the highest payoff, highest risk, and most
forward-looking technology concepts in deciding what investments might have the most
significant impact in addressing future national security challenges (ref 9).  Some recent
developments in the area of cyberspace have been interesting. For example, DARPA’s Cyber-
Hunting at Scale (CHASE) program seeks to develop automated tools to detect and characterize
novel attack vectors, collect the right contextual data, and disseminate protective measures both
within and across enterprises (ref 10). This fundamental tool aims to defend critical infrastructure
assets from digital threats. Cyber-warfare methods could be just as disruptive and available to
those lacking kinetic means of destruction. In outer space, satellites depend on cyber technology
and digital components that are vulnerable to cyber- and electronic attack. This includes the use
of radio-frequency energy to interfere with or jam the communications of a satellite and the use
of software and network techniques to influence or compromise computer systems linked to
satellite operations. CHASE is keen to experiment with automated tools and protective measures
at machine speed to deter and prevail against high-end adversaries. Defending infrastructure and
strategic assets that are critical to the homeland against digital threats is another imperative of
DARPA. A recent development that revolves around elections involved a new version of a
secure ballot system. According to the program manager of the System Security Integrated
Through Hardware and Firmware (SSITH), Dr. Linton Salmon, DARPA focuses on creating
technologies to enhance national defense, and election system security falls within that remit.
Eroding trust in the election process is a threat to the very fabric of our democracy. DARPA
presented a version of a secure voting ballot box equipped with hardware defenses in
development on SSITH program to the DEF CON 2019 Voting Machine Hacking Village
(Voting Village). The SSITH program is developing methodologies and design tools that enable
the use of hardware advances to protect systems against software exploitation of hardware
vulnerabilities (ref 10). The project expects the voting booth demonstrator to provide tools,
concepts, and ideas that the election enterprise can use to increase security (ref 12). Afterwards,
the voting system will be then be evaluated by a university roadshow to allow experts to further
analyze and hack the technology.
REFERENCES
The rise of the Internet and the growing centrality of cyberspace to all facets of the modern world
corresponded with the rise of the United States as the world’s lone superpower (ref 1). 1

State actors are particularly

dangerous, however, as they have the human and financial resources to use these tech-
niques at large-scale, as seen in Russia’s interference in the 2016 US elections.
While foreign actors sometimes promote particular candidates, policies or ideologies,
they may also seek to undermine government legitimacy, exacerbate social discord, or
erode citizens’ trust in democratic institutions and each other. 2

The cyberspace threat exists in a realm that does not conform to the physical limits of land, sea,
air, and space. Unlike these traditional domains, cyberspace fosters an unpredictable threat that
can adjust, morph, and reproduce without a national identity or face.3

A complex operating environment marked by instability and ambiguity; acts of violence,

influence, and leverage are conducted in a nonlinear and often indirect way and include low-
level operations of subtlety and guile.4

1
(National Cyberspace Strategy, Page 1).
2
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1rVnCm3MT9ZagLElbHTVe2dDFRSUEhS-C/view
Page 2
3
Patrick Lichty, Variant Analyses Interrogations of New Media Art and Culture (Amsterdam: Institute of Network
Cultures, 2013), 54.

4
Joseph Celeski, A Way Forward for Special Operations Theory and Strategic Art, Joint Special
Operations University SOF-Power Workshop, August 2011, MacDill Air Force Base, 15
Competitors and adversaries view cyberspace as an arena where the United States’
overwhelming military, economic, and political power could be neutralized and where the United
States and its allies and partners are vulnerable. 5

The rise of the U.S. innovation system in the second half of the 20th century was profoundly tied
to U.S. World War II and Cold War defense science and technology investment. 6

the primary inheritor of the WWII connected science model embodied in Los Alamos and MIT’s
Rad Lab. DARPA came to play a larger role than other U.S. research and development mission
agencies in both the Cold War’s defense technology and the private sector economy that
interacted with it.7

DARPA’s history has been perturbed by political dynamics as well as the dynamics of the
technologies it has pursued. Therefore, it is difficult to designate a singular accurate depiction of
DARPA because it has adapted based on how the world has changed – especially the national
security environment 8https://www.darpa.mil/attachments/DARAPA60_publication-no-ads.pdf

a projects agency that thrives on risk and rewards. DARPA projects address the highest payoff,
highest risk, and most forward-looking technology concepts in deciding what investments might
have the most significant impact in addressing future national security challenges9

5
Page 1, https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/National-Cyber-Strategy.pdf

6
Vernon W. Ruttan, Is War Necessary for Economic Growth, Military Procurement and Technology
Development, New York: Oxford University Press, 2006. 

7
Richard Van Atta, et al., DARPA Technological Accomplishments: An Historical Review of
Selected DARPA Projects, Alexandria, VA: Institute for Defense Analysis, 1991; James C. Goodwin, et
al., Technology Transition, Arlington, VA: Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, 1999, accessed
at <http://www.darpa.mil/body/pdf/transition.pdf>.

8
https://www.darpa.mil/attachments/DARAPA60_publication-no-ads.pdf
9
https://www.darpa.mil/attachments/DARPA-2019-framework.pdf
PAGE33
A highly skilled cybersecurity workforce is a strategic national security advantage. The United
States will fully develop the vast American talent pool, while at the same time attracting the best
and brightest among those abroad who share our values. 10

In 2019, DARPA demonstrated a version of a secure voting ballot box equipped with hardware defenses in
development on the System Security Integrated Through Hardware and Firmware (SSITH) program to the
DEF CON 2019 Voting Machine Hacking Village (Voting Village). The SSITH program is developing
methodologies and design tools that enable the use of hardware advances to protect systems against software
exploitation of hardware vulnerabilities.

For example, the CHASE program seeks to develop automated tools to detect and characterize
novel attack vectors, collect the right contextual data, and disseminate protective measures both
within and across enterprises11

10
https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/National-Cyber-Strategy.pdf
Page 17
11
https://www.darpa.mil/program/cyber-hunting-at-scale