Grinding 1 - Fundamentals Summary

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Part 1: Mineral Processing Basics and Particles

Basics ... | Mineralogy ... | Separation ... | Particles ... | Measurement ... | Review #1 ...
Mineralogy
Session Headings:

Ores and Minerals

Minerals are compounds found in the crust of the earth and have a fixed
chemical composition. Ores are mineral deposits that can be mined at a
profit.

Valuable Minerals and Gangue

The concentration of valuable minerals in mined ore is usually very low.

The valuable mineral in ore is always associated with unwanted mineral,
called gangue. For a particular ore deposit, the valuable mineral is the
mineral that can be recovered at a profit. Gangue has no economic value.

Copper is the valuable product in a chalcopyrite concentrator, but may be

considered gangue in a gold concentrator.

Chemical Composition

All minerals are made of chemical elements. Each mineral has a fixed
chemical composition. Gold is made of one element: gold. Au is the
 chemical symbol for gold.

Chalcopyrite is made of three elements: copper, iron, and sulphur. Copper

is the metal we are primarily interested in. The chemical symbol for copper
is Cu. The chemical symbol for iron is Fe. The chemical symbol for
sulphur is S.

Minerals that contain sulphur are called sulphides. Chalcopyrite is a

sulphide.

Minerals that contain oxygen are called oxides. Minerals that contain silica
are called silicates.

Particles and Grains

A particle is a single physical entity. A particle can be separated from other

particles by picking it up. A large lump of rock, a tiny piece of ore, and a
minute speck of dust are all particles. Size reduction and separation are
processes that deal with particles.

A grain is a very small piece of a particular mineral. In a large ore particle,

grains of valuable minerals are distributed throughout the gangue minerals.
Under a microscope you would see that grains have well defined
boundaries separating them from other grains making up the particle.

Liberation

The goal of liberation is to obtain particles of pure mineral so that the

valuable mineral can be separated from the gangue. Liberation is achieved
through size reduction, also called comminution, which takes place inside
crushing and grinding equipment.

Comminution produces valuable mineral particles, gangue particles, and

middlings. Adequate liberation occurs when mainly two types of particles
are produced:

 particles that contain mostly valuable mineral

 particles that contain mostly gangue

Degree of Liberation
 Degree of liberation refers to the percentage of a mineral occurring as free
particles in relation to the total amount of that mineral present in ore. It depends
on the size of particles compared to the size of grains.

 High particle size to grain size ratios indicate poor liberation (too many grains in
a single particle).

 Low particle to grain ratios indicate good liberation (few grains in a single
particle).

For a given particle size, different minerals often have different degrees of liberation.
Typically, a gangue mineral is liberated at coarser sizes.

When particles and grains are the same size, there is little liberation. Particle fractures
don't necessarily occur at grain boundaries so that a small particle may contain several
grains that were fractured rather than a single natural grain. When particle size is about
1/10th the natural grain size, liberation is better. Particles have only a few grains. Each
grain is a larger part of the particle, improving liberation.

Each mineral in an ore body has a distinct grain size. Grain size of a mineral can vary
from one ore body to another. For a given particle size, 106 μm for example, the degree
of liberation is very different for different minerals. Silicates, which are considered
gangue, are liberated much sooner than chalcopyrite, which is the valuable mineral.

It is sometimes possible to take advantage of the spread of degrees of liberation,

by first grinding fine enough to liberate gangue, but too coarse to liberate the
valuable mineral. Liberated gangue can be discarded in a separation step before
further grinding to liberate the valuable mineral. This avoids grinding liberated
gangue unnecessarily.

Enrichment

When a particle breaks, the particles generated are always richer in one mineral than the
original particle. This holds true even when there is very little improvement in degree of
liberation, for example if the gangue is already liberated but the particle size is still too
large to liberate the valuable mineral. Reducing size will improve the grade of the
middlings.

Consider this illustration of a particle. It is composed of several grains of each of four

minerals. Fractures can occur at grain boundaries or across grains depending on the
strength of the grain boundaries.

We will split the particle into eight pie-shaped sections, representing particles generated
by comminution. Enrichment is visible in some of the sections. Sections 2 and 3 do not
contain any grain of mineral A. Section 5 contains almost no mineral B. Counting the
pluses, there are 25 pluses in the particle. We might expect that each section would have
about three pluses. In fact, section 3 and 7 contain more mineral C than expected and
sections 4 and 5 contain less of mineral C than expected.
 In reality, particles are not round and fracture planes occur at random. Enrichment does
not depend on how a particle breaks. The smaller the particles generated, the more
enrichment will take place.

Mineralogy - Figure 2

Figure 2. Valuable Minerals and Gangue.

Mineralogy - Figure 4
Figure 4. Particles and Grains.

Mineralogy - Figure 6a

Figure 6a. Degree of Liberation.

Mineralogy - Figure 6b
 Figure 6b. Degree of Liberation. This curve illustrates the degree of
liberation of a mineral as a function of the ratio of particle size to grain size.

Mineralogy - Figure 6c

Figure 6c. Degree of Liberation. When particles and grains are the same
size, there is little liberation. Particle fractures don't necessarily occur at grain
boundaries so that a small particle may contain several grains that were fractured rather
than a single natural grain. When particle size is about 1/10th the natural grain size,
liberation is better. Particles have only a few grains. Each grain is a larger part of the
particle, improving liberation.

Mineralogy - Figure 6d
 Figure 6d. Degree of Liberation. Each mineral in an ore body has a
distinct grain size. Grain size of a mineral can vary from one ore body to another. This
table shows the grain size of three minerals in a typical copper ore body. For a given
particle size, 106 μm for example, the degree of liberation is very different for different
minerals. The silicates, which are considered gangue, are liberated much sooner than
chalcopyrite, which is the valuable mineral.

Mineralogy - Figure 6e

Figure 6e. Degree of Liberation. It is sometimes possible to take

advantage of the spread of degrees of liberation, by first grinding fine enough to liberate
gangue, but too coarse to liberate the valuable mineral. Liberated gangue can be
discarded in a separation step before further grinding to liberate the valuable mineral.
This avoids grinding liberated gangue unnecessarily.
 Mineralogy - Figure 7a

Figure 7a. Enrichment. Consider this illustration of a particle. It is

composed of several grains of each of four minerals. Fractures can occur at grain
boundaries or across grains, depending on the strength of the grain boundaries.

Mineralogy - Figure 7b
 Figure 7b. Enrichment. We will split the particle into eight pie-shaped
sections, representing particles generated by comminution. Enrichment is visible in
some of the sections. Sections 2 and 3 do not contain any grain of mineral A. Section 5
contains almost no mineral B. Counting the pluses, there are 25 pluses in the particle.
We might expect that each section would have about three pluses. In fact, section
3 and 7 contain more mineral C than expected and sections 4 and 5 contain less
of mineral C than expected.

Mineralogy - Figure 7c

Figure 7c. Enrichment. In reality, particles are not round and fracture
planes occur at random. Enrichment does not depend on how a particle breaks. The
smaller the particles generated, the more enrichment will take place.

Introduction to Separation
Session Headings:

Separation

To recover and concentrate valuable minerals, product from the size

reduction step is separated into two streams: valuable mineral
(concentrate), and gangue (tailings). Middlings are often recycled
internally. Flotation, magnetic separation, and gravity methods are typical
separation processes.

Ideally, concentrate should contain 100% valuable minerals and tailings

 should contain 100% gangue. In reality, concentrate contains some gangue
and tailings contains some valuable minerals.

Relationship Between Liberation and Separation

Mineral processing combines liberation and separation to concentrate

valuable minerals.

Introduction to Recovery and Grade

Recovery and grade are two measures of separation performance. Recovery

and grade usually apply to the metal in ore, not the mineral. For a
chalcopyrite ore, the metal of interest is copper. We talk about copper
recovery and copper grade, not chalcopyrite recovery and grade.

Recovery compares the product stream to the feed stream. Grade only
looks at one stream.

Recovery

Recovery is the fraction of valuable metal present in the ore that refers to
the concentrate. Recovery is calculated by dividing the amount of metal in
the concentrate by the amount of metal fed to the mill.

If 90% of copper present in the feed goes to the concentrate, we say that
recovery is 90%. Typical recoveries are between 80% and 96%.

Grade
 Grade represents the purity of the product. It is the percentage (by mass) of
a metal in the solids.

The copper grade of a chalcopyrite concentrate is usually between 22% and

32%. The grade is low because pure chalcopyrite only contains 34.6%
copper.

In contrast, the grade of a typical zinc concentrate is between 55% and 62%
(the zinc grade of pure sphalerite is about 67%). As you see, the maximum
grade depends on chemical composition.

Trade-Off Between Grade and Recovery

Grade and recovery are interdependent. In a well-run separation unit, there

is a trade-off between grade and recovery. If the grade of a product
increases, recovery usually drops.

Liberation, Grade, and Recovery

Grade and recovery both increase when liberation is improved.

By improving liberation, we reduce the quantity of middlings in which grains of

valuable mineral are locked with gangue.

In separation, less valuable minerals will be lost to the tailings and less gangue will
contaminate the concentrate. Improved liberation means higher grade and recovery. In
the example, when liberation is improved the grade increases from 25% to 26% for
recovery of 90%.

Optimum Grade and Recovery

Grade and recovery targets are adjusted to maximize profits. Optimum grade and
recovery depend on many factors:
 plant design and operation

 metal prices

 sales contracts

There is an optimum grade and recovery which depends on economics. Returns from
concentrate sales are calculated by subtracting transportation and treatment charges
from payment for metals in the concentrate. The optimum grade recovery combination
depends on the terms of smelter contracts and metal prices. Generally, as recovery
increases there is more metal in the concentrate and returns are higher.

However, remembering the typical grade recovery relationship, concentrate grade drops
quickly at very high recoveries. The concentrate contains more gangue mineral.

A lower grade will result in higher transportation and smelting costs. At some point
returns will begin to drop. The point of maximum returns is the optimum point.

Metal prices strongly affect the optimum operating point. When metal prices are high,
high recovery is emphasized. When metal prices are low, grade becomes more
important.

Summary

 Mineral processing is the recovery of valuable minerals from an ore.

 Unwanted material in the ore is called gangue.

 Valuable minerals are recovered and concentrated through liberation (size

reduction) and separation.

 For a given particle size, different minerals have different degrees of liberation.

 It is sometime possible to reduce costs by taking advantage of liberation of

gangue at a coarser size through a grind / separation / regrind / separation processing
scheme.

 Grade and recovery are used to measure the performance of a concentrator.

 Optimum grade and recovery depend on economics.

Introduction to Separation - Figure 1

Figure 1. Separation.

Introduction to Separation - Figure 2

Figure 2. Relationship between Liberation and Separation.

Introduction to Separation - Figure 3

Figure 3. Recovery and Grade.

Introduction to Separation - Figure 4

Figure 4. Recovery.

Introduction to Separation - Figure 5

 Figure 5. Grade.

Introduction to Separation - Figure 6

Figure 6. Trade-Off between Grade and Recovery. In this example, the

grade corresponding to a recovery of 90% is 26%. By adjusting separation, grade and
recovery change. More unwanted product is recovered along with valuable product. If
recovery increases to 93%, the grade drops to 23%.
 Introduction to Separation - Figure 7a

Figure 7a. Liberation, Grade and Recovery. This graph shows the
relationship between grade and recovery. In the example, a grade of 25% corresponds to
recovery of 90%.

Introduction to Separation - Figure 7b

Figure 7b. Liberation, Grade and Recovery. If liberation is improved,

the number of middlings with grains of valuable minerals locked with gangue is
reduced. In separation, less valuable minerals will be lost to the tailings and less gangue
will contaminate the concentrate. Improved liberation means higher grade and recovery.
In the example, when liberation is improved the grade increases from 25% to 26% for
recovery of 90%.
 Introduction to Particles
Session Headings:

Learning Objectives

After you complete the next two sessions, you should be able to:

 List particle properties

 Understand the principles of screen analysis

 Read cumulative particle size distribution curves

 Define density and specific gravity

Particle Properties

The differences in physical or chemical properties of particles allow us to separate

valuable minerals and gangue minerals. Separation is only possible if we have
efficient liberation.

Particle Shape

Particles can be described as:

 rounded

 slabby

 acicular

 flaky

 angular
 Particle shape affects processing. Usually particles that are not rounded are
harder to grind, to classify, and to pump.

Particle Density

The density of a material is obtained by dividing its mass by its volume. Densities of
ores and minerals can be readily measured in the lab.

A common unit for density is g/cm3. Water, for example, has a density of 1 g/cm3.
For the same mass, a sample with a low density occupies a larger volume than a
sample of higher density.

Gold is denser than copper.

Particle Specific Gravity

Often, we refer to specific gravity instead of density. Specific gravity compares the
density of a material to the density of water. It is calculated by dividing the density
of the material by the density of water.

Water has a specific gravity of one. Materials less dense than water have a specific
gravity less than one, and materials denser than water have a specific gravity greater
than one. The higher the specific gravity, the denser the material is.

Size Measurement
Session Headings:

Particle Size

Since we can't measure liberation in the plant, we use particle size

measurements to help us evaluate the performance of operations such as
 crushing, grinding and classification. The size of a spherical particle is
easily determined by measuring its diameter. When the particle does not
have a regular shape, or when the sample contains particles of mixed sizes,
diameter is not an adequate measure.

Screens

The most common way to determine particle size is by screen analysis. A

screen is sometimes called a sieve. It is made of a woven wire mesh. The
size of the screen is given by the width of one opening, or by the number of
openings in one linear inch (2.54 centimeters). A 65-mesh screen has 65
holes per inch. A 200-mesh screen has 200 holes per inch.

Measurement Units

Particle size is normally reported in mesh size or in microns. There are one
thousand microns in one millimeter. The abbreviation for microns is μm.

Each hole in a 65-mesh Tyler screen measures 212 μm, accounting for the
number of holes and wire width (gauge) in one inch. Each hole in a 200-
mesh Tyler screen measures 75 μm.

There are several screen mesh designations other than Tyler. In the rest of
this module mesh size will refer to Tyler mesh designation.

Simple Screen Analysis

Most plants use a simple screen analysis to characterize particle size. They
simply measure the amount of particles that pass through a single screen.
For example, if 80% of the particles in a particular sample pass through a
200 mesh screen, we say that the particle size is 80% passing 200 mesh, or
 80% - 200 mesh (or 80% - 75 μm).

Complete Screen Analysis

Instead of using a single screen to measure particle size, we can do a more

detailed analysis by using a series of screens of different sizes. The results
of the analysis are plotted to produce a cumulative size distribution curve.

A complete screen analysis is performed to obtain precise data that forms

the basis for engineering calculations. Screens of different mesh sizes are
stacked, coarsest at the top, finest at the bottom.

A known quantity of ore is put on the top screen and the stack is put on the
Rotap machine. The machine shakes and taps the screens for about 20
minutes. During this process, fine particles fall through most of the screens
and accumulate on the bottom screens while coarser particles stay on the
higher screens.

Then the material on each screen is collected. The result from this analysis
can be plotted on a graph.

The horizontal axis of the graph represents the size in microns and the
vertical axis represents the percent of particles that pass through a screen of
a given size.

To build the graph, first the material that passed through the finest screen is
weighed. The finest screen in this case is a 400 mesh or 38 μm (micron)
screen. The weight is divided by the total weight at the beginning to give
the percentage of particles that passed through the screen. In this case
12.1% of particles passed through the 38 μm screen. This point is plotted
on the graph.

For the next point, the percentage of all particles that passed through the
second finest screen is calculated: 15.1% of particles passed through the 53
μm screen and the point is plotted on the graph.

Each point is built the same way. The fraction of particles that passed
through each screen is determined and plotted on the graph. We build the
graph until all the material is weighed. The graph is known as a cumulative
size distribution curve.
 Reference Measurements

Two common references for screen measurements are:

 80% passing

 % passing a specific size

For routine plant measurements, it is sufficient to measure

the % passing using a single screen, a 200-mesh screen for
example.

For detailed design and analysis, we often need 80% passing

which can only be obtained from a complete screen analysis.

Size Comparison

You can easily compare the relative particle size of two

samples by looking at their cumulative size distribution
curves.

The cyclone underflow is obviously coarser than the cyclone

overflow: it requires a larger opening to pass the same
amount of material.

Summary

 The characteristic properties of particles are used to separate them.

 Particle size measurements are used to determine the extent of liberation. They
are also used to evaluate equipment performance.

 Screen analysis is the most common way of measuring particle size. Two
common references for particle size measurements are 80% passing and % passing a
specific size.

 The density of a material is its mass divided by its volume.

 The specific gravity of a material is its density divided by the density of water.

Size Measurement - Figure 1

Figure 1. Particle Size.

Size Measurement - Figure 2

Figure 2. Screens.

Size Measurement - Figure 3

 Figure 3. Measurement Units.

Size Measurement - Figure 4

Figure 4. Simple Screen Analysis. One hundred grams of ore is put on a

200 mesh screen, shaken, and the material that has fallen through the screen is collected
and weighed. In this case, 40 grams has passed through the screen. The sample is
described as 40% passing 200 mesh, or 40% - 200 mesh.

Size Measurement - Figure 5a

 Figure 5a. Complete Screen Analysis. A complete screen analysis is
performed to obtain precise data that forms the basis for engineering calculations.
Screens of different mesh sizes are stacked, coarsest at the top, finest at the bottom.

Size Measurement - Figure 5b

Figure 5b. Complete Screen Analysis. A known quantity of ore is put on

the top screen and the stack is put on the Rotap machine. The machine shakes and taps
the screens for about 20 minutes. During this process, fine particles fall through most of
the screens and accumulate on the bottom screens while coarser particles stay toward
the top.

Size Measurement - Figure 5c

 Figure 5c. Complete Screen Analysis. Then the material on each screen
is collected. The result from this analysis can be plotted on a graph.

Size Measurement - Figure 5d

Figure 5d. Complete Screen Analysis. The horizontal axis represents the
size in microns and the vertical axis represents the percent of particles that pass through
a screen of a given size. To build the graph, first the material that passed through the
finest screen is weighed. The finest screen in this case is a 400 mesh or 38 μm (micron)
screen. The weight is divided by the total weight at the beginning to give the percentage
of particles that passed through the screen. In this case 12.1% of particles passed
through the 38 μm screen. This point is plotted on the graph.
For the next point, the percentage of all particles that passed through the second finest
screen is calculated: 15.1% of particles passed through the 53 μm screen. The point is
plotted on the graph. Each point is built the same way. The fraction of particles that
passed through each screen is determined and plotted on the graph. We build the graph
until all the material is weighed. The graph is known as a cumulative size distribution
curve.

Size Measurement - Figure 6

 Figure 6. Reference Measurements.

Size Measurement - Figure 7

Figure 7. Size Comparison.

 
Review #1
The multiple-choice questions below are designed to review your understanding of the
material covered in the preceding sessions. The questions change with each entry to
the review.

Each question has one or more correct responses. Click on the checkbox next to a
response to select it. Your choice is immediately marked correct or not. You cannot
unselect a response, but if you select an incorrect response you may still make another
selection for that question. You receive one point for each correct response, and lose a
point for each incorrect response. Click the Score button at the end to view your score.

Your selections are lost when you leave the review page. On return the review will start
afresh.

If you are completing this review for certification purposes then you should be
entered to the course for certification ... exit the course, return to the course
introduction, and use Course Certification Entry ...

Q1. Recovery is calculated by dividing the weight of the valuable metal in

concentrate by the total weight of the concentrate.

 True?

 False?

Q2. Reducing particle size improves middlings grade only if it improves

liberation.

 True?

 False?

Q3. Copper grade in a chalcopyrite concentrate can reach as high as

96%.

 True?

 False?

Q4. Chalcopyrite contains . . .

 Gold, iron, and copper?

  Copper, iron, and sulphur?

 Gold, iron, and sulphur?

Q5. Which grade corresponds to a recovery of 90%?

 20%

 26%

 28%

Q6. Which percentage recovery corresponds to a grade of 28%?

 86.6%

 89%

 93%

Q7. The main steps in mineral processing are . . .

 Size reduction, separation, dewatering, and product

handling?

 Crushing, separation, flotation, and dewatering?

 Liberation, grinding, separation, and product handling?

Q8. For a given ore body there is a single grain size.

 True?

 False?

Q9. Degree of liberation is a function of the ratio of particle size to grain

size.

 True?

 False?

Q10. For the same weight, which sample occupies the largest volume?

 Gold (specific gravity of 19.3)

 Water (specific gravity of 1.0)

 Chalcopyrite (specific gravity of 4.2)

Q11. Both grade and recovery decrease when liberation is improved.

 True?

 False?

Q12. Grain size is a function of the ore body and the type of mineral.

 True?

 False?

Q13. If grade is increased, recovery usually decreases.

 True?

 False?

Q14. Which screen has larger openings?

 200 mesh screen

  65 mesh screen

Q15. Which sample is finer?

 80% passing 65 microns

 80% passing 200 microns

Q16. What is the size for 80% passing in the graph below?

 80 μm

 150 μm

 220 μm

Q17. For a given particle size, which statement is correct?

 The valuable mineral is usually more liberated than

gangue.

 The degree of liberation only depends on particle size

and the ore body.

 The valuable mineral grain size is usually smaller than

gangue grain size.

 Significant liberation occurs when grain size and particle

size are about equal.

Q18. Which mineral has the lowest density?

 Galena (specific gravity of 7.5)

  Sphalerite (specific gravity of 4.1)

 Calcite (specific gravity of 2.7)

Q19. It is always more profitable to sell a small quantity of a very pure

product than to sell a large quantity of a less pure product.

 True?

 False?

Q20. Which sample is coarser?

 80% passing 200 mesh

 80% passing 65 mesh

Q21. What is the cumulative fraction passing 75 microns in the graph

below?

 25%

 45%

 65%

 
Part 2: Slurries and Comminution Summary
Text
 Slurries ... | Settling ... | Comminution ... | Breakage ... | Review #2 ...
Introduction to Slurries
Session Headings:

Learning Objectives

After you complete the next two sessions, you should be able to:

 Define slurry density

 Determine slurry density

 Relate slurry viscosity to % solids, particle size, particle shape, particle specific
gravity and surface chemistry

 Relate settling rate to particle size and particle specific gravity

 Define centrifugal force

Slurry Properties

From grinding onward, ore is usually handled as a slurry. Slurry is a mixture of

water and ore particles. It is also called pulp.

The two most important slurry properties are:

 Density

 Viscosity

Slurry Density

Strictly speaking, slurry density should refer to the mass of the slurry per unit volume.
However, in the mineral processing industry, slurry density is usually reported as %
solids by mass. This course will also use % solids to express slurry density.
Marcy Scale

Slurry density can be measured with a Marcy pulp density scale. A Marcy scale is a
spring balance fitted with a one-litre container and a scale paper with graduated rings.
The scale gives the mass of one litre of slurry, which is a direct reading of slurry
density.

The Marcy scale converts this true slurry density (in kg / liter) to % solids, given
the particle specific gravity. The % solids is read on the graduated ring which
corresponds to the particle specific gravity.

To determine the solids content of a mixture, a fixed volume of slurry is poured

into a sample container. The sample volume is fixed because the container is
filled until the slurry is even with the opening on its side or overflows through the
opening. The container is then hung on the scale and the weight of the mixture can be
read on the outer ring of the graduated scale. Each inner ring on the scale gives the
percent solids of the mixture for a given specific gravity. Knowing this, the appropriate
ring can be selected and the percent solids read for the sample.

Particle Specific Gravity and % Solids

As this example shows, for the same total volume, the amount of solids required to
maintain the same total mass (solids + water) is larger for a low particle specific gravity
(SG) than for a high particle SG. This means that there will be less water in the low
particle SG case and therefore the % solids will be higher. This is why the Marcy scale
% solids reading requires knowledge of the particle SG.

If there is concentration in one mineral, say the flotation concentrate for example, then
the concentrate SG will be different than that of the feed and a different SG ring will
have to be used to determine the % solids.

Slurry Viscosity

Viscosity is a measure of the resistance to movement or flow. For example, cold oil
does not flow as easily as water: Cold oil is more viscous than water.

Slurry viscosity affects the performance of grinding mills, cyclones, pumps, pipelines,
and any other equipment where slurries are involved.

Slurry viscosity depends on particle shape, particle size, surface chemistry, particle
specific gravity and % solids. A slurry with a high % solids is more viscous than a
slurry with a low % solids.
 Slurry viscosity can be explained by the number of contacts between particles. In
a dilute solution there are few particles. The slurry flows easily because there are
few contacts between particles. In a slurry with high % solids, the number of
contacts between particles is very high and the slurry doesn't flow easily.

Effect of Particle Type on Slurry Viscosity

Slurry viscosity does not depend only on % solids. It also depends on the size, shape
and specific gravity of the particles in the slurry.

Generally speaking, at the same % solid:

 Slurries of finer particles have a higher viscosity.

 Slurries of denser particles have a lower viscosity.

 Slurries of particles with shapes providing less drag have a lower viscosity.

In grinding mills, too high a viscosity can create problems. Because viscosity depends
on particle size and percent solids, the percent solids target in grinding mills depends on
the target particle size. The mill percent solids is lower for fine grinding than for coarse
grinding.

Introduction to Slurries - Figure 3a

Figure 3a. Marcy Scale. To determine the solids content of a mixture, a

fixed volume of slurry is poured into a sample container.

Introduction to Slurries - Figure 3b

 Figure 3b. Marcy Scale. This sample volume is fixed because the
container is filled until the slurry is even with or overflows through the opening on its
side.

Introduction to Slurries - Figure 3c

Figure 3c. Marcy Scale. The container is then hung on the scale and the
weight of the mixture can be read on the outer ring of the graduated scale.

Introduction to Slurries - Figure 3d

 Figure 3d. Marcy Scale. Each inner ring on the scale gives the percent
solids of the mixture for a given specific gravity. Here, the specific gravity of the solid
is 3.4.

Introduction to Slurries - Figure 3e

Figure 3e. Marcy Scale.

Introduction to Slurries - Figure 3f

 Figure 3f. Marcy Scale. Knowing this, we select the appropriate ring and
read that the percent solids for this sample is 74%.

Settling
Session Headings:

Sedimentation

The water and particles in a slurry tend to separate if the slurry is not
sufficiently agitated. The interface between water and particles moves
downward as the particles settle. If a slurry is allowed to stand, the particles
settle to the bottom under the force of gravity. This is called sedimentation.
We use sedimentation in thickeners and some classifiers. Sedimentation
also occurs in slurry pipelines where low flows lead to particles settling,
causing the pipeline to sand out.

Settling Rate

Settling is a tug-of-war between the pulling force of gravity and the

resistance to flow put up by viscosity (drag) and the buoyancy of the
particle. The settling rate therefore depends on particle size, shape, and
density. Large particles settle faster than small particles of the same ore or
mineral. Dense particles settle faster than light particles of the same size
and shape. It is this principle that allows us to separate individual particles.
 Centrifugal Force

Settling due to gravity can be a slow process, particularly for very fine
particles. To speed up settling, we can create an artificial gravitational
force. This is called centrifugal force.

Centrifugal force is the force that pushes a rotating object outwards. The
magnitude of the centrifugal force depends on the speed of the object and
on its weight. In order to separate particles of different sizes, a cyclone uses
a rotating motion to create a centrifugal force.

Summary

 Slurries are mixtures of water and solids. Slurry % solids and slurry viscosity are
two important properties.

 % solids is usually measured with a Marcy scale.

 Slurry viscosity depends on % solids, particle size, particle shape, particle

specific gravity, and surface chemistry.

 If slurry is not agitated, solids tend to settle. Settling is used to separate particles
of different sizes and densities.

 Centrifugal force is used in cyclones to speed up settling.

Settling - Figure 1
 Figure 1. Sedimentation. The interface between water and particles
moves downward as the particles settle. Settling is a tug-of-war between gravity and the
resistance to flow caused by viscosity and the buoyancy of particles.

Settling - Figure 3a

Figure 3a. Centrifugal Force. This tether ball shows centrifugal force at
work. As we spin the stick, the ball at the end of the string rotates and is pushed
outward.

Settling - Figure 3b
 Figure 3b. Centrifugal Force. The height of the ball depends on the
relative sizes of centrifugal force and gravity. As speed increases centrifugal force also
increases. As a result, the ball is lifted higher because centrifugal force has increased
relative to the force of gravity.

Introduction to Comminution
Session Headings:

Learning Objectives

After you complete the next two sessions, you should be able to:

 Define comminution

 Interpret work indices

 Describe a breakage event

 Define rate of breakage

 Differentiate between types of breakage

What Is Comminution?

Comminution is another word for size reduction. It is the process of breaking large
particles into small particles.

The goal of comminution is to obtain adequate liberation. This occurs when particles are
fine enough to create "clean" particles, that is, particles that contain mostly valuable
 mineral or mostly gangue.
Crushing and grinding are comminution processes. Crushing is the breaking of coarser
particles, and grinding is the breaking of finer particles.

Recovery and Grain Size

Because concentrate grade and recovery increase when liberation is improved, revenues
usually go up if the comminution product is finer. The particle size for optimum
liberation depends on the grain size of the valuable minerals. A coarse-grained ore does
not require fine grinding.

Because the grain size of copper varies over a wide range, the target grind for
copper is usually between 35% greater than 65 mesh and 80% passing 270 mesh.
A typical target for gold is 80% passing 200 mesh.

Ore Hardness and Work Index

Ore hardness refers to the ability to withstand penetration and deformation. It requires
more energy to crush or grind hard ores than soft ores.

The work index is the most common measure of ore hardness. Ores that are difficult to
grind have a high work index.

The work index gives the electrical energy required to grind one tonne of ore to a
specific size. The work index is given in kilowatt-hours per tonne of material ground.

Lab Work Index and Operating Work Index

The lab work index is measured using very specific equipment following a standardized
procedure. The operating work index is calculated from plant data, using particle size
distributions and kilowatt readings.

The lab work index can be used to evaluate the efficiency of the crushing and grinding
operations. An operating work index that is significantly higher than the lab work index
indicates that the equipment is not operating efficiently.
 Competency and Toughness

Competency is a qualitative term used to describe the structural integrity of ore. If ore is
highly fractured or flawed, has poor cohesion, crumbles easily, it is said to not be
competent. Competent ore is important for autogenous milling, where it acts as grinding
media.

Although we usually speak of ore hardness, toughness is really what we mean.

Toughness is the ability to withstand stress without fracture or failure. Toughness and
hardness usually go hand-in-hand. However, if there are flaws in the material it can be
broken relatively easily, leaving hardness unchanged but lowering toughness.

 
Breakage Mechanism
Session Headings:

Breakage Events

Comminution can be understood as a series of breakage events. A breakage event

consists of two steps:

 Selecting and breaking a particle (rate of breakage)

 Describing the particle size distribution of the product after breakage (breakage
pattern)

Rate of Breakage

The rate of breakage is an indication of the number of breakage events which occur in a
certain time. It is a measure of the rate of particle disappearance. As the rate of breakage
increases, more and more particles are broken and the product is finer.

The rate of breakage depends on the type of crushing or grinding equipment and on its
operation. By making adjustments to the comminution equipment or the way we operate
it, it is possible to change the rate of breakage.

Rate of breakage, also referred to as grinding kinetics, is a key concept for the analysis
and optimization of size reduction operations. If we increase the speed a ball hits
particles, the rate of breakage increases.
If we change the size or shape of grinding media, we change the rate of breakage.

Rate of Breakage and Particle Size

Small particles are more difficult to break because for the same mass many more
particles must be broken (a ten fold reduction in particle size requires 1000 times more
breakage events to maintain the rate of breakage).

As you can see from Figure 3, the capture or nip region is larger for large particles. In
fact, for a ball on a flat surface, the capture region for a particle can be up to 10 times
that of particle a tenth its size. But for particles a tenth the size, you can fit up to 10
times more particles in their capture area than is possible for the larger particles in their
capture area.

The net effect is that particles a tenth the size require about 100 times more collisions of
sufficient energy to maintain the rate of breakage.

The rate of breakage improves with increasing particle size -- up to a point. The rate of
breakage decreases if particles become too big for the grinding media. If particles
become large enough to break by themselves, the rate of breakage increases again. This
region is called the autogenous breakage region.

Particles in the region where the rate of breakage decreases are often referred to as
pebbles.

Breakage Pattern

The breakage pattern describes how a mother particle breaks into smaller daughter
particles.

The current thinking is that the breakage pattern depends on ore type and breakage
action, but not on equipment. This assumes that an ore particle will break the same way
whether it is hit by a ball, a rod, or a hammer.
 Breakage Action

Particles can break down through impact or attrition.

Impact breakage is a violent fracture that results from striking or compression. Coarse
particles are normally broken through impact.

Attrition breakage is the result of abrasion and wear caused by rubbing and chipping.
Fine particles are normally broken through attrition.

The breakage pattern is different for different types of breakage action. Attrition
breakage leads to two peaks: one close to the original size and one for the fine particles
generated. Impact breakage leads to one peak in the mid-size range.

Summary

 Comminution is the process of breaking large particles into small particles to

provide adequate liberation.

 The work index is used to rate ores according to their resistance to breakage.

 The breakage pattern describes how a particle breaks into smaller particles.

 The rate of breakage refers to the rate of disappearance of particles. The rate of
breakage depends on equipment and particle size.

 The two main types of breakage are attrition breakage and impact breakage.

Breakage Mechanism - Figure 1a

Figure 1a. Breakage Events.

Breakage Mechanism - Figure 1b

Figure 1b. Breakage Events.

Breakage Mechanism - Figure 1c

Figure 1c. Breakage Events.

Breakage Mechanism - Figure 2a

 Figure 2a. Rate of Breakage. The rate of breakage indicates the number
of breakage events that occur in a fixed period of time. It is a measure of the rate of
particle disappearance. The rate of breakage depends on comminution equipment. By
making adjustments to the comminution equipment or the way we operate it, it is
possible to change the rate of breakage.

Breakage Mechanism - Figure 2b

Figure 2b. Rate of Breakage. If we increase the speed the ball hits the
particles, the rate of breakage increases. If we change the size or shape of grinding
media, we change the rate of breakage.

Breakage Mechanism - Figure 3

 Figure 3. Rate of Breakage and Particle Size.

Breakage Mechanism - Figure 4

Figure 4. Rate of Breakage and Particle Size. The rate of breakage is

related to particle size. It is low for small particles because the probability of collision
leading to breakage is low. Many more particles must be broken to achieve the same
rate of breakage as for coarser particles. The rate of breakage decreases as particles
become too big for grinding media. If particle size increases further, the rate of breakage
improves, as particles become large enough to break themselves and other particles.
 Breakage Mechanism - Figure 5a

Figure 5a. Breakage Pattern. This example shows the breakage pattern
resulting from dropping a steel ball onto a coarse ore particle.

Breakage Mechanism - Figure 5b

Figure 5b. Breakage Pattern. Notice the size distribution of particles that
were produced. Some are large and others are small.

Breakage Mechanism - Figure 5c

 Figure 5c. Breakage Pattern. The breakage pattern describes the size
distribution of the particles generated.

Breakage Mechanism - Figure 6

Figure 6. Breakage Action.

Review #2
The multiple-choice questions below are designed to review your understanding of the
material covered in the preceding sessions. The questions change with each entry to
the review.

Each question has one or more correct responses. Click on the checkbox next to a
response to select it. Your choice is immediately marked correct or not. You cannot
unselect a response, but if you select an incorrect response you may still make another
selection for that question. You receive one point for each correct response, and lose a
point for each incorrect response. Click the Score button at the end to view your score.

Your selections are lost when you leave the review page. On return the review will start
afresh.

If you are completing this review for certification purposes then you should be
entered to the course for certification ... exit the course, return to the course
introduction, and use Course Certification Entry ...

Q1. The work index can be used to estimate grinding efficiency.

 True?

 False?

Q2. Which slurry would be the most viscous if particle specific gravity
and % solids are the same?

 Slurry with 70% of particles passing 200 mesh

 Slurry with 35% of particles passing 200 mesh

Q3. If particle size is the same, which slurry has denser particles?

 Slurry A

 Slurry B

Q4. Rubbing action leads to the formation of fine particles.

 True?

 False?
Q5. Which slurry would be the most viscous if particle size and specific
gravity are the same?

 Slurry with 40% solids

 Slurry with 20% solids

Q6. Light particles settle faster than dense particles of the same size.

 True?

 False?

Q7. If particle density is the same, which sample has finer particles?

 Slurry A

 Slurry B

Q8. Large particles settle faster than small particles of the same material.

 True?

 False?

Q9. The work index is used to classify ores according to their specific
gravity.

 True?

 False?

Q10. Which slurry would be the most viscous if particle size and % solids
are the same?

 Slurry containing particles with a specific gravity of 2.6

  Slurry containing particles with a specific gravity of 4.2

Q11. Which of the following statements is correct ?

 The rate of breakage depends only on ore hardness.

 The rate of breakage always increases when particle size

increases.

 If the rate of breakage is increased, the product of

comminution is finer.

Q12. If the specific gravity of ore is 2.8, what is the % solids in the figure
below?

 16

 26

 36

Q13. The operating work index is always higher than the laboratory
work index.

 True?

 False?

Q14. Attrition breakage results from rubbing and chipping.

 True?

 False?
 Q15. Impact breakage leads to the formation of fine particles.

 True?

 False?

Click to see how well you did on this review.

Part 3: Classification, Dynamics and Safety Summary
Text

Classification ... | Dynamics ... | Physics ... | Safety ... | Review #3 ...
Classification
Session Headings:

Learning Objectives

After you complete this session, you should be able to:

 Define classification

 Interpret a partition curve

 Define cut size

 Define sharpness of separation

 Define bypass

What Is Classification?

Classification is the process of separating a mixture containing particles of different

sizes into two streams: a stream containing coarse particles and a stream containing fine
particles.

Although they use different principles, screens and cyclones are both classifiers. An
industrial screen works like the laboratory screens used to determine particle size. A
cyclone uses centrifugal force to separate particles.
 Classification Model

Before we can evaluate the performance of a classifier, we must understand how

the classifier works. A simple conceptual model can be used to understand the
operation of a classifier, a cyclone in this example. The cyclone operation is a
two-step process:

 Classification, which produces the overflow and the underflow streams.

 Bypass, where some of the overflow stream is directed to the underflow stream.

We assume that particles entering the cyclone are first classified by size. Coarse
material goes to the underflow and fine material to the overflow.

Since the cyclone feed is a slurry, water has to be handled. We assume the water goes to
the overflow with the fine particles, however a portion of the overflow stream is
bypassed to the underflow.

Classification Efficiency

For a perfect classifier, all coarse particles report to the coarse stream, and all fine
particles report to the fine stream. The line that separates the two is called the cut size.

In practice, classification efficiency is poorer. Some fine particles leave with the coarse
stream and some coarse particles leave with the fine stream.

If classification gets worse, the 'sharpness of separation' decreases. Sharpness of

separation is indicated by the angle of the line. For a perfect classifier, the line is
vertical. When sharpness of separation is poor, the line is closer to horizontal.

Partition Curve

The effects of separation, sharpness and bypass, can be represented by a partition curve.
The partition curve describes how the classifier feed particles are split between the two
product streams. The horizontal axis gives the particle size and the vertical axis gives
the fraction of feed particles that go to the underflow.

When classification is not perfect, the cut size represents the size at which particles have
an equal chance of going to either the underflow or overflow.
 Sharpness of separation is a measure of classification efficiency. It is represented by the
slope of the partition curve. A steep slope indicates near ideal separation; a shallow
slope indicates poor separation.

Bypass gives the percentage of fine particles brought into the underflow by water.

Summary

 A classifier separates a mixture containing particles of different sizes into two

streams: a coarse stream and a fine stream.

 The partition curve describes how the feed particles are divided between the two
streams.

 The cut size is the size at which the feed particles are split evenly between the
coarse stream and the fine stream.

 The sharpness of separation, given by the slope of the curve, is a measure of

classification efficiency.

 The bypass is the percentage of fine particles that are entrained in the coarse
stream.

Classification - Figure 1
 Figure 1. Classification.

Classification - Figure 2a

Figure 2a. Classification Model. We use engineering models to

understand how things work. Models allow us to simplify and get a clearer picture. A
cyclone is a common classifier. To understand how a cyclone works we can use a
model.

Classification - Figure 2b

Figure 2b. Classification Model. We assume that particles entering the

cyclone are first classified by size. Coarse material goes to the underflow and fine
material to the overflow. This process is represented by the classification box.

Classification - Figure 2c
 Figure 2c. Classification Model. Since the cyclone feed is a
slurry, water has to be handled. We assume the water goes to the overflow with the fine
particles, however a portion of the overflow stream is by-passed to the underflow. This
process is represented by the by-pass box.

Dynamics
Session Headings:

Learning Objectives

After you complete this session, you should be able to:

 Understand residence time

 Differentiate between steady state and unsteady state

 Interpret a simple mass balance

 Differentiate between fast dynamics and slow dynamics

Residence Time

The length of time a substance spends in a system is called residence time. It is

calculated by dividing the system volume by the volumetric flow rate through the
system.

Residence time depends on the volumetric flow rate: the higher the flow rate, the
shorter the residence time.

Residence time also depends on the system volume, usually called system
holdup. For example, for the same flow rate, slurry spends more time in a pump
box if the pump box level is high than if the level is low.

Residence time affects the outcome of an operation. Generally, the longer

particles spend in a grinding mill the more likely they are to be broken, yielding
a finer product.

Steady State

A system is at steady state when the mass flow in equals the mass flow out. At steady
state, no overall mass accumulation or depletion occurs inside the system.

We use the knowledge that "what comes in must come out" to calculate steady-state
mass balance. A mass balance is a calculation that predicts flow rates and other mass-
dependent properties of a system.

Unsteady State

Strictly speaking, most systems are not at steady state. They are constantly changing.
When the changes are small, the system is near steady state, and for practical purposes
we assume that it is at steady state. When the changes are large, the system moves from
one steady state to another.

The behavior of the system during the period of change is called system dynamics.

System Dynamics

System dynamics are related to the speed of change. Some disturbances cause a quick
reaction (fast dynamics) and other disturbances produce a slow reaction (slow
dynamics).

System dynamics can be studied using trend charts.

 Summary

 The length of time a substance spends in a system is called residence time.

Residence time depends on flow rate and holdup.

 A system is at steady state when no changes are taking place.

 When a change is introduced, the system goes through a transition and it moves
from one steady state to another.

 The speed of change during the transition period is related to system dynamics.

 
Physics
Session Headings:

Learning Objectives

After you complete this session, you should be able to:

 Relate power, center of gravity, and torque to mill operation

 Understand power factor

 Calculate power

 Understand center of gravity

 Understand torque

Physics of Mill Operation

There are some fundamental notions that must be understand about how a mill behaves
internally.

 Measured power is a prime indicator of mill conditions. It is therefore important

to understand how power is measured and calculated.

 The motion of material inside a mill will be described in terms of the changes in
center of gravity. These changes affect torque and the power required to keep the mill
turning.
 The relationships described in this session will help in understanding the principles
of operation of a tumbling mill.

Power Factor

In an alternating current system the voltage and current are sinusoidal. If they are in
synch, i.e. they go up and down at the same time, maximum average power is obtained.

The average power is the product of the effective voltage and effective current. The
effective voltage or current is the non-alternating voltage or current that would provide
the same power as the alternating system if applied to a resistor.

If voltage and current are not in synch, the average power is lower. The ratio of average
power to that when the voltage and current are in synch is called the power
factor.

Power Calculation

For a direct current system, power is the product of current and voltage. For single
phase alternating current systems, power is sinusoidal and the average power is the
product of the effective voltage, effective current and power factor. For three phase
systems (most mills use three phase motors) the power is the sum of the power of three
phases. It turns out that this provides constant power, contrary to a single phase. The
relationship between phase voltage and current and measured line voltage and current is
such that power is 1.73 (square root of 3) times the product of line voltage, line current,
and power factor.

Center of Gravity

The center of gravity is the point where the mass of an object is perfectly balanced in all
directions. It allows us to simplify calculations by replacing the object with a single
point of the same mass at its center of gravity.
 Torque

Torque is force times the distance to the point of rotation. The distance, or arm, is
measured between the point where the force is applied and a line parallel to the force
that passes through the point of rotation.

Since torque is the product of distance and force, a system that has twice the distance
for a given force imposes the same torque as one that has twice the force for the original
distance. When the load increases, its mass increases but its arm moves closer to the
center line.

Below a load of 50% by volume, the mass increases faster than the movement of the
arm, resulting in a torque increase. Above 50%, the arm moves faster than the increase
in mass resulting in a torque decrease.

Power and Torque

Power is torque multiplied by angular velocity (which is about one tenth of the rpm).
We normally talk about supplied power when looking at torques in the same direction as
that provided by the motor and consumed power for torques in the opposite direction.
Since power factors and voltages vary, current alone cannot be used to estimate torque,
and therefore cannot be used to accurately estimate the mill load conditions.

Summary

 The ratio of actual power compared to voltage in synch with current is called the
power factor.

 Power is calculated by multiplying voltage by current and correcting for power

factor and for the number of phases.

 The center of gravity is the point where the mass of an object is perfectly
balanced in all directions.

 Torque is the force multiplied by the distance to the line parallel to the force and
passing through the point of rotation.

 Power, torque, and center of gravity are related to mill conditions.

Physics - Figure 1
Figure 1. Physics of Mill Operation.

Physics - Figure 2a

Figure 2a. Power Factor.

Physics - Figure 2b
 Figure 2b. Power Factor. In an alternating current system the voltage
and current are sinusoidal. If they are in synch, i.e. they go up and down at the same
time, power will be a sine wave since instantaneous power is the product of voltage and
current.

Physics - Figure 2c

Figure 2c. Power Factor. The average power is the product of the
effective voltage and effective current.
 Physics - Figure 2d

Figure 2d. Power Factor. The effective voltage or current is the non-
alternating voltage or current that would provide the same power as the alternating
system if applied to a resistor. As you can see from the graph on the right, if voltage and
current are not in synch, the power curve is shifted down. Part of the power is now
negative and shown by the shaded areas. The average power is lower.

Physics - Figure 2e
 Figure 2e. Power Factor. The ratio of average power to power when the
voltage and power are in synch is called the power factor.

Physics - Figure 3

Figure 3. Power Calculation.

Physics - Figure 4a

Figure 4a. Center of Gravity. This figure sequence illustrates the

location of the center of gravity. For each orientation the object remains perfectly
balanced when held at the center of gravity.

Physics - Figure 4b
Figure 4b. Center of Gravity.

Physics - Figure 4c

Figure 4c. Center of Gravity.

Physics - Figure 4d

Figure 4d. Center of Gravity.

 Physics - Figure 4e

Figure 4e. Center of Gravity. This is possible because the center of

gravity is the location where an object is perfectly balanced in all directions.

Physics - Figure 4f

Figure 4f. Center of Gravity. The center of gravity depends on the slope
of the object. On the screen, you can see various shapes and the location of their center
of gravity.

Physics - Figure 5a
 Figure 5a. Torque. Torque is calculated by multiplying force by the
distance to the point of rotation. In this example, force is due to gravity, so it is the
weight of the load.

Physics - Figure 5b

Figure 5b. Torque. The line parallel to the force of gravity, passing
through the center of the mill, is called the center line of the mill.

Physics - Figure 5c
 Figure 5c. Torque. The distance, or arm, is measured from the point
where the force is applied, in this case, the center of gravity of the load, to the mill
center line.

Physics - Figure 5d

Figure 5d. Torque. Since torque is the product of distance and force, a
system that has twice the distance for a given force imposes the same torque as one that
has twice the force for the original distance.

Physics - Figure 5e
 Figure 5e. Torque. When the load increases, its mass increases but its
arm moves closer to the center line. Below a load of 50% by volume, mass increases
faster than the movement of the arm, resulting in a torque increase. Above 50%, the arm
moves faster than the increase in mass resulting in a torque decrease.

Physics - Figure 6

Figure 6. Power and Torque.

General Mill Safety

Session Headings:
 Learning Objectives

After you complete this session, you should be able to:

 List the minimum personal safety equipment

 Locate plant emergency equipment

 Identify sound warnings

 List the basic safety rules for rotating equipment and crane operation

 List the basic safety rules for chemical handling and radioactive sources

 List the basic rules for lockout

Personal Protection Equipment

Wear personal safety equipment at all times when you are in the mill.

 Hard hat

 Safety glasses with side shields

 Boots with steel caps

 Ear plugs or ear muffs

 Long sleeves if there is a risk of thermal burns

 Dust masks and respirators when required

 Safety belt and lines when required

Plant Protection Equipment

Know the location of:

 Eye wash stations

 Safety showers

 Fire extinguishers

 Emergency exits
 Could you find an eye wash station with your eyes closed?

Sound Warnings

Identify sound alarms and know how to react. In general, there are three types of
sound alarms:

 Equipment starting (mills and conveyors)

 Fire

 Chemical release

Can you differentiate the various sound warnings in your mill?

Rotating Equipment

Prevent getting caught or entangled in moving machinery. Conveyors, crushers, pumps,

and grinding mills all have moving parts.

 Follow lockout procedures

 Ensure that safety guards are in place

 Clear the area before starting equipment

 Do not wear loose-fitting clothing

 Tie long hair

Cranes

Cranes are used throughout the mill. Make sure you are familiar with their operation
and follow the appropriate safety precautions.

 Do not transport a load over operating equipment or people

 Avoid using the crane pendant close to the grinding mills

 Do not leave a suspended load unattended

 Avoid swinging the load

 Chemical Handling

Some mills use a number of chemicals such as sodium cyanide, caustic, and
sulphuric acid. The hazards and first aid measures for each chemical are outlined
in an MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheet).

 Learn how to safely handle and store chemicals

 Wear appropriate protection equipment

 Know the first aid measures

 Follow the proper spill, disposal, and emergency procedures

Radioactive Sources

Some mills are equipped with gamma gauges to measure solids density or solids
level. Gamma gauges use a weak radioactive source.

 Maintain a safe distance from the source

 Minimize the time you spend near a gamma gauge

 Report any apparent damage immediately

 Do not attempt any repair unless trained and authorized

Lockout Procedures

Lockout procedures are designed to protect you and others when a piece of equipment is
shut down for repairs, maintenance, or cleaning.

The procedures ensure that the equipment is totally isolated electrically and
mechanically.

 Each employee is issued a personal safety lock

 Locks cannot be transferred

 A lock can only removed by its owner

Summary
 Wear the required personal safety equipment.

 Know where to find and how to use plant emergency equipment.

 Know how to respond to sound warnings.

 Obey the basic safety rules for rotating equipment and crane operation.

 Obey the basic safety rules for chemical handling and radioactive sources.

 Follow the lockout procedures and other standard operating procedures.

Review #3
The multiple-choice questions below are designed to review your understanding of the
material covered in the preceding sessions. The questions change with each entry to
the review.

Each question has one or more correct responses. Click on the checkbox next to a
response to select it. Your choice is immediately marked correct or not. You cannot
unselect a response, but if you select an incorrect response you may still make another
selection for that question. You receive one point for each correct response, and lose a
point for each incorrect response. Click the Score button at the end to view your score.

Your selections are lost when you leave the review page. On return the review will start
afresh.

If you are completing this review for certification purposes then you should be
entered to the course for certification ... exit the course, return to the course
introduction, and use Course Certification Entry ...

Q1. The same safety lock can be used by more than one employee.

 True?

 False?

Q2. Which classifier achieves a larger cut size?

  Classifier A

 Classifier B

Q3. Which load has the higher torque (the weights are the same)?

 A?

 B?

 C?

Q4. A cyclone has one feed inlet, and two outlets: the overflow at the top,
and the underflow at the bottom. The feed to the cyclone is 60 tph solids
and 40 tph water. The underflow is 40 tph solids and 10 tph water. The
cyclone is at steady state. What is the water rate in the overflow?

 20 tph

 30 tph

 50 tph

Q5. In a three phase power system, power is calculated by multiplying

line voltage by line current and power factor.

 True?

 False?

Q6. Cut size normally refers to the size at which 50% of the feed particles
end up in the coarse stream.
  True?

 False?

Q7. In the graphs below, does A or B have average lower power?

 A?

 B?

Q8. A cyclone has one feed inlet, and two outlets: the overflow at the top,
and the underflow at the bottom. The feed to the cyclone is 60 tph solids
and 40 tph water. The underflow is 40 tph solids and 10 tph water. The
cyclone is at steady state. What is the % solids in the underflow?

 40%

 60%

 80%

Q9. A cyclone has one feed inlet, and two outlets: the overflow at the top,
and the underflow at the bottom. The feed to the cyclone is 60 tph solids
and 40 tph water. The underflow is 40 tph solids and 10 tph water. The
cyclone is at steady state. What is the solids rate in the overflow?
  20 tph

 30 tph

 40 tph

Q10. Which classifier displays higher bypass?

 Classifier A

 Classifier B

Q11. A steep partition curve indicates very poor classification.

 True?

 False?

Q12. A cyclone has one feed inlet, and two outlets: the overflow at the top,
and the underflow at the bottom. The feed to the cyclone is 60 tph solids
and 40 tph water. The underflow is 40 tph solids and 10 tph water. The
cyclone is at steady state. What is the total overflow rate?
  100 tph

 50 tph

 20 tph

Q13. Which point indicates the center of gravity?

 A?

 B?

 C?

 D?

Q14. Which trend line displays slow dynamics?

 Trend line A

 Trend line B

Q15. Workers should avoid using a crane to transport a load over

motors.

 True?
  False?

Q16. A separate Material Safety Data Sheet is used to describe hazards

and first aid measures for each chemical product in the plant.

 True?

 False?

Q17. A cyclone has one feed inlet, and two outlets: the overflow at the top,
and the underflow at the bottom. The feed to the cyclone is 60 tph solids
and 40 tph water. The underflow is 40 tph solids and 10 tph water. The
cyclone is at steady state. What is the % solids in the overflow?

 40%

 60%

 80%

Q18. Slurry with a flow rate of 500 cubic meters / hour spends more time
in a tank containing . . .

 100 cubic meters of slurry?

 200 cubic meters of slurry?

Q19. Residence time inside a tank containing 100 cubic meters of slurry is
greater for . . .

 Slurry flowing at 500 cubic meters / hour?

 Slurry flowing at 200 cubic meters / hour?

Q20. Which classifier provides sharper separation?

  Classifier A

 Classifier B

Q21. Bypass refers to the percentage of coarse particles entrained in the

fine stream.

 True?

 False?

Q22. In general, it is not necessary to install safety guards in front of

rotating equipment.

 True?

 False?

Q23. A sound alarm may indicate that equipment is starting.

 True?

 False?

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Classification ... | Dynamics ... | Physics ... | Safety ... | Review #3 ...

Grinding 1 - Fundamentals - August 30 2004