Journal of Cleaner Production 229 (2019) 1004e1017

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Minimizing total carbon emissions in an integrated machine

scheduling and vehicle routing problem
Jun Wang a, *, Song Yao a, Jiachuan Sheng b, Hongtao Yang c
a
School of Management Science and Engineering, Tianjin University of Finance and Economics, Tianjin 300222, China
b
School of Science, Tianjin University of Finance and Economics, Tianjin 300222, China
c
Department of Mathematical Sciences, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, NV 89154, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Integrated production and distribution scheduling are important problems in a manufacturing system,
Received 18 August 2018 distribution system, and system collaborative optimization. Under the carbon emission policy, managers
Received in revised form must aim to reduce carbon emissions in manufacturing and distribution. This research considers an
24 April 2019
integrated single-machine scheduling and multi-vehicle routing problem, which allows the switching of
Accepted 25 April 2019
Available online 6 May 2019
machine in a period between two adjacent workpieces. Initially, a mathematical programming model is
established to minimize the total carbon emissions, and then a tabu search hybrid algorithm is proposed
to solve the minimization problem. Moreover, an enterprise case and twenty simulated examples are
Keywords:
Sustainable scheduling
studied. Computational results verify the advantage of integrated scheduling model and show that a
Integrated scheduling sustainable scheduling method can reduce the total carbon emissions by coordinating production and
Carbon emission distribution effectively. Finally, the model is extended to the cases of minimizing total costs and mini-
Machine scheduling mizing both total costs and carbon emissions. The model and algorithm can guide the green
Vehicle routing problem manufacturing and logistics for industrial enterprises.
© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction reportedly caused by the industrial sector (Agency, 2013). Elec-

Global economic growth is accompanied by considerable energy
consumption and massive greenhouse gas emissions, which result
in numerous problems, such as global warming, environmental
deterioration, and increasingly frequent extreme climate. In addi-
tion, these problems pose huge challenges for the survival of hu-
man beings. Greenhouse gas emissions, especially carbon dioxide
emissions, have attracted extensive concern worldwide. For the
sake of environmental protection, governments seek a low-carbon
economy by enacting various strict legislations on reducing carbon
emissions. Increased emission-sensitive consumers have also
steered the market toward clean products (Zhang et al., 2015).
Therefore, under the driving force of legislations and market, an
increase in enterprises has adopted energy saving and emission
reduction measures.
Nearly half of the total energy consumption worldwide is
* Corresponding author. No.25, Zhujiang Road, Hexi District Tianjin, 300222,
China.
E-mail addresses: wangjun@tjufe.edu.cn (J. Wang), songyao@stu.tjufe.edu.cn
(S. Yao), jiachuansheng@tjufe.edu.cn (J. Sheng), hongtao.yang@unlv.edu (H. Yang).
tricity, which is the main form of energy consumption in most of
the manufacturing enterprises (Sun and Li, 2013), has become an
important source of carbon emission because the raw material of
power generation originates mainly from fossil fuels. Thus,
reducing power consumption can result in emission reduction.
Given the pressure from the regulations and the emission-sensitive
market, manufacturing enterprises must pursue an effective and
economical solution to reducing emissions. Without investing in
energy-saving equipment and technology, an attractive option is to
optimize operation decisions in production and logistics (Pusavec
et al., 2010; Benjaafar et al., 2013). Therefore, sustainable sched-
uling problems in production and distribution systems have
attracted increasing attention (Zhang et al., 2016).
Traditional studies in the production system are only focused on
economic performance, such as production cost and processing/
lead time. In recent years, considerable attention has been accorded
to the environmental performance. For energy saving and emission
reduction at the level of production scheduling, the machine can be
shut down with extended idle time and then restarted when a new
job arrives (Liu et al., 2014). Therefore, the sustainable scheduling of
a production system considers the job and switch scheduling

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.04.344
0959-6526/© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 J. Wang et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 229 (2019) 1004e1017
simultaneously (Yildirim and Mouzon, 2012). In addition to the
production system, another emission source of enterprises has
emerged from the distribution system. From the perspective of
environmental protection, vehicle routing and dispatching
methods can be easily adjusted by changing the objective into
minimizing the fuel consumption or carbon emissions. Several
research reports have indicated that reducing travel mileage can
considerably save fuel consumption and reduce emissions (Suzuki,
2011). The two operational methods have been applied and
accepted by enterprises.
Modern industrial enterprises must integrate the production
and distribution system effectively to control the overall carbon
emissions (Liotta et al., 2016). For the sake of simplicity, a tradi-
tional method is to decompose the overall problem into two sub-
problems and solve them successively. Such a method is applicable
if the interplay between two subproblems is prevented by a high
level of buffer stock. However, fierce competition forces many en-
terprises to apply a make-to-order strategy and remove buffer
stock. This strategy shift shortens the response time and then im-
proves the competitiveness of enterprises. For example, a large
white goods manufacturer reduces the response time from 30 days
to 7 days by integrating the production and delivery schedules,
whereas another large iron and steel enterprise cuts the response
time from 30 days to 15 days by implementing a make-to-order
strategy (Zou et al., 2018). For large demands of customers, the
planning of a direct delivery is integrated into the production
scheduling (Chen, 2010). However, vehicle routing decisions must
be involved when facing several small-scale orders (Ullrich, 2013).
Using customer-tailored casting and forging products as examples,
the finished products are transported by a truck for several cus-
tomers in one trip if the locations of these customers are clustered.
Other cases, such as food catering, newspaper, ready-mixed con-
crete, and fresh flowers, are also involved in vehicle routing in real-
world. Scheduling the overall problem can coordinate the pro-
duction and delivery stages and thus formulate better solutions
than solving two subproblems successively (Zou et al., 2018).
In this research, an integrated single-machine scheduling and
multi-vehicle routing problem is considered in accordance with
first-in-first-out (FIFO) processing principle. To minimize the total
carbon emissions, the starting time to process each job, the switch
times for the machine, and the distribution batch and routing must
be determined. To solve the problem considered here, a mathe-
matical model is formulated to minimize the total carbon emissions
of production and distribution. A tabu search (TS) hybrid algorithm
is proposed for problem-solving. The contributions of this research
are summarized as follows:

A sustainable scheduling problem that integrates single-
machine scheduling and multi-vehicle routing is modeled.

A TS hybrid algorithm embedded with the exact machine
scheduling method is proposed to solve the optimization
problem.

An industrial case is studied. It shows that a sustainable machine
scheduling method can significantly reduce production emis-
sions when compared with the traditional scheduling method.
Hence, the integrated model and hybrid algorithm can guide the
industrial practice of enterprises in green manufacturing.
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2
reviews the related literature. Section 3 presents the problem
description and formulation in detail. Then, a TS hybrid algorithm is
proposed in Section 4. Through industrial and simulated examples,
the performance of the proposed model and algorithm is investi-
gated in Section 5. Section 6 extends the model to the case of
minimizing total costs and the case of minimizing total costs and
1005
total carbon emissions. Section 7 draws conclusions and provides
several related topics for future research.
2. Literature review
This section reviews the related literature on “sustainable
scheduling of production problem” and “sustainable scheduling of
distribution problem.” Moreover, the related integrated problem
proposed in this research is highlighted, and the research gaps are
summarized.
2.1. Sustainable scheduling of production problem
In recent years, discussion on sustainability has been raised at
the operational level in manufacturing systems because the
manufacturing automation is becoming a key to mass custom-
ization (Giret et al., 2015; Shim et al., 2017). In addition to the
traditional targets, such as cost, quality, flexibility, and makespan,
sustainability must be focused on increasingly. In particular, carbon
emissions must be considered at the operational level. The sus-
tainable scheduling method provides a new direction for all clas-
sical production scheduling problems (Gahm et al., 2016). For
example, He et al. (2015) studied an energy-saving optimization
method for flexible machining job shops. To reduce energy con-
sumption, the method aims to decrease the idle energy consump-
tion of the machines. Ding et al. (2016) considered a permutation
flow shop scheduling problem with two objectives to minimize
carbon emissions and makespan. The authors designed two multi-
objective algorithms and compared them with the meta-heuristic
method, thereby concluding that the proposed algorithms are
effective. Considering a numerical control program optimization
problem, Li et al. (2018a) proposed an energy-saving approach,
which integrates two strategies. The first strategy is to optimize the
execution sequence of the programs for cutting the tool change,
and the second strategy is to optimize the execution sequence of
the features in a program for cutting tools travelling. Such an in-
tegrated strategy is energy efficient because it aims to minimize the
overall energy consumption in a production system. Li et al. (2018b)
presented a cloud terminal-based cyber-physical system, which can
integrate the strategies of scheduling, process planning, tool path,
and machining parameters, and can simultaneously handle the
real-time planning such as machine breakdown and new job
arrival. Considering these uncertain events, Tang et al. (2016)
adopted an improved Pareto particle swarm optimization algo-
rithm for solving a dynamic flexible flow-shop scheduling problem
to reduce energy consumption and makespan. To avoid
manufacturing breakdown, Xia et al. (2018) developed an energy-
oriented maintenance method by scheduling the preventive
maintenance intervals dynamically.
With spring-up studies on measuring carbon footprint in pro-
duction systems (Gereca et al., 2013; Jiborn et al., 2018; Fan et al.,
2018), the optimization objective of sustainable scheduling is
gradually transformed from energy saving to emission reduction
(Tseng et al., 2018). Although energy-saving is consistent with
emission reduction, emission quota is a mandatory measure, and
thus enterprises must control emissions.
As mentioned in Section 1, a key point for energy-saving is to
turn off idle machines (Mashaei and Lennartson, 2013). Considering
the switching scheduling, Liu et al. (2014) minimized the emission
objective in a single-machine system, rather than the energy-
saving objective (Yildirim and Mouzon, 2012). In a flexible job
shop scheduling problem that considers the emission and total late
work targets, Piroozfard et al. (2018) proposed an improved multi-
objective evolutionary algorithm for problem-solving. The results
showed that the method can schedule the manufacturing plan in a
1006 J. Wang et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 229 (2019) 1004e1017
sustainable-oriented way while minimizing late work. Another way
of emission reduction is to control the running speeds of machines,
because various speeds consume different amounts of energy and
thus produce various emissions. In this setting, Zheng and Wang
(2018) studied a parallel machine sustainable scheduling problem
with resource constraints. To solve the problem with the objective
of minimizing the total carbon emissions and makespan, a collab-
orative multi-objective fruit fly optimization algorithm is proposed.
The use of renewable energy can also reduce emissions. Given the
periodicity of renewable energy and the limitations of energy
storage capacity, Wu et al. (2018) studied a flexible flow shop
scheduling problem and obtained the result in which the proposed
hybrid non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm can effectively
balance two objectives of the carbon emissions and makespan.
2.2. Sustainable scheduling of distribution problem
Distribution scheduling can be classified into two main cate-
gories, namely, new energy and traditional fuel vehicle scheduling.
In the first category, the vehicle routing and battery-charging
scheduling (for an electric vehicle) must be optimized simulta-
neously under the condition of a limited charge pile layout


(Erdoǧan and Miller-Hooks, 2012). For example, García-Alvarez
et al. (2018) investigated the charging scheduling problem of
electric vehicles in the setting that the charging station is subjected
to physical constraints, while Murakami (2018) considered the
charging and routing problem of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles.
In urban areas, moving goods and persons are increasing
sharply. The enhancement of the sustainability of city logistics, such
as electric vehicles, are encouraged, especially in several heavily
polluted cities in China. When electric vehicles are used as shared
taxis, charge replenishing and real-time taxi scheduling must be
operated (Jung et al., 2017). Another sustainable way is to integrate
goods and passengers in a shared transit system. Fatnassi et al.
(2015) investigated this potential problem, including infrastruc-
ture design, vehicle allocation, and routing. In addition, the authors
provided a solution for achieving an adequate service level and
minimizing empty movements of electric vehicles by considering
the new demand arrivals. Other uncertainties, such as unpredict-
able transport volume, traffic jam, and vehicle breakdown/
recharging, must be operated with fast reaction and result in
rescheduling in the modern transportation service industry. For
example, Chen et al. (2018) modeled an electric vehicle routing and
charging problem in a dynamic transit system with battery dy-
namics. Sweda et al. (2017) further considered the availability of
charging infrastructure. The real-time situation is supposed to be
that each charging station is either available or occupied by another
vehicle at any time point. Adaptive routing and recharging de-
cisions can be solved through the proposed policy and algorithm.
The second category, which is related to this research, is the vast
majority of the research on distribution problem. Carbon emissions
are typically linearly proportional to fuel consumption, which is
related to vehicle type, weight, and travel speed (Bektaş and
Laporte, 2011; Fan et al., 2018). Suzuki (2011) suggested that the
method for sustainable scheduling with the decision-making pro-
cesses of speed and load can reduce carbon emissions by 6.9%. Qian
and Eglese (2016) considered the situation that speeds depend on
the time of day in a road network, proposed a column generation-
based TS algorithm, and tested the algorithm with real traffic data.
Miao et al. (2018) further used the vehicle dynamic parameters to
improve fuel economy and proposed an adaptive real-time opti-
mization strategy. Choi et al. (2018) studied the delivery scheduling
of ready-mixed concrete. The proposed improved ant colony opti-
mization algorithm can provide an efficient solution to reducing
carbon emissions. Using the home health care as an example, Yuan
and Jiang (2017) considered new service arrivals, service cancella-
tions, and time window changes and proposed a method for solving
this real-time caregiver scheduling and routing problem.
2.3. Integrated scheduling problem and algorithm
As mentioned previously, modern manufacturing enterprises
must coordinate production and distribution sections to implement
lean operations and control the total carbon emissions. Liotta et al.
(2016) presented a methodological framework for a supply chain
network to minimize the total costs and emissions. Moreover,
Borumand and Beheshtinia (2018) studied an integrated trans-
portation and production scheduling problem in a supply chain
with multi-suppliers and manufacturers. The emission objective
and the total delivery tardiness, production cost, and quality are
considered. In addition, other studies on integrated problem rarely
consider the carbon emission goal in the literature survey. This gap
is filled in the present research.
Given that most of the production and distribution scheduling
problems are NP-hard, the solving algorithms typically resort to
heuristics, such as TS (see Shahvari and Logendran, 2017; Qian and
Eglese, 2016), particle swarm optimization (see Yan et al., 2018;
Abad et al., 2018), ant colony optimization (see Riahi and Kazemi,
2018; Zhou et al., 2017), and genetic algorithm (see Wu et al.,
2018; Miao et al., 2018). The integrated scheduling problem must
determine the production, batch, and routing plans and increase
the complexity of problem-solving (Moons et al., 2017). Therefore,
most of the research is based on the heuristic algorithm. For
example, Li et al. (2016) considered an integrated problem with the
objective of minimizing delivery cost and customer waiting time.
Several optimal properties of the solution are given and embedded
in a genetic algorithm. Lacomme et al. (2018) proposed a greedy
randomized adaptive search procedure to produce a new starting
solution and a neighborhood-based vehicle-routing local search to
improve the solution. Zou et al. (2018) developed forward and
backward batching methods and integrated them into a genetic
algorithm. With job splitting, Fu et al. (2017) proposed an updating
method for several parameters, which are the crucial link between
the production and distribution stages. Chen et al. (2009) explored
perishable food product scheduling and proposed a solution algo-
rithm. The main component of the algorithm is a constrained
Nelder-Mead method, together with a heuristic for vehicle routing.
Devapriya et al. (2017) studied perishable products. To solve the
problem, tour partitioning, makespan compressing, and local
search procedures are combined in a genetic algorithm. In the
above mentioned analysis, several optimal strategies, procedures,
and sub-algorithms are embedded in the heuristic algorithms for
the integrated problems. For a given problem, a specific algorithm
must be proposed in accordance with the characteristics of the
problem. The integrated problem in this research considers the
objective of emission reduction. Thus, the proposed TS hybrid al-
gorithm, which is embedded through an exact machine scheduling
method, also fills the algorithm gap.
3. Problem definition and modeling
This section detailedly describes the integrated problem and
summarizes notations at first. Then, a mathematical model is pro-
posed to minimize the total carbon emissions.
3.1. Problem description and notations
A traditional industrial enterprise typically processes jobs/
workpieces immediately to reserve additional distribution time
when making the production plan. This rule refuses to turn off a
 J. Wang et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 229 (2019) 1004e1017 1007

machine until it finishes the processing of the last workpiece. Eoff : power consumption of turning off the machine.
During the operation period, the machine state is either processing EI : power when the machine remains idle.
or idle. Considerable idle time leads to additional energy con- EP : power when the machine processes a workpiece.
sumption and thus increases carbon emissions. However, under the Re : carbon conversion coefficient of electricity.
restriction of low-carbon regulations, enterprises must not only Rg : carbon conversion coefficient of gasoline.
complete all production tasks but also aim to achieve the goal of lij : fuel consumption constant of route arc ði; jÞlk : fuel con-
emission reduction when arranging production plans. Therefore, if sumption constant of vehicle k.
the carbon emissions are greater in an idle period than in restarting ti : time when workpiece i arrives at its customer i, i2Nt k0 : time
the machine, then the machine can be shut down. This switch when vehicle k leaves the plant.
operation is an effective method for energy-saving. Furthermore, a t di : starting time to deliver workpiece i, i2N
trade-off is observed between production and distribution. The lij : vehicle load on route arc ði; jÞ
minimization of production emissions can lead to a certain delay of Gijk : fuel consumption of vehicle k on route arc ði; jÞ
the delivery or the extremely high amount of distribution emis- Esum : power consumption for the processing of all workpieces.
sions because sustainable machine scheduling prefers to process Gsum : fuel consumption for the distribution of all workpieces.
workpieces together and with no idle time. Therefore, the pro- Csum : total carbon emissions for the processing and distribution
cessing of several workpieces may be completed late and then of all workpieces.
result in more transport vehicles and mileage. What's more, some T r : the breakeven duration, that is, the least duration required
workpieces cannot even be delivered on time. Conversely, the for a restarting operation and the amount of time for which a
minimum of distribution emissions will cause a sharp increase in restarting operation, rather than running the machine at idle, is
production emissions. Since the distribution plan may lead to more favorable.
idle time of the machine. Consequently, production scheduling Decision variables:
must be integrated into distribution scheduling for an overall sus- xijk : 0e1 variable; equals 1 if vehicle k travels through an arc ði;jÞ,
tainable performance. and 0 otherwise.
This research considers an integrated production and distribu- yi : time when the machine starts processing workpiece i.
tion system with the setting of single-machine and multiple zi : 0e1 variable; equals 1 if the machine is running at a shut-
transport vehicles. A processing and distribution plan must be down state before processing workpiece i, and 0 if the machine is
developed to achieve the goal of minimizing the total carbon running at an idle state.
emissions. Each of the workpieces arrives at different times and
cannot be processed before its arrival time. According to the prin- 3.2. Mathematical model
ciple of FIFO, a workpiece cannot be processed until the previously
arrived workpieces have been processed. Workpiece processing If the time duration between two adjacent workpieces is larger
cannot be interrupted once it has begun. Each workpiece must be than the duration of restarting the machine, and the power con-
delivered to its customer before the delivery time. The weight, sumption of an idle state in the duration is also larger than that of
processing time, arrival time, and delivery time are assumed to be restarting the machine, then the machine can be turned off to
known before making the plan. Sufficient transport vehicles are reduce the carbon emissions. Based on Yildirim and Mouzon
assumed to travel at a constant speed. A vehicle must start from the (2012), which is followed by Liu et al. (2014), Che et al. (2017),
plant, travel in the planned route, and return to the plant. The and Lu et al. (2017), a breakeven duration can be calculated as
loading and unloading times of the workpieces are ignored in this ( )
research. The scheduling plan consists of the starting time to pro- r Eon þ Eoff on off
cess and deliver each workpiece, the distribution batches, and the T ¼ max ;T þ T : (1)
EI
vehicle routing for each batch.
To describe the problem clearly, the notations are summarized Thus, the total power consumption for production is expressed
as follows. as
Parameters:
X
n n 
X  X
n  
N: all workpieces to be processed on the machine, N ¼ f0; 1; 2; p p
Esum ¼ Ep T i þ Eon þ Eoff zi þ EI yi  yi1  T i1
…;ng; “0” represents the virtual workpiece, which means to turn on
i¼1 i¼1 i¼1
the machine before processing the first workpiece.
i; j: workpiece index, i2N, j2N  ð1  zi Þ;
ði; jÞ: route arc from the customer location of workpiece i to the (2)
customer location of workpiece j, i2N, j2N; “0” represents the
plant. where
V: all vehicles, V ¼ f1; 2; …; mg
k: vehicle index, k2V z1 ¼ 1; (3)
Vk : vector that represents travel route of vehicle kk2 V
and ci ¼ 2; 3; …; n,
Qk : maximum load of vehicle k.
wk : no-load weight of vehicle k. 
0; if yi  yi1  T pi1  T r ;
v: travelling speed of a vehicle. zi ¼ (4)
1; otherwise:
T ai : arrival time of workpiece i, i2N
T di : delivery time of workpiece i, i2N In Equation (2), the first item represents the power consumption
T pi : time duration to process workpiece i, i2N of the processing state of the machine, and the second and last
Wi : weight of workpiece i, i2N items indicate the power consumption of the restarting and idle
Dij : travel distance on route arc ði; jÞ states, respectively. Equation (3) describes the initial turn-on and
T on : time duration of turning on the machine. final turn-off of the machine. Equation (4) defines the state option
T off : time duration of turning off the machine. of the machine.
Eon : power consumption of turning on the machine. Fuel consumption is related to vehicle type, driving speed,
1008 J. Wang et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 229 (2019) 1004e1017

vehicle weight, load, and distance. According to Bektaş and Laporte 8

(2011), the fuel consumption of vehicle k on the arc ði; jÞ is > Dij
>
< ti þ ; xijk ¼ 1∧i s 0
expressed as v
tj ¼ ; cj ¼ 1; 2; …; n; ck ¼ 1; 2; …; m
>
>
: t k þ D0j ; x ¼ 1
    0 0jk
v
Gijk ¼ lij wk þ lij þ lk v2 Dij : (5)
(16)
Equation (5) has been extensively used in the pollution routing
problem (see Fukasawa et al., 2016; Eshtehadi et al., 2017; ti  T di ; ci ¼ 1; 2; …; n (17)
Franceschetti et al., 2017; Bravo et al., 2019), and this research also
uses this equation. Equation (5) means that fuel consumption in- X
n X
n
creases with the increase in load, speed or distance. The fuel con- lii0  li0 j ¼ Wi0 ; ci0 ¼ 1; 2; …; n (18)
sumption per unit distance is split into two parts. The first part, i¼0 j¼0
lij ðwk þ lij Þ, indicates the load-induced fuel consumption and can
be approximated by the product of arc constant and total load. The X
m X
m
second part, lk v2 , represents the speed-induced fuel consumption Wj xijk  lij  ðQk  Wi Þxijk ; ci ¼ 1; 2; …; n; cj ¼ 1; 2; …; n
and can be calculated by vehicle constant and travel speed. The arc k¼1 k¼1
constant lij is related to acceleration, gravitational constant, road (19)
angle, and rolling resistance, whereas the vehicle constant lk is
related to air density, rolling drag, and frontal surface area of the xijk 2 f0; 1g; ci ¼ 0; 1; …; n; cj ¼ 0; 1; …; n; ck ¼ 1; 2; …; m
vehicle. The fuel consumption for the distribution of all workpieces
(20)
is as follows:
Objective function (7) is adopted to minimize the total carbon
X
n X
n X
m emissions. The emissions of production equal the carbon conver-
Gsum ¼ Gijk xijk : (6) sion coefficient multiplied by the total power consumption,
i¼0 j¼0 k¼1 whereas the emissions of distribution equal the coefficient multi-
plied by the total fuel consumption. Constraint (8) ensures that the
Then optimization problem is to minimize the total of the car-
starting time to process each workpiece is not less than its arrival
bon emissions
time. Constraint (9) specifies that each workpiece has a predecessor
and a successor in the processing sequence. Constraint (10) in-
Csum ¼ Re Esum þ Rg Gsum (7) dicates that each workpiece can not start to deliver until its pro-
cessing has been completed. Constraints (11) and (12) ensure that
subject to the following constraints: each vehicle must start the travel from and to the plant. Constraints
(13) and (14) represent that each workpiece is severed by only one
yi  T ai ; ci ¼ 1; 2; …; n (8) vehicle. Constraint (15) ensures that the load of each vehicle can not
exceed its capacity. Constraint (16) calculates the time when each
workpiece arrives at the location of its customer. Constraint (17)
p
yi  yi1 þ T i1 ; ci ¼ 1; 2; …; n (9) demonstrates that the workpiece's arrival time to its customer is
not more than its delivery time. Constraints (18) and (19) represent
the flow conservation and the vehicle load limit on each arc
 
p Constraint (20) states the binary condition of the decision variables.
yi þ T i x0ik  t k0 ; ci ¼ 1; 2; …; n; ck ¼ 1; 2; …; m (10)

4. TS hybrid algorithm
X
n
x0ik ¼ 1; ck ¼ 1; 2; …; m (11) Clearly, the integrated sustainable scheduling problem, which
i¼1 involves the vehicle routing issue, is an NP-hard problem. The in-
tegrated problem is so complicated that an exact algorithm cannot
solve large-scale instances in real-life application. Therefore, a
X
n
xi0k ¼ 1; ck ¼ 1; 2; …; m (12) heuristic algorithm is used to gain the approximate optimal solu-
i¼1 tion for the problem. Given that the TS algorithm works effectively
on production scheduling and vehicle routing problems (Shahvari
and Logendran, 2017; Koç et al., 2016), the present research uses
X
n X
m
the TS framework to solve the model.
xijk ¼ 1; ci ¼ 1; 2; …; n∧isj (13)
The complexity of the integrated problem is that the emission
j¼1 k¼1
reduction and the delivery time are jointly considered and inter-
play with each other. A production plan with the least emissions
X
n X
n may result in delays or a great amount of emissions in delivery.
xii0k  xi0jk ¼ 0; ci0 ¼ 1; 2; …; n; ck ¼ 1; 2; …; m (14) Therefore, the problem is solved in a backward way. The algorithm
i¼1 j¼1 initially produces a feasible solution by first arriving, first pro-
cessing, and first delivering. Then, the neighborhoods of TS work in
the vehicle routing improvement. Each routing improvement must
n X
X n
be verified by the proposed machine scheduling method, which is
Wi xijk  Qk ; ck ¼ 1; 2; …; m (15)
an exact algorithm, to ensure a feasible solution in the production
i¼1 j¼0
stage. Thus, the TS framework mainly acts on vehicle routing and is
integrated into the machine scheduling method in each
 J. Wang et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 229 (2019) 1004e1017
Fig. 1. Solution represented by a vector set.
neighborhood search. In the following subsection, each essential of
the hybrid algorithm is presented in detail.
4.1. Solution representation
Based on the feature of the problem and algorithm considered,
this research proposes a new solution representation, which simply
uses the sequence number of a workpiece for the vehicle routing.
This representation is a vector set, in which a vector represents a
travel route. For example, the vector set
fV1 ¼ ð1; 4; 5; 3Þ; V2 ¼ ð6; 9; 2; 8; 7Þg describes a solution with nine
workpieces transported by two vehicles. Fig. 1 illustrates the pro-
cessing sequence and routes of this vector set. When the machine
has processed the fifth workpiece, the first vehicle delivers four
workpieces in accordance with the sequence of 1; 4; 5; and 3. When
the machine has processed all the workpieces, the second vehicle
delivers the last five workpieces with the order of 6; 9; 2; 8; and 7.
This representation has determined the batches and the route of
each vehicle in a distribution system and has three advantages.
First, each vector represents an actual delivery sequence, and this
structure facilitates the design for simple and efficient neighbor-
hoods. Second, given that decision-making about times is excluded,
this representation minimizes the interrelationship between pro-
duction and distribution. Third, through the delivery time of each
workpiece, the (latest) starting time to deliver each workpiece can
be easily gained. Thus, using this starting transport time, the inte-
grated problem can be divided into two sub-problems, namely,
machine scheduling and vehicle routing. In the former, the starting
time for processing each workpiece can be determined in accor-
dance with the arrival and starting transport times. This decision-
making is a single-machine sustainable scheduling problem
(SMSCP), which is explained in the following subsection.
4.2. Method for solving machine scheduling
Definition 1. (SMSCP). Given the processing sequence and starting
transport times of the workpieces, the decision-makings are the
starting times for processing each workpiece and the machine state in
each period between processing two adjacent workpieces. The opti-
mization goal is to minimize the carbon emissions in the processing.
The SMSCP has the properties provided as follows.
Proposition 1. (Optimal conditions for the SMSCP). If an SMSCP has
feasible solutions, then an optimal solution is present with the
following properties:

In the period between processing two adjacent workpieces, the
optimal state of the machine is opted in accordance with the pri-
ority of “continuous processing > shutdown > idle.”
1009

If the option is shutdown, then the starting time for processing the
subsequent workpiece must be postponed; if the option is idle, then
the subsequent workpiece must be processed immediately.
Proof. If the option of the machine state is continuously pro-
cessing, then the length of the period between processing two
adjacent workpieces is 0, and thus no power consumption is
necessary for this period. In accordance with Equation (1), if the
option is the shutdown state, then the power consumption of this
period is less than that when opting for an idle state. Thus, if the
machine state is determined by the rules of Equations (3) and (4),
then the first property is satisfied.
If the option is shutdown, then postponing the processing of the
subsequent workpiece can compress the duration of processing the
remaining workpieces. Therefore, the idle time in that duration can
be reduced. If the idle state is opted, the processing the subsequent
workpiece earlier can minimize the current idle time and improve
the flexibility for machine scheduling of the remaining workpieces.
These results verify the second property.
On the basis of Proposition 1, an exact algorithm is proposed for
solving the SMSCP as follows.
p
Algorithm 1. Step 1: Initiate l ¼ 1, y0 ¼ 0, T 0 ¼ T on .
h i
Step 2: Calculate the range of yi using the equation yi ; yi ¼
p p p p
½maxfT ai ; yi1 þ T i1 g; minft di  T i ; t diþ1  T iþ1  T i ; …; t dn 
Pn p i
j¼i T j g .
Step 3: If yi > yi , then the SMSCP has no feasible solution and the
algorithm stops; otherwise, proceed to Step 4.
Step 4: Determine the machine state according to Proposition 1.
If the option is shutdown, set yi ¼ yi , and yi ¼ yi otherwise.
Step 5: If the equation l ¼ n holds, then the algorithm stops;
otherwise, set l : ¼ l þ 1 and return to Step 2.
Definition 2. (Feasible distribution solution). Given the routes
fV1 ; V2 ; …g, if the SMSCP has the optimal solution through the
calculation using Algorithm 1, then fV1 ; V2 ; …g is a feasible distribu-
tion solution.
4.3. Initial solution and fitness function
To obtain the feasible distribution solution, this research uses
the principle of “first arriving, first processing, and first delivering”
to generate the initial solution of fV1 ; V2 ; …g. The generation steps
are as follows.
Algorithm 2. Step 1: Obtain the processing sequence in accor-
dance with the arrival time from early to late. Determine the
starting and the completing times of the processing of each
workpiece in the principle of FIFO.
Step 2: Set the current position of a vehicle to be the plant.
Step 3: Select the first workpiece in the sequence and determine
whether the load and delivery constraints are satisfied when the
workpiece is added to the current route. If satisfied, then add
this workpiece into the current route, delete this workpiece
from the sequence and proceed to Step 4; otherwise, return to
Step 2.
Step 4: If the processing sequence has no workpiece left, then
the algorithm stops; otherwise, return to Step 3.
After obtaining the initial solution of fV1 ;V2 ;…g, this SMSCP can
be solved using Algorithm 1. Equation (7) is used as the fitness
function directly.
1010 J. Wang et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 229 (2019) 1004e1017

4.4. Neighborhood

Given the characteristics of solution representation, two feasible

neighborhood structures, namely, insertion and swap, are designed
in this research. The optimal insertion position, which is used in the
neighborhoods, is defined as follows.
Definition 3. (Optimal insertion position). Given a route Vk ¼
ði1 ; …; il ; …; ink Þ, nk þ 1 candidate positions are before i1 and after il,
l ¼ 1; 2;…;nk . The position, which generates the minimum increase in
carbon emissions caused by the new travel route, is called the optimal
insertion position.
Definition 4. (Feasible insertion neighborhood). Given the
feasible distribution solution, a route Vk must be selected randomly. If
inserting a workpiece into route Vk , then the new distribution solution
remains feasible. Thus, this insertion operation is called feasible
insertion neighborhood.
The feasible insertion neighborhood can be operated using the
following algorithm.
Algorithm 3. Step 1: In the distribution vector set, select two
vectors Vk and Vk0 with the dimension that is greater than 0.
Step 2: If all the workpieces in Vk0 have been selected, then re-
turn to Step 1; otherwise, randomly select a workpiece i0 that
has not been selected.
Step 3: Determine whether the load constraint is satisfied when
assigning workpiece i0 to vehicle k. If satisfied, then insert i0 into
the optimal insertion position of route Vk and proceed to Step 4;
otherwise, return to Step 2.
Step 4: For the new distribution vector set, solve the SMSCP
using Algorithm 1. If the optimal solution is obtained, then the
algorithm stops; otherwise, return to Step 2.

Definition 5. (Feasible swap neighborhood). Given two routes

Vk ¼ ði1 ; …; il ; …; ink Þ and Vk0 ¼ ðj1 ; …; jl0 ; …; jnk0 Þ in a feasible distri-
bution solution, swapping the workpieces il and jl0 in the two routes
results in two new routes Vk 0 ¼ ði1 ; …; jl0 ; …; ink Þ and Vk0 0 ¼
ðj1 ; …; il ; …; jnk0 Þ. If the solution, which consists of Vk 0 , Vk0 0 and the rest
routes, is also a feasible distribution solution, then this operation is
called feasible swap neighborhood.
The feasible swap neighborhood can be operated as follows.
Algorithm 4. Step 1: In the distribution vector set, select two
vectors Vk and Vk0 with the dimension that is greater than 0.
Step 2: If all the workpieces in Vk have been selected, then re-
turn to Step 1; otherwise, randomly select a workpiece il that
has not been selected.
Step 3: If all the workpieces in Vk0 have been selected, then re-
turn to Step 2; otherwise, randomly select a workpiece jl0 that
has not been selected.
Step 4: Determine whether the load constraint is satisfied when
swapping workpieces il and jl0 in vehicles k andk0 . If satisfied,
then insert jl0 and il into the optimal insertion positions of Vk
andVk0 , correspondingly, and then two new route vectors V 0k and
0
V k0 are obtained, by continuing to Step 5; otherwise, return to
Step 3.
Step 5: For the new distribution vector set, solve the SMSCP
using Algorithm 1. If the optimal solution is obtained, then the
algorithm stops; otherwise, return to Step 3.
Fig. 2. Framework of the hybrid algorithm.
the initial position of Vk in the following a iterations, unless this
return results in an improved solution. a represents the length of
the tabu list.
The termination rule is set to be that the optimal solution does
not improve in b iterations.
4.6. Algorithmic framework
The framework of the TS hybrid algorithm is depicted in Fig. 2.
5. Numerical analysis
In this section, an industrial case with seven workpieces is first
studied to verify the superiority of the integrated scheduling
model. Then, twenty simulated examples are used to analyze the
efficiency of the proposed algorithm. The algorithm is run using
Visual Studio C# 2010 on a PC with Intel Core i3-3217U 1.8 GHz CPU
and 4G RAM.
5.1. Industrial case

The model and algorithm proposed in this research can be

4.5. Tabu rule and terminating condition applied to many manufacturing enterprises, especially for the in-
tegrated production and distribution systems which are equipped
If a workpiece in Vk is inserted into another route by a neigh- with high energy-consumption facilities and vehicles. The pro-
borhood operation, then this workpiece can not be inserted back to cessing data of this case are selected from Liu et al. (2014). The main
 J. Wang et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 229 (2019) 1004e1017 1011

Table 1
Machine parameters.

Time duration (min) Power consumption (kwh) Power (kw)

turn on turn off turn on turn off processing idle

15 3 25.3 1.5 63.4 47.6

products of the enterprise are large equipment and several related
casting and forging parts. Most of the products must be processed
on a 7  22 m heavy duty gantry milling machine. The data origi-
nate from the processing plan in a day. The parameters of this
machine are listed in Table 1. Furthermore, 6:00 a.m. is set to be
time point 0 and the ready time of the machine.
In the distribution system, the delivery times of the workpieces
are different. The weight, delivery location coordinate of each
workpiece are generated randomly in the interval [1,8] and
[10,100], respectively. The plant is located at point (0,0). Thus, the
parameters of the workpieces are detailed in Table 2. The time unit
is set to min. The carbon emission parameters are set to Re ¼
0.785 kg/kwh, Rg ¼ 2.62 kg/L, lij ¼ 0.15, lk ¼ 5, Qk ¼ 20 ton and
v ¼ 1.5 km/min (Liu et al., 2014; Bektaş and Laporte, 2011). The
algorithm parameters are set to a ¼ 10, b ¼ 30 and g ¼ 20. The
algorithm is run 10 times and the best result is selected.
The computational result is analyzed and the time scheduling is
summarized in Table 3. The route vectors are fV1 ¼ ð2; 1; 3Þ; V2 ¼
ð4Þ; V3 ¼ ð6; 5; 7Þg, as exhibited in Fig. 3. The total carbon emission
is 889.46 kg, in which the carbon emissions of processing and dis-
tribution are 645.11 and 244.35 kg, correspondingly.
To verify the superiority of the sustainable scheduling model
proposed in this research, the traditional machine scheduling
method is used for comparison. The traditional method is consis-
tent with the principle of “processing as soon as possible with no
restarting during the idle periods.” The traditional method pro-
duces 784.75 kg carbon emissions. Sustainable scheduling reduces
139.64 kg carbon emissions. Fig. 4 displays the Gantt chart of pro-
cessing scheduling. In the sustainable method, the machine starts
processing the first three workpieces continuously at 154.2 min and
then stops to be shutdown at 491.2 min. The machine is restarting
and beginning to process the rest of the four workpieces at
603.93 min. By contrast, in the traditional method, the machine
only processes workpieces 5 and 6 continuously. Thus, the total idle
duration is 243 min. Therefore, the sustainable scheduling model
can significantly reduce carbon emissions of processing in this case.
To verify the advantages of the integrated optimization model
and algorithm, a two-stage method for the first traditional
machining scheduling and the pure optimization of vehicle routing
are compared. In the first stage, the starting and completed times
for each workpiece process are obtained by the traditional sched-
uling. In the second stage, the vehicle routing problem is solved
with the objective to minimize the distribution emissions. The two-
stage method produces 784.75 kg carbon emissions in the pro-
cessing stage and 244.35 kg carbon emissions in the distribution
stage. The emissions in the distribution stage are the same as the
integrated model, but the total emissions are 139.64 kg more than
that in the integrated model.
Then, the efficiency of the algorithm is analyzed. The objective
value of the initial solution is 938.37. In the 10 times calculation, the
algorithm obtains the same final solution. The average calculation
time is 90.12 s. The final solution can be obtained after average 5.4
iterations. Fig. 5 plots the iterative process of the objective value in
a calculation. The optimal solution is improved in the second,
fourth, fifth, and sixth iterations. After six iterations, the optimal
solution remains unchanged. This finding shows that the algorithm
has high efficiency. Current solutions are the same as the optimal
solution in most iterations, unless in the 12th-15th iterations. All
the differences are after the final solution is obtained, thereby
indicating that the current solution changes in the iterations show
that the algorithm has a certain random search capability.
5.2. Simulated examples
A total of 20 examples with different numbers of workpieces are
randomly generated to verify the computational efficiency and the
sensitivity to the problem. The number of workpieces is from 10 to
200. The parameters are generated randomly, and the processing

Table 2
Workpiece parameters.

Workpiece Arrival time Processing time Delivery time Weight (ton) Location

1 0 50 540 3 (45,18)
2 120 152 540 5 (9,33)
3 342 135 600 4 (77,65)
4 494 67 720 2 (44,59)
5 585 216 1280 5 (72,87)
6 790 30 1280 2 (59,30)
7 908 127 1320 6 (19,57)

Table 3
Time scheduling results for processing and distribution.

Workpiece Starting time of processing Completed time of processing Starting time of delivering

1 154.2 204.2 491.2

2 204.2 356.2 491.2
3 356.2 491.2 491.2
4 603.93 670.93 670.93
5 670.93 886.93 1196.3
6 886.93 916.93 1196.3
7 916.93 1043.93 1196.3
1012 J. Wang et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 229 (2019) 1004e1017

Fig. 5. Iterative procedure of the case.

routing. For the sake of the same principle, Chen et al. (2009)'s the
vehicle heuristic is used to replace the TS framework, and the sub-
algorithm for SMSCP remains unchanged.
The bold fonts are used to show better results than the corre-
sponding carbon emissions and computation times. Overall, the
results show that the sustainable model and algorithm of this
Fig. 3. Vehicle routing of the case. research perform the optimal total emission reduction, the ratios of
which are 11.01%e22.01% when compared with the two-stage
method. These ratios are more than those of Chen et al. (2009)'s
duration is between [10,50]. The arrival time interval of two adja-
algorithm; these ratios were from 1.25% to 13.20%. In Examples
cent workpieces is between [0,100], and the time interval from
No. 13 and 15, the total emissions are more from the computation
arrival to delivery is between [200,600]. Other parameters are the
by Chen et al. (2009)'s heuristic than those through the two-stage
same as the industrial case.
method because the two-stage method uses the TS to solve the
The algorithm parameters and computation results are reported
vehicle routing and thus obtains the least distribution emissions in
in Table 4. The search space of the optimization problem increases
most of the examples. Furthermore, the proposed neighborhoods in
clearly with the increase in the problem scale. Then, increasing the
this research and the TS rules are effective. They enhance the depth
breadth and depth of the search is necessary. Thus, the algorithm
of the search and avoid falling into the local optimum. However,
parameters are set to be positively correlated with the problem
Chen et al. (2009)'s heuristic only improves the solution by node
scale. However, when the scale is large, that is, n > 100, large pa-
and arc exchange operations, although the computation times are
rameters will lead to an extended computation time and minimal
the least.
improvement in the optimal solution. Therefore, the max param-
For most of the examples, the carbon emissions of distribution
eter values are set to 50. Let Cp and Cd represent the carbon
in the two-stage method are slightly less than those in the sus-
emissions in the processing and distribution stages,
tainable model when using a TS hybrid. However, the carbon
correspondingly.
emissions of production are reduced increasingly in the integrated
The results are divided into three parts. The first part, a “two-
model when using the TS hybrid. Therefore, the integrated model
stage method” as a benchmark, reports the carbon emissions and
and TS hybrid algorithm have considerable advantages in reducing
computation time, which is gained through the method for tradi-
carbon emissions. Given production emissions, the results show
tional “processing as soon as possible with no restarting during the
that the least emissions are gained from the sustainable machine
idle periods” and using TS only to optimize the vehicle routing. The
scheduling method, especially using the TS hybrid algorithm. That
second and third parts report the results and the emission reduc-
is, the model and algorithm of this research can effectively coor-
tion ratio compared with the benchmark. “Sustainable & Chen et al.
dinate production and distribution stages and thus minimize the
(2009)'s heuristic” is a comparison to verify the superiority of the
total carbon emissions.
TS hybrid algorithm of this research. The two parts adopt the sus-
In Table 4, the computation time of the algorithm increases with
tainable machine scheduling method. The reason for selecting Chen
the number of workpieces. This phenomenon depends mainly on
et al. (2009)'s heuristic is that the authors' study is the most similar
candidate solution scale g and termination rule b. The former
to this research in the literature survey. These authors considered a
obviously increases the search range for each iteration, whereas the
production scheduling and vehicle routing problem for perishable
latter increases the total number of iterations. Fig. 6 plots the
food products and proposed a solution algorithm. In their algo-
iterative process of the objective value of Example No. 4. The
rithm, the constrained Nelder-Mead method is used to solve the
optimal solution is obtained at the 66th iteration. After that point,
production scheduling, and a heuristic is used to solve the vehicle
the current solution changes randomly near the optimal solution,

Fig. 4. Machine scheduling Gantt chart of the case.

 J. Wang et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 229 (2019) 1004e1017 1013
1191.86
1672.91
2123.36
2304.74
2169.93
1998.18
2031.26
3162.14
2034.96
2824.80
3401.16
time(s)

155.85
340.45
320.66
631.31
500.10
785.14
11.29
33.84
95.43
reduction

22.01%
11.01%
16.56%
14.36%
14.92%
15.20%
15.33%
13.95%
12.17%
15.11%
19.89%
19.98%
13.53%
17.07%
14.06%
18.51%
14.20%
15.36%
15.97%
14.25%
10259.43
10842.88
1062.69
1589.08
2022.98
2486.49
3065.07
3566.84
4082.28
4893.54
5382.73
6010.10
6184.08
6866.30
7286.49
7770.71
8439.96
8896.21
9598.96
Sustainable & TS hybrid (kgCO2 )

560.90
Csum

2915.76
3176.09

3727.37
4157.19

5153.14
1239.33
1443.93
1608.74
1903.31
2278.73
2654.61
2858.30

3525.09

4325.69
4551.78
4939.48

Fig. 6. Iterative procedure of the example with 40 workpieces.

283.25
540.98
770.80
966.22
Cd

thereby further verifying that the algorithm has a favorable random

1056.76
1247.16
1621.14
1958.10
2178.97

2728.11
3151.81
3268.32
3690.21
3761.40
4043.34
4282.77
4570.52
5047.18
5319.95
5689.75
2614.81

search performance.
277.65
521.71
818.28
Cp

6. Extensions
time(s)

137.83
163.32
222.67
209.67
441.86
377.50
353.50
371.53
422.95
457.09
519.34
548.60
619.06
654.81
581.04
10.25
48.18
50.39
91.50

All the results and discussions above are derived from the
2.45

objective to minimize the total carbon emissions. For management,

other goals are also vital for manufacturers to survive in the fierce
Sustainable & Chen et al. (2009)'s heuristic (kgCO2 )

reduction

competition. To expand the applicability of this paper's model and

1.25%

0.86%
13.20%

10.49%

algorithm, this section considers another objective of total costs.

0.05%
5.83%
1.05%
0.99%
6.20%
5.03%
1.28%
0.66%
4.87%

5.99%

5.33%

6.61%
3.80%
5.70%
4.39%
2.46%

Thus, here we discuss the problem of minimizing total costs firstly

and then proposed a multi-objective optimization problem (MOP)
10694.50
11672.65
12332.75

to minimize both two objectives.

1193.58
1793.45
2337.45
2893.47
3390.42
4000.51
4683.29
5534.84
6032.08
6715.72
7264.99
8040.42
8318.05
9119.95
9672.25
9973.73
624.29
Csum

6.1. An extension of minimizing total costs

1278.05
1583.20
1765.60
2042.41
2426.22
2921.63
3205.29
3475.25
3896.24
4265.15
4439.25
4950.38
5271.47
5349.70
5525.11
6205.44
6621.43

In this subsection, the model is extended to the case of mini-

346.64
654.34
971.58

mizing total costs. Similar to the total emissions in Equation (7), the
Cd

total costs for production and distribution are easily obtained as

follows:
1958.10

2613.22
1059.40
1310.27
1624.81

2257.08

2826.79
3240.47
3368.74
3775.27
3878.79
4169.57
4400.78
4624.02
5169.39
5467.21
5711.32
277.65
539.24
821.86

C0sum ¼ ce Esum þ cg Gsum ; (21)

Cp

where C0sum denotes the total costs, ce denotes the electricity price
1028.81

1499.19
1629.26
1767.17
2017.49
2243.73
2332.82
2786.51
1683.41
4509.16
6398.66
time(s)

161.41
279.43
298.72
430.32
718.08

956.80

and cg denotes the gasoline price. By replacing the objective

17.07
34.19
97.61

function, the extended model is to minimize the total costs of

Equation (21) and subject to Constraints (8)e(20). TS hybrid algo-
10356.59
10368.12
11341.47
12208.72
12644.07 rithm can also be applied to the extended model by using Equation
1194.15
1904.50
2362.16
2922.48
3614.36
4212.40
4744.14
5571.36
6340.60
7502.52
7728.22
7941.06
8786.64
9042.34
719.24

(21) as the fitness function.

Csum

The simulated examples in Subsection 5.2 are recalculated by

Two-stage method (kgCO2 )

the extended model and TS hybrid algorithm. ce and cg are set to

$0.0709/kwh and $0.732/L. Other parameters are the same as those
1201.82
1440.27
1601.03
1835.58
2238.02
2534.24
2835.06

3507.01

4241.26
4497.48
4929.18
3067.14
3234.33

3776.69
4181.43

5249.73
282.65
521.99
758.26
964.55

in Subsection 5.2. The comparison results of original and extended

Cd

models are reported in Table 5, where C0p and C0d represent the
costs in the processing and distribution stages, correspondingly.
Computation results for the simulated examples.

1146.25
1397.62
1720.66
2174.08
2611.36
2908.56
3333.34
3806.36
4667.46
4661.08
4706.74
5279.63
5265.65
6175.17
6126.86
6844.00
7279.54
7394.34
The results are divided into two parts. The first part is the original
436.59
672.16

model that is to minimize total emissions. In Table 5, the data of

Cp

Columns 3 to 5 are copied from Table 4. Through conversion of

these data, Columns 6 to 8 are easily gained. The second part re-
20
20
30
30
30
40
40
40
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
g

ports the results from the extended model. Columns 13 to 15 are

derived from the model optimization and Columns 9 to 11 from the
Parameters

20
30
30
30
40
40
40
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
b

conversion. The bold fonts are used to show better results than the
10 corresponding total emissions and total costs.
15
15
20
30
30
40
40
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
a
In general, the original model gains 65% better results in mini-
mizing total emissions than the extended model, whereas the

100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
n extended model gains 80% better results in minimizing total costs.
Moreover, it is found that the original model produces four better
Table 4 results when considering total costs and the extended model pro-

No.

10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
duces seven better results when considering total emissions. This
1014 J. Wang et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 229 (2019) 1004e1017

Table 5
Result comparison of minimizing total emissions vs. minimizing total costs.

No. n Minimize total emissions (kgCO2 ) Minimize total costs ($)

Cp Cd Csum C0p C0d C0sum Cp Cd Csum gap of Csum C0p C0d C0sum gap of C0sum

1 10 277.65 283.25 560.90 25.08 79.14 104.21 277.65 282.95 560.60 0.05% 25.08 79.05 104.13 0.08%
2 20 521.71 540.98 1062.69 47.12 151.15 198.26 539.24 524.47 1063.71 0.10% 48.70 146.53 195.24 1.53%
3 30 818.28 770.80 1589.08 73.91 215.35 289.26 818.28 764.36 1582.64 0.40% 73.91 213.56 287.46 0.62%
4 40 1056.76 966.22 2022.98 95.45 269.95 365.40 1056.77 957.59 2014.36 0.43% 95.45 267.54 362.99 0.66%
5 50 1247.16 1239.33 2486.49 112.64 346.26 458.90 1251.46 1256.79 2508.25 0.88% 113.03 351.13 464.16 1.15%
6 60 1621.14 1443.93 3065.07 146.42 403.42 549.84 1646.60 1427.96 3074.56 0.31% 148.72 398.96 547.68 0.39%
7 70 1958.10 1608.74 3566.84 176.85 449.46 626.32 1955.01 1591.52 3546.52 0.57% 176.57 444.65 621.23 0.81%
8 80 2178.97 1903.31 4082.28 196.80 531.77 728.57 2221.05 1880.26 4101.31 0.47% 200.60 525.32 725.93 0.36%
9 90 2614.81 2278.73 4893.54 236.17 636.65 872.82 2650.26 2208.00 4858.26 0.72% 239.37 616.89 856.26 1.90%
10 100 2728.11 2654.61 5382.73 246.40 741.67 988.07 2764.84 2570.12 5334.95 0.89% 249.72 718.06 967.78 2.05%
11 110 3151.81 2858.30 6010.10 284.67 798.58 1083.24 3194.89 2797.22 5992.11 0.30% 288.56 781.51 1070.07 1.22%
12 120 3268.32 2915.76 6184.08 295.19 814.63 1109.82 3308.06 2998.14 6306.20 1.97% 298.78 837.65 1136.43 2.40%
13 130 3690.21 3176.09 6866.30 333.29 887.37 1220.66 3711.25 3156.68 6867.93 0.02% 335.19 881.94 1217.14 0.29%
14 140 3761.40 3525.09 7286.49 339.72 984.87 1324.60 3866.21 3467.01 7333.22 0.64% 349.19 968.65 1317.84 0.51%
15 150 4043.34 3727.37 7770.71 365.19 1041.39 1406.57 4088.80 3737.25 7826.05 0.71% 369.29 1044.15 1413.44 0.49%
16 160 4282.77 4157.19 8439.96 386.81 1161.47 1548.29 4331.61 4122.28 8453.89 0.17% 391.22 1151.72 1542.95 0.34%
17 170 4570.52 4325.69 8896.21 412.80 1208.55 1621.35 4581.61 4324.70 8906.32 0.11% 413.80 1208.28 1622.08 0.04%
18 180 5047.18 4551.78 9598.96 455.85 1271.72 1727.57 5162.96 4483.37 9646.32 0.49% 466.31 1252.61 1718.92 0.50%
19 190 5319.95 4939.48 10259.43 480.49 1380.04 1860.53 5356.92 4917.77 10274.69 0.15% 483.83 1373.97 1857.80 0.15%
20 200 5689.75 5153.14 10842.88 513.89 1439.73 1953.62 5747.32 5127.48 10874.80 0.29% 519.09 1432.56 1951.65 0.10%

comparison shows the advantage of both the models to minimizing Step 1.1: Use Algorithm 2 to generate an initial solution x1 and
their own objective functions, and a shortcoming of the algorithm, put x1 into a Pareto solution set (PSS).
that is, the algorithm is approximately optimal. The maximum of Step 1.2: Use Algorithms 3 and 4 to work on x1 and hence get
result gaps between two models is 2.40%. In other words, the other initial solutions x2 ; …; xNd .
optimization results of minimizing two different objective func- Step 1.3: For each xl in fx2 ; …; xNd g, remove from PSS all the
tions are nearly the same when eliminating randomness of the solutions dominated by xl and add xl into PSS if no solution in
algorithm. Thus, the model and TS hybrid algorithm are robust for PSS dominates xl .
the integrated problem in this paper, no matter what objective Step 2: Update:
function is minimized.
For each decomposition l in f1; …; Nd g, do

6.2. An extension of multi-objective optimization
This subsection further gives an extension that considers both
the objectives of minimizing total carbon emissions and total costs.
The MOP is to minimize both Equations (7) and (21) simultaneously
and subject to Constrains (8)e(20), as shown in Equation (22).
ðCsum ; C 0 sum Þ ;
T
Mininize
subject to Constrains ð8Þ  ð20Þ:
To balance the objectives in the MOPs, Pareto optimality is used
to define the tradeoffs among different objectives. Subsequently, a
large number of algorithms are proposed to obtain the Pareto front
or its approximation, such as the famous nondominated sorting
genetic algorithm II (NSGA-II) (Deb et al., 2002) and multi-objective
evolutionary algorithm based on decomposition (MOEA/D) (Zhang
and Li, 2007). Compared to NSGA-II that solves an MOP as a whole,
since MOEA/D decomposes an MOP into a number of scalar opti-
mization problems, MOEA/D has lower computational complexity.
Thus, this paper proposes a multi-objective tabu search algorithm
based on decomposition (MOTS/D) that uses the framework of
MOEA/D and replaces the evolutionary algorithm with tabu search.
In MOTS/D, weighted sum approach is used for decomposition.
Therefore, the MOP is converted to the problems as follows.
Mininize 4l Csum þ ð1  4l ÞC 0 sum ; l ¼ 0; 1; …; Nd  1;
subject to Constrains ð8Þ  ð20Þ;
where 4l ¼ l=ðNd  1Þ and Nd denotes the number of decomposi-
tion. The steps of MOTS/D are as follows.
Algorithm 5. Step 1: Initialization:
Step 2.1: If termination rule of decomposition l is satisfied, then
skip to the next decomposition.
Step 2.2: Use Algorithms 3 and 4 to work on xl and hence
generate g candidate solutions.
Step 2.3: Update the current solution, the best solution and the
tabu list of decomposition l according to the rules of standard TS
algorithm.
(22) Step 2.4: For each of the candidate solutions generated in Step
2.2, if its fitness is better than that of the best solution in any
other decomposition, then use it to replace the best solution and
the current solution in that decomposition.
Step 2.5: Remove from PSS all the solutions dominated by
anyone of the candidate solutions generated in Step 2.2. Add
anyone of the candidate solutions into PSS if no solution in PSS
dominates itself.
Step 3: Stopping criteria: If termination rule of every decom-
position l is satisfied, then stop. Otherwise, return to Step 2.
By contrast, a nondominated sorting tabu search (NSTS) algo-
rithm is also given in Algorithm 6.
Algorithm 6. Step 1: Use Algorithm 2 to generate an initial so-
lution and put it into PSS.
Step 2: If all the solutions in PSS have be optimized by TS, then
stop. Otherwise, select a non-optimized solution as the current
solution and the best solution.
(23)
Step 3: Use Algorithms 3 and 4 to work on the current solution
and hence generate g candidate solutions.
Step 4: Generate a random 4l 2½0; 1 and use the objective in
Equation (23) as the fitness. Then, update the current solution,
the best solution and the tabu list.
 J. Wang et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 229 (2019) 1004e1017
Fig. 7. Final PSSs by MOTS/D and NSTS of the example with 40 workpieces.
Step 5: Remove from PSS all the solutions dominated by anyone
of the candidate solutions generated in Step 3. Add anyone of
the candidate solutions into PSS if no solution in PSS dominates
itself.
Step 6: If termination rule of TS is satisfied, then return to Step 2.
Otherwise, return to Step 3.
The number of decomposition is set to be Nd ¼ 11 and other
parameters are the same as those of TS hybrid in Subsection 5.2.
Taking No. 4 simulated example for an instance, Fig. 7 plots the final
PSSs by MOTS/D and NSTS. MOTS/D gets six final Pareto solutions,
while NSTS gets only two. Because only four solutions by MOTS/D
can be seen in Fig. 7, the bottom four of six solutions by MOTS/D are
plotted again in Fig. 8. From Fig. 7, it can be found that all the so-
lutions by MOTS/D dominate those by NSTS. This finding shows
that MOTS/D is better than NSTS. Moreover, the solutions by MOTS/
D are better than those by hybrid TS for single-objective optimi-
zation problems. This is because, both problems of minimizing total
carbon emissions and minimizing total costs are two of eleven
decompositions in MOP, where 4l ¼ 1 and 4l ¼ 0 respectively. Due
to more decompositions and the share mechanism of improved
solutions among different decompositions, the search breadth and
depth in MOTS/D are enhanced. Correspondingly, MOTS/D takes
more time (948.04 s) than NSTS (129.32 s) and hybrid TS (161.41
and 155.85 s). In real-life application, the decision-maker can select
a final preferred solution in PSS.
Fig. 8. Final PSS by MOTS/D of the example with 40 workpieces.
1015
7. Conclusions
An efficient utilization of energy and a reduction in carbon
emissions are basic means for achieving economic transformation
and sustainable development. This research investigates an inte-
grated production and distribution system in a single-machine and
multi-vehicle setting. For an improved environmental perfor-
mance, the machine switch scheduling is considered because it can
reduce carbon emissions of production. Given that these emissions
must be balanced with those of distribution, the decision-making
processes consist of whether to turn off the idle machine, starting
time to process each workpiece, distribution batches, and vehicle
routing.
To solve this integrated problem, a mathematical model is
established to minimize the total carbon emissions. Considering
that the model is NP-hard, a TS hybrid algorithm is proposed, and
an exact method is exploited for solving the sub-problem of sus-
tainable machine scheduling. Then, an industrial case and 20
simulated examples are studied to measure the performance of the
sustainable model and algorithm. The results show that the pro-
posed model and algorithm can effectively reduce the carbon
emissions. Two extended models are also discussed where the
goals are to minimize the total costs and to minimize both carbon
emissions and costs simultaneously. Thus, this research can guide
the sustainable production and distribution for manufacturing
enterprises.
Several management insights and implications can be gained
from this research when creating plans for integrated machine
scheduling and vehicle routing problems. First, from the perspec-
tive of environmental performance, sustainable methods, such as
turning off the idle machine and cutting down on delivery mileage,
must be adopted to reduce carbon emissions. Second, for the sake
of achieving the overall objective of an industrial enterprise,
various departments must be fully coordinated with decision-
making. The optimal method is to create all departments’ plans
simultaneously and optimize the overall objective. Third, because
of the robustness of the model and algorithm, minimizing total
carbon emissions is almost consistent with minimizing the total
costs. Decision makers can get the solution by optimizing either of
the aims or using the MOP model and algorithm in this integrated
problem.
Despite several results obtained in this research, several related
problems can be extended in the future. First, the arrival time of
each workpiece is assumed to be known. However, this information
is constantly stochastic or unknown in real industries. In this case,
the integrated sustainable problem with stochastic/dynamic
workpieces can be thoroughly investigated. Second, this research
assumes that all workpieces are processed in the rule of FIFO. In
practice, however, other rules, such as last come first process and
random process, are also commonly applied. Considering these
rules in our model is also crucial in practice. The objective is to
minimize the total carbon emissions and/or the total costs only. For
management, other aims are also vital for manufacturing to survive
in the fierce competition. Therefore, other multi-objective models
and algorithms can be extended by optimizing the economic and
service improvement objectives simultaneously. Furthermore, a
complicated distribution aspect, that is, considering the travel
speed as a decision variable or traffic condition of a road network,
may be interesting.
Conflict of interest disclosure
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
1016 J. Wang et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 229 (2019) 1004e1017
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the reviewers for their
constructive comments that significantly improve the paper. This
research work was partially supported by the National Natural
Science Foundation of China (61502331).
Abbreviations
FIFO first-in-first-out
MOP multi-objective optimization problem
MOEA/D multi-objective evolutionary algorithm based on
decomposition
NSGA-II nondominated sorting genetic algorithm II
NSTS nondominated sorting tabu search
PSS Pareto solution set
SMSCP single-machine sustainable scheduling problem
TS tabu search
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