Manual of Mini Hydropower Survey and Design Tools 2013 PDF

Alternative Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC)
Alternative Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC) is a Government institution established on

November 3, 1996 under the then Ministry of Science and Technology with the objective of
developing and promoting renewable/alternative energy technologies in Nepal. Currently, it is

under Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology. It functions independently, and has a
eleven member board with representatives from government sector, industry sector and non-
governmental organizations. National Rural & Renewable Energy Programme (NRREP) of AEPC
is promoting Nepali hydropower schemes up to 1000kW.
Nepal Micro Hydropower Development Association (NMHDA)

Nepal Micro Hydropower Development Association (NMHDA) was established in 1992, by
nine privately run micro hydropower development firms/companies to set as an umbrella
organization of those dedicated to serve the nation with micro hydropower technology, skill
and expertise.
Since then this organization has been providing technical and logistic services to micro
hydropower stakeholders within Nepal. The Association also has been active in supporting to
formulate policies, plans and programs to the implementing partners including AEPC.
It has 57 privately run companies/firms as members involved in installing micro and mini
hydropower projects in Nepal. Some members are also involved in promoting micro hydropower
projects abroad.
Mr. Pushpa Chitrakar

Commencing his hydropower professional career as a site engineer in 12.5MW Jhimruk
Version 2013.08
Hydropower Project in 1990 and as a design engineer in 60MW Khimti Hydropower Project in
1992, Mr. Pushpa Chitrakar has been providing his professional services to bigger, small and
micro hydropower project implementation phases from policy formulation to implementation
and operation in Nepal and abroad.
He has served for about one decade in Butwal Power Company, half a decade for Small
Hydropower Promotion Project (SHPP/GTZ), about four years in the United Nations (UNHABITAT)
in Afghanistan, about two years in JICA/Afghanistan, three years in Hydro Solutions P Ltd. Apart
from his responsibilities as a hydropower consultant and developer, he has been involved in
sharing his valuable time in enhancing micro hydropower sector.
He had graduated his Bachelors’ Degree in Civil Engineering from the Institute of Engineering
Pulchowk Campus (1990), his Masters’ Degree in Hydropower Development from Institute
of Science and Technology (NTNU) Norway (1999) and his Masters’ Degree in Business
Administration from Tribhuban University (1999).
In contrast to the well-known hydropower specialists, Mr. Chitrakar is differently known as the
specialist equipped with skills and knowledge of ground reality in hydropower sector.
Mini Hydropower Survey and Design Tools is the first of its own kind shareware software for
designing micro and mini hydropower projects in Nepal and abroad.
His other famous works include “Micro Hydropower Design Aids” (2006, SHPP/GTZ Nepal)”,
“Engineering Surveying and Discharge Measurement Tools (2008, UNHABITAT Afghanistan),
“Gravity Water Supply Design Tools (2009, UNHABITAT Afghanistan), etc.
He is currently serving as the Board Member and CEO of the under construction 18MW upper
Solu Hydropower project, the CEO of Angel Engineering Consultancy P. Ltd., the GM of Hydro
Solutions Engineering Consultancy P. Ltd. and part time internation consultant for JICA/Tokyo
and GiZ/Germany.
Kathmandu, Nepal
January 2014
9 789937 275446
AEPC/NMHDA Mini Hydropower Survey and Design Tools (v 2013.08)
MICRO/MINI-HYDROPOWER
SURVEY AND DESIGN TOOLS
Version 2013.08
Pushpa Chitrakar

Kathmandu, Nepal
January 2014
i
Mini Hydropower Survey and Design Tools (v 2013.08) AEPC/NMHDA
Published by:
31 Shahid Shukra Marg (way to FNCCI) Teku, Kathmandu, Nepal
GPO Box: 8975 EPC 5155
Tel: (977 01) 4230678; 01 4231024
Fax: (977 01) 01 4231024
Web: http://www.microhydro.org.np
Email: nmhda@ntc.net.np, nmhdanmhda@gmail.com
Author:
Water Resources Expert
Email: pushpa.chitrakar@gmail.com
Printed at:
Hisi Offset Printers P. Ltd.
Jamal, Kathmandu, Nepal
This Edition:
January 2014
1000 copies
Price:
NRs. 500.00 (for Nepal and SAARC countries)
US$ 25 (for other countries)
ISBN: 978-9937-2-7544-6
Copy right:
All right of Updated Micro/Mini Hydropower Design Tools reserved to Micro Hydropower Development
Association (NMHDA) and the Author. Reproduction, adaptation or translation of those programs and
drawings without prior written permission of NMHDA or the Author is prohibited.
Updated Micro/Mini Hydropower Survey and Design Tools (v 2013.08) is a shareware and can also be
downloaded from http://www.microhydro.org.np. Permission is granted to any individual or institution
to use, copy, or redistribute this Design Tools so long as it is not sold for profit.
Disclaimer:
Nepal Micro Hydropower Development Association (NMHDA) and/or the Author shall not be liable for
any errors or for incidental or consequential damages in connection with the furnishing, performance,
or use of this manual or the examples herein.
ii
Foreword
T he earlier version of these hydropower Design

Tools had been prepared to provide a basis
for micro-hydropower consultants to undertake
tools and continuous update and distribution of
these tools demonstrate the author’s concern on the
holistic approach of sectoral development of Micro/
calculations and prepare drawings as per the Mini Hydropower in Nepal and abroad.
requirements of Alternative Energy Promotion Centre
(AEPC) of the Government of Nepal. The tools in this The updated version of Design Tools includes
version (version 2013.08) were amended to fulfill the additional spreadsheets and enhanced utilities
minimum requirements of standard micro and mini especially useful for mini hydropower project
hydropower project feasibility studies. It is expected component designs. Since these tools were verified
that the use of these Design Tools will result in a with real project development, it is found very
standard methodology for calculating and presenting useful for the stated design works. I strongly believe
MHP designs. that this revised version of the Design Tools will be
indispensible reference material which will contribute
This manual and any examples contained herein are in the improvement of design and preparing drawings
provided “as is” and are subject to change without of micro and mini hydropower projects.
notice.
I would also like to express my pleasure on being able
This set of Micro/Mini Hydropower Design Tools is to extend support to publish this Design Tools and
an updated version of Micro-hydropower Design Aids bring out CDs. My special appreciation goes to Mr.
which was prepared by Small Hydropower Promotion Pushpa Chitrakar, who is a hydropower expert himself,
Project (SHPP/GTZ) during its collaboration with for his devotion in preparing such a comprehensive
Alternative Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC/ESAP) set of utility package for micro and mini hydropower
from 2002 to 2004. These Updated “Design Tools” project designs. Likewise, Nepal Micro Hydropower
consists of typical AutoCAD drawings, typical Development Association (NMHDA) deserves
Microsoft Excel spreadsheets and a users’ manual. acknowledgement for its efforts on various stages of
Addition of new spreadsheets on engineering work schedule to successfully publish this book and
surveying, discharge measurement and hydropower CDs.
components and amending and updating of existing
tools are the major changes in this version of Design I do hope that this Updated Micro/Mini Hydropower
Tools. Design Tools would fill the gap that has been felt by all
the micro and mini hydropower stakeholders and will
The overwhelming positive feedbacks received from be able to contribute to the Micro/Mini Hydropower
micro and mini hydropower stakeholders on these sector.
Prof. Dr. Govind Raj Pokharel

Executive Director
Alternative Energy Promotion Centre
Khumaltar, Lalitpur, Nepal
iii
iv
Preface
T he Updated Micro/Mini Hydropower Design

Tools has been possible to bring out as a result
of tireless endeavor of Mr. Pushpa Chitrakar. We
National Rural & Renewable Energy Programme
(NRREP) of AEPC which has been promoting Nepali
hydropower schemes up to 1000 kW had extended
would like to recall that this was prepared by Small support to bring out the Updated MHP Design Tools.
Hydropower Promotion Project (SHPP/GTZ) during
its collaboration with Alternative Energy Promotion A series of consultative workshops in Butwal and
Centre (AEPC/ESAP) from 2002 to 2004 and published Kathmandu were conducted to collect the opinions
by GTZ in 2006. The tools consist of typical AutoCAD from actual applicators of the Design Tools. The
drawings, typical Microsoft Excel spreadsheets and a stakeholders participated in the workshops interacted
users’ manual useful in assisting Micro/Mini hydro from various points of view were useful in this
designers in Nepal and abroad as well. To tally with context. NMHDA appreciates the overwhelming
the latest developments in the MHP sector, the positive feedbacks from the stakeholders. Continuous
Updated version has been prepared by Mr. Chitrakar update and distribution of these tools are, in fact,
with new spreadsheets on engineering surveying, the examples of the author’s concern on the holistic
discharge measurements, hydropower components approach of sectoral development of hydropower in
and amending and updating of existing tools are Nepal and abroad.
included in this version of Design Tools. Similar to the
earlier tools, these tools were also officially distributed What Users should know
by AEPC/NRREP for using up to feasibility study The Design Tools are prepared for practicing technical
levels for its subsidized micro and mini hydropower designers who have basic knowledge of hydropower,
schemes up to 1000 kW. technical calculation skills and who are familiar
with Excel 2010 or later and AutoCAD 2006 or later.
Nepal Micro Hydropower Development Association Attempts were made to elaborate these Design Tools in
(NMHDA) was established in 1992 by nine active firms/ such a way that the users will learn to use these Tools
companies to run micro hydropower development quite comfortably. The calculations in the spreadsheets
at private sector. This umbrella organization is are intended to mimic manual calculations as far as
dedicated to serve the nation with micro hydropower possible. Stepwise calculations are also presented in
technologies, skills and expertise. NMHDA now has this manual.
stretched to a total of 57 private companies and firms
as members. This organization has been successful in What Users should have
providing technical and logistic services to micro and To make the best use of the Design Tools, you need
mini hydropower stakeholders within Nepal from the a copy of Microsoft Excel (2010 or later), Autodesk
very inception. NMHDA also supports formulating AutoCAD (2006 or later) and Adobe Acrobat Reader
policies, plans and programs for its implementing (5.0 or later). The latest version of a free copy of Adobe
partners including AEPC. Acrobat Reader can be downloaded from www.adobe.
com. A downloaded copy of Adobe Acrobat Reader is
NMHDA takes pleasure in supporting Mr. Chitrakar to included in the bundled CD.
bring out the Updated Micro/Mini Hydropower Design
Tools. It is anticipated that this book will be useful in The minimum system requirements are:
Nepal's micro and mini hydropower promotion in
further phases. The surveyors and designers will be Operating system : Windows XP/7/8
benefitted by applicating the software provided there CPU : Core 2 Duo/i3/i5/i7
in the book to produce the best results. RAM : 2GB or more
Display : 640 x 480 pixels, 256 colours
Alternative Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC), is the CD ROM : CD/DVD ROM (for installation
Nepal Government institution established to promote only)
alternative sources of energy in Nepal's rural areas. HD : 100 MB (approximately)
v
How these design tools are organized Part II: Spreadsheets

Part I A: Micro hydropower drawings This part consists of thirty typical spreadsheets
There are seventeen typical drawings useful for project covering all calculations recommended by AEPC/
elements from intake to transmission line inserted NRREP guidelines for subsidy approvals of micro and
in this book. Since they are only typical drawings, mini hydropower schemes, Practical Action Nepal
additions of drawings and the level of details may (formerly ITDG, Nepal) guidelines and requirement
be amended to fulfill specific needs of a particular recommended by small hydropower designers. These
project. Special efforts were made to maintain the spreadsheets provide users to calculate surveyed
level of consistency, compatibility and the extent data, estimate hydrological parameters; design civil,
of information in the drawings. It is expected that mechanical and electrical components and analyze
the presented feasibility drawings by consultants financial robustness of the perspective micro and
are complete and appropriate for micro hydropower mini hydropower schemes in Nepal.
plants and all the concerned stakeholders should be
able to understand and implement the presented Part III: Users’ Manual
content. These drawings were included in a single This manual (also in Adobe Acrobat PDF format)
AutoCAD drawing file in AEPC/NRREP format. illustrates aspects of using the presented drawings
and spreadsheets; and stepwise calculations covering
Part I B: Mini hydropower drawings all technical and non-technical (costing and financial)
Part I B consists of selected typical drawings of an components of hydropower schemes.
actual feasibility study of a 100kW, Midim Khola
Micro Hydropower Project. These drawings were Download and Reach Out
prepared for implementing/constructing the project. Electronic files included on the attached CD can also
These drawings, as they are, to demonstrate the be downloaded from http://www.microhydro.org.np/.
differences between the drawings that were prepared Updates will also be posted in this site. Preparation of
for the detailed design and subsequent construction. the Design Tools is a continuous process. I am always
interested in getting feedback on these Design Tools.
Part I C: Mini/Small hydropower drawings Therefore, valuable suggestions and feedbacks are
Part I C consists of fifteen selected typical drawings expected from all the stakeholders/users so that the
of an actual feasibility study of a 1500kW Lipin Small overall quality of the hydropower sector is enhanced.
Hydropower Project, Sindhupalchowk District, Any suggestion and feedback can directly be sent to the
Central Nepal. The difference between the levels author’s email pushpa.chitrakar@gmail.com. Sharing
of details of these drawings prepared for a 1500kW of hydropower related information regarding advanced
project and micro hydropower projects up to 100kW options beyond these Design Tools is also expected.
are quite noticeable. Therefore, it is obvious that
higher levels of details with the help of more drawings
are expected for larger small hydropower projects. Surendra Bhakta Mathema
President
NMHDA
vi
Acknowledgement
I entered the micro hydropower sector after I had

served more than 12 years to small and large
hydropower sectors. I do appreciate all the hydropower
I have noticed that there are very few complete technical
tools and books related to micro and small hydropower
design available in the market. A single set of tools for
stakeholders who directly or indirectly supported all the calculations is not yet available. Moreover, the
me through this mission for providing continuous outcome of most of these tools are not adequately
support to micro and mini hydropower sectors and tested and verified. Most of the good software have
accepting me in the sector. I also appreciate the none or only poorly illustrated manuals. The combined
endless efforts made by Nepal Micro Hydropower outcome may produce poor quality feasibility studies
Development Association (NMHDA) and National which lead to improper implementation decisions. To
Rural & Renewable Energy Programme (NRREP) overcome such risks, I have prepared these tools along
of Alternative Energy Promotion Center, Nepal in with this manual. Electronic version of the Design
understanding and utilizing me. Tools (an Excel 2010 workbook), AutoCAD drawings
and this manual in Acrobat PDF format are presented
When I prepared MHP Design Aids, I had one goal on the attached CD ROM.
in mind to write a one-step Micro-hydropower
Design Tools that would appeal to all Nepali micro- This set of Survey and Design Tools (v 2013.08) is a
hydropower stakeholders. That was a fairly ambitious shareware. It would not have been possible for me
goal. But based on the feedback I received from all to write this package without the encouragement
the stakeholders, I think I have been successful. In from all the sector actors in Nepal and abroad,
addition to updating the existing tools for use in micro, and of course, Mr. Surendra Bhakta Mathem, the
mini, and small hydropower projects, spreadsheets for President of NMHDA. I would also like to thank my
calculating engineering surveying, flow measurements colleague Mr. Krishna Prasad Devkota for his tireless
by other useful methods, anchor block calculation and assistance, valued suggestions and providing a set
design, machine foundation design, loan payback cash of 100kW Midim Khola Mini Hydropower Project
flow, etc., are added in this version. These additional Detailed Feasibility Study drawings carried out by his
tools are especially useful for mini and small organization Universal Consultant Services Pvt. Ltd. I
hydropower projects. Interactive diagrams to most of would also like to thank Mr. Krishna Bahadur Nakarmi,
the spreadsheets are added in this version. Mr. Prem Bahadur Shakya, Purna N. Ranjitkar and Mr.
Chij Bahadur Gurung, NMHDA member companies
Microsoft Excel is the present market leader, by a long / firms and all staff at NMHDA Secretariat for their
shot, and it is truly the best spreadsheet available. supports in the connection to bring out the Updated
Excel lets you do things with formulas and macros Micro/Mini Hydropower Design Aids. I would also like
(Visual Basic for Application) that are impossible with to extend my sincere thanks to AEPC/NRREP for its
other spreadsheets. Similarly, Autodesk AutoCAD has support.
been the best and suitable tool for creating digital
drawings. Since most of the hydropower stakeholders An extensive thanks goes to participants of the
are familiar with these application software, I have number of consultative workshop meetings with the
prepared these tools on these application software stakeholders who had experienced with the earlier
platforms. version of the design tools had provided appreciable
feedbacks to improve and insert the desired materials
Although the above mentioned software are popular extensive application of the Updated Deign Tools.
amongst all the micro-hydropower stakeholders, it is
a safe bet that only about five percent of Excel and The Hisi Offset Printers family including Mr. Pushpa
AutoCAD users in Nepali hydropower sector really Bahadur Chitrakar and Mr. Aman Shrestha are also to
understand how to get the most out of these software. be acknowledged in this connection.
With the help of these Design Tools, I attempt to Pushpa Chitrakar
illustrate the fascinating features of these software Author
(especially Excel) and nudge you into that elite group. Water Resource Expert
vii
viii
Contents
Foreword .......................................... iii 3. Discharge Measurement ................29

Preface ...............................................v 3.1 General 29
3.2 Stream Flow Measurement 29
Acknowledgement.............................vii
4. Conductivity Meter Flow
1. Introduction ...............................1 Measurement ............................30
1.1 General 1 4.1 General 30
1.2 Objectives of the Design Tools 2 4.2 Measurement Procedure 30
1.3 Sources of the Design Tools 2 4.2.1 List of equipment and accessories 30
1.4 Design Tools: Typical Micro and mini hydro 4.2.2 Discharge measurement and
Drawings 2 Computation 31
1.5 Design Tools: Typical Mini/small hydro 4.2.3 Example 4.1: Flow calculation using
Drawings 2 conductivity meter 32
1.6 Design Tools: Spreadsheets 3 4.3 Determination of K-value 35
1.6.1 Flow chart notations 3 4.3.1 List of equipment and accessories for
1.6.2 Iterative Processes 7 determining the value of k 35
1.6.3 Macro Security 7 4.3.2 Procedures 35
1.6.4 Worksheet protection 7 4.3.3 Example 4.2: Conductivity meter
1.6.5 Individual vs. linked spreadsheets 7 calibration 35
1.6.6 User specific inputs 7 4.4 Program Briefing & Examples 36
1.6.7 Interpolated computations 7 4.5 Calculation at site 36
1.6.8 Errors 7
1.6.9 Cell notes 8
5. Current Meter Method ...............38
1.6.10 Cell Text Conventions 9
5.1 General 38
1.6.11 Types of inputs 9
5.1.1 Example 5.1: Discharge calculation using
1.6.12 Pull Down menus and data validation 10
a revolution based current meter 38
1.6.13 Interactive Diagrams 10
5.2 Program Briefing and Example 39
1.6.14 Design Tools Menu and Command
5.2.1 Program Briefing and Example for
Buttons 10
Revolution based Current Meter 39
1.7 Installation Directory 10
5.2.2 Program Briefing and Example for
1.8 Solver Addin 11
Velocity based Current Meter 39
1.9 Project Information and Results in Salient
Features 11
1.10 Salient Features 12 6. Engineering Surveying ..............42
6.1 General 42
6.2 Linear Distance: Distance Between
PART ONE: TECHNICAL Two Points 42
DATA COLLECTION ................................. 17 6.2.1 Pacing 42
6.2.2 Chaining/Taping 42
6.2.3 Tacheometry 42
2. Hydrology .....................................19
6.3 Coordinate Systems 44
2.1 General 19
6.4 Angular Units 44
2.2 Hydrological Data 19
2.3 Medium Irrigation Project (MIP) Method:
mean monthly flows 19 7. GPS Surveying .........................46
2.4 WECS/DHM (Hydest) Method: Hydrological 7.1 General 46
Estimatation 21 7.1.1 GPS and Introductory Phrases 46
2.4.1 Estimation of long term mean monthly 7.1.2 Segments of GPS 47
flows 23 7.1.3 GPS Working Principles 47
2.5 General Recommendations 25 7.1.4 GPS Data 48
2.6 Program Briefing & Examples 25 7.1.5 GPS and Maps 49
2.6.1 Example 2.1: Estimation of 7.1.6 GPS Errors, Accuracy and
Hydrological Parameters 25 Limitations 49
7.1.7 Settling up and using a GPS Receiver 50
7.1.8 Importing GPS data in Google Earth 50
ix
7.1.9 Advanced Set up of a GPS 50 11. Design of Gravity Weir ..............81

7.2 Set up and using etrex vista cx receiver 50 11.1 General 81
7.2.1 Features of Etrex Vista Cx 50 11.1.1 General Stability Requirements 81
7.2.2 Main Pages of Etrex Vista Cx 50 11.1.2 Overturning Stability 81
7.2.3 Positioning using Etrex Vista Cx 52 11.1.3 Sliding Stability 82
7.2.4 Interfacing with computers (Map 11.1.4 Bearing Stability 82
Source and Google Earth) 52 11.2 Program Briefings and Examples 82
7.3 Program Briefing and Examples 52 11.2.1 Stability Analyses of Weir 83
8. Levelling ...................................55 12. Headrace/Tailrace Canals &

8.1 General 55 Pipes .........................................86
8.1.1 Arithmetical Checks 55 12.1 General 86
8.2 Measurement Procedures 56 12.2 General Recommendations 86
8.2.1 List of equipment and accessories 56 12.2.1 Canal 86
8.2.2 Leveling and Computation 56 12.2.2 Pipe 86
8.2.3 Example 8.1: Level reduction by Height 12.3 Program Briefing and examples 86
of Instrument method 56 12.3.1 Canal 86
8.3 Program Briefing and Examples 57 12.3.2 Canal 87
12.3.3 Pipe 90
9. Traversing .................................59
9.1 General 59 13. Settling Basins ..........................92
9.2 Measurement Procedures 60 13.1 General 92
9.2.1 List of equipment and accessories 60 13.2 Settling basin theory 92
9.2.2 Traversing and data reduction 60 13.3 General Recommendations 93
9.2.3 Reconnaissance and Laying out 60 13.3.1 Gravel Trap 93
9.2.4 Station marking 60 13.3.2 Settling Basin 93
9.2.5 Angular and linear measurements 61 13.3.3 Forebay 93
9.2.6 Computations and data reduction 61 13.4 Program Briefing and examples 94
9.2.7 Calculation of linear distances. 62 13.4.1 Features of the spreadsheets 94
9.2.8 Calculation of reduced levels. 62 13.4.2 Vertical flushing pipe 94
9.2.9 Calculation of bearings 62 13.4.3 Spillway at intake 95
9.2.10 Calculation of mis-closures 63 13.4.4 Gate 95
9.3 Closing Error and Accuracy 64
9.4 Program Briefing and Examples 64 14. Penstock Optimization ..............98
9.4.1 Open Traverse 65 14.1 General 98
9.4.2 Closed Traverse 67 14.2 General Recommendations 98
9.4.3 Coordinates 69 14.3 Program Briefing and Examples 98
14.3.1 Features of the Spreadsheets 98
PART TWO: TECHNICAL DESIGN AND
FINANCIAL ANALYSES ........................... 71 15. Penstock and Power
Calculations ............................101
15.1 General 101
10. Headworks ................................73
15.2 General Recommendations 101
10.1 General 73
15.3 Program Briefing and Example 101
10.1.1 Headworks 73
15.3.1 Program Briefing 101
10.1.2 Intake 73
15.3.2 Typical example of a penstock pipe 102
10.1.3 Side Intake 73
10.1.4 Bottom/Drop/Tyrolean/Trench
Intake 73 16. Forces on Anchor Blocks .........104
10.1.5 Weir 73 16.1 General 104
10.1.6 Protection Works 73 16.2 Program Example 104
10.1.7 Trashrack 73
10.2 General Recommendations 73 17. Anchor Block Design ...............109
10.2.1 Weir 73 17.1 General 109
10.2.2 Intake 74 17.2 Program Example 109
10.2.3 Intake Trashrack 74
10.3 Program Briefings and Examples 74 18. Turbine Selection ....................112
10.3.1 Side Intake calculations 75 18.1 General 112
10.3.2 Drop Intake calculations 78 18.2 Turbine Type Selection 112
x
18.2.1 Classification of Turbines 112 21. Transmission Line ...................128

18.2.2 Pelton Turbine 113 21.1 General 128
18.2.3 Crossflow Turbine 113 21.2 General Recommendations 128
18.2.4 Francis Turbine 114 21.3 Program Briefing and Examples 128
18.3 General Recommendations 114 21.3.1 Program Briefing 128
18.3.1 Turbine Efficiencies 114
18.3.2 Transmission System Efficiencies 22. Loads and Benefits ..................132
(belt and coupling systems) 114 22.1 General 132
18.3.3 Generator Efficiencies 114 22.2 General Recommendations 132
18.3.4 Specific Speed 115 22.3 Program Briefing and Example 132
18.4 Program Briefing and Example 115 22.3.1 Program Briefing 132
19. Electrical Equipment 23. Costing and Financial

Selection .................................119 Analyses..................................135
19.1 General 119 23.1 General 135
19.2 Selection of Generator Size and Type 119 23.2 Program Briefing and example 135
19.2.1 Single Phase versus Three 23.2.1 Program Briefing 135
Phase System 119 23.2.2 Typical example of costing and
19.2.2 Induction versus Synchronous financial analyses 136
Generators 119
19.3 General Recommendations 120 24. Utilities ...................................139
19.3.1 Sizing and rpm of a Synchronous 24.1 General 139
Generator: 120 24.2 Uniform Depth of a Rectangular or
19.3.2 Sizing and RPM of an Induction Trapezoidal Channel 139
Generator: 120 24.3 Payment of Loan for Different Periods
19.4 Sizing and types of Electronic Load (monthly, quarterly and yearly) 139
Controllers 121 24.4 Spillway Sizing 141
19.4.1 Types of Load Controllers 121 24.5 Pipe Friction Factor and Net Head
19.4.2 Sizing of Electronic Load Calculation 141
Controllers 121 24.6 Voltage drops of transmission line 142
19.4.3 Induction Generator Controllers 121 24.7 Pipe Turbulent Coefficient Factor 142
19.5 Program Briefing and examples 121 24.8 Critical Depth 142
19.5.1 Program Briefing 121 24.9 Submergence Head 142
19.5.2 Typical example of a 3-phase 24.10 Pipe friction factor 142
synchronous generator for 24.11 Trashrack Sizing 142
60kW MHP 122 24.12 Pipe Friction Factor 142
19.5.3 Typical example of a three phase
induction generator for 20kW MHP 122
25. References ..............................146
20. Machine Foundation ...............125
20.1 General 125 List of Installer Companies/Firms ..148
20.2 Example 125
xi
List of Figures
Figure 1.1: A typical Micro Hydro Settling Basin Figure 4.6: Discharge calculations by salt dilution
Drawing ..................................................................... 5 method .................................................................... 37
Figure 1.2: A typical Small Hydro Settling Basin Figure 5.1: Area velocity method............................. 38
Drawing ..................................................................... 5 Figure 5.2: An example of discharge calculation by
Figure 1.3: Iterative process ...................................... 7 revolution based current meter .............................. 40
Figure 1.4: Activation of iteration in Excel 2013 (MS Figure 5.3: An example of discharge calculation by
or File => Excel Option =>Formulas) ......................... 8 velocity based current meter ................................... 41
Figure 1.5: Enabling macros in MS Excel (MS Office Figure 6.1: Stadia tacheometry concept .................. 43
or File =>Excel Options=> Trust Centre=>Trust Figure 6.2: Stadia method ....................................... 43
Center Settings..=>Macro Settings) .......................... 8
Figure 6.3: Recommended vertical plane ................ 44
Figure 1.6: Cell formula incorporated in a cell note. . 8
Figure 6.4: Electronic Tacheometry method ........... 44
Figure 1.7: A cell for Manning’s n for different
surfaces ..................................................................... 9 Figure 6.5: Cartesian coordinates system ............... 45
Figure 1.8: Colour coding of cell texts ....................... 9 Figure 6.6: Polar coordinate system ........................ 45
Figure 1.9: Different categories of inputs ................. 9 Figure 7.1: Waypoints, tracks & routes ................... 46
Figure 1.10: Different categories of inputs. ............ 10 Figure 7.2: Segments of GPS ................................... 47
Figure 1.11: Typical interactive diagram of Bottom Figure 7.3: Satellite Segment .................................. 47
Intake ..................................................................... 10 Figure 7.4: GPS receivers ......................................... 47
Figure 1.12: Design Tools Menu and Toolbar .......... 11 Figure 7.5: GPS working principles ......................... 48
Figure 2.1: Hydrological Data and MHP .................. 19 Figure 7.6: GPS map projection: Space Oblique
Figure 2.2: MIP Regions .......................................... 20 Mercator Projection ................................................ 49
Figure 2.3: MIP model ............................................. 21 Figure 7.7: GPS signal errors ................................... 49
Figure 2.4: Need of interpolation for calculating Figure 7.8: Kay Functions of Etrex Vista Cx ............ 51
mean monthly coefficient ........................................ 21 Figure 7.9: Main Pages of ETrex Vista Cx ................ 51
Figure 2.5: Effect of interpolation on mean monthly Figure 7.10: Interfacing Software main page screen
flows ........................................................................ 22 for Etrex vista Cx receiver (Yakawlang, Bamyan,
Figure 2.6: Monsoon Wetness Index Isolines Afghanistan) ........................................................... 52
of Nepal ................................................................... 22 Figure 7.11: Garmin GPS data of 20MW Lower Modi
Figure 2.7: Catchment Areas and Isohydel lines ..... 23 HEP inserted into Google Earth. ............................. 53
Figure 2.8: Hydest Model ........................................ 24 Figure 7.12: GPS Data processing spreadsheet ....... 54
Figure 2.9: Flow chart of Hydrology spreadsheet.... 25 Figure 7.13: AutoCAD Plot of GPS points................ 54
Figure 2.10: Hydrological estimation by Figure 8.1: Schematic illustration of a basic level ... 55
“Hydrology” ............................................................. 28 Figure 8.2: Leveling at site ...................................... 55
Figure 4.1: Hach sensION 5 and HANNA HI 933000 Figure 8.3: Level Data reduction spreadsheet ......... 57
conductivity meters ................................................ 31 Figure 8.4: Script commands ................................... 57
Figure 4.2: Flow measurement using conductivity Figure 8.5: Plotting for level reduction results by
meter ....................................................................... 32 scrip commands....................................................... 58
Figure 4.3: Effective Area under Curve.................... 33 Figure 9.1: Traversing by angle & distances ............ 59
Figure 4.4: Graph of conductivity over time (Based Figure 9.2: Open and Closed Traverses ................... 59
on data from Table 4.3) ........................................... 34
Figure 9.3: Securing traverse stations .................... 61
Figure 4.5: Graph of conductivity over time (Based
on data from Table 4.4) ........................................... 35 Figure 9.4: A cited closed traverse ........................... 61
xii
Figure 9.5: Exterior and Interior angles .................. 61 Figure 14.1: Optimization of Penstock Diameter for
Figure 9.6: Distribution of vertical mis-closure ...... 62 the highest NPV ...................................................... 98
Figure 9.7: Included angle and bearing ................... 62 Figure 14.2: “Penstock optimization”
Spreadsheet ........................................................... 100
Figure 9.8: Angular and linear mis-closures ............ 64
Figure 15.1: Flow diagram of penstock design ...... 102
Figure 9.9: Open traverse main sheet ..................... 65
Figure 15.2: Penstock and power calculations ...... 103
Figure 9.10: Open traverse AutoCAD scrip file........ 66
Figure 16.1: Output of anchor block force calculation
Figure 9.11: Open traverse AutoCAD drawing ........ 66 spreadsheet. .......................................................... 108
Figure 9.12: Closed traverse main sheet ................. 67 Figure 17.1: Typical Anchor Block ......................... 109
Figure 9.13: Closed traverse script file .................... 67 Figure 17.2: Anchor Block force diagram .............. 110
Figure 9.14: Closed traverse AutoCAD drawing ...... 67 Figure 17.3: Anchor Block force diagram .............. 111
Figure 9.15: Summary of manual calculations of Figure 18.1: Typical mini hydropower turbines .... 112
closed traverse......................................................... 68
Figure 18.2: Typical Pelton turbines ..................... 113
Figure 9.16: Main page of Traverse Point
spreadsheet ............................................................. 69 Figure 18.3: Typical Crossflow turbines ................ 113
Figure 9.17: Script file of TraversePoint Figure 18.4: Typical Francis Turbine dimensions . 114
spreadsheet ............................................................. 70 Figure 18.5: A typical Pelton turbine example using
Figure 9.18: Plot of TraversePoint spreadsheet ...... 70 Power based standard specific formula. ................ 116
Figure 10.1: Trashrack parameters ......................... 74 Figure 18.6: A typical Crossflow turbine example. 117
Figure 10.2: Flow chart for trashrack calculations .. 75 Figure 18.7: A typical Francis turbine example ..... 118
Figure 10.3: Side intake parameters ....................... 75 Figure 19.1: Load governing system...................... 119
Figure 10.4: Flow chart for side intake calculations 76 Figure 19.2: Electrical components of a
60kW MHP ............................................................ 123
Figure 10.5: An example of side intake calculations 77
Figure 19.3: Electrical components of a 20kW MHP
Figure 10.6: Parameters and flow chart of drop with induction generator ...................................... 124
intake design ........................................................... 78
Figure 20.1: Layout of MachineFoundation
Figure 10.7: An example of drop intake .................. 80 Spreadsheet ........................................................... 127
Figure 11.1: Loading at Normal and Flood Figure 21.1: Flow chart of transmission and
Conditions .............................................................. 81 distribution line computation. .............................. 129
Figure 11.2: Resultant (R) location at base ............ 82 Figure 21.2: Transmission line and load used for the
Figure 11.3: Sliding Stability ................................... 82 example ................................................................. 129
Figure 11.4: Bearing Stability.................................. 82 Figure 21.3: Typical example of a low voltage
Figure 11.5: Weir Stability Calculation Procedures. 83 transmission line................................................... 131
Figure 11.6: Concrete dam considered in Figure 22.1: Flow chart of the load and benefits
the Example............................................................. 83 calculation spreadsheet. ........................................ 132
Figure 11.7: “Weir” Spreadsheet ............................. 85 Figure 22.2: Load duration charts ........................ 133
Figure 12.1: Flow chart for canal design ................. 88 Figure 22.3: An example of load and benefits
calculation ............................................................. 134
Figure 12.2: An example of canal design. ................ 89
Figure 23.1: Flow chart for Project costing and
Figure 12.3: Flow chart for pipe design ................... 90 financial analyses .................................................. 136
Figure 12.4: An example of headrace pipe design ... 91 Figure 23.2: A typical example of project costing and
Figure 13.1: Typical section of a settling basin ....... 92 financial analyses .................................................. 138
Figure 13.2: An ideal setting basin .......................... 93 Figure 24.1: A typical example of uniform depth
Figure 13.3: Flushing pipe details .......................... 94 calculation of a Rectangular section ...................... 139
Figure 13.4: Typical example of a settling basin with Figure 24.2: A typical example EMI calculation .... 140
spilling and gated flushing ...................................... 97 Figure 24.3: Generated Schedule of EMI
calculation ............................................................. 140
xiii
Figure 24.4: Spillway Length Calculation .............. 141 Figure 24.8: Critical Depth calculation.................. 143
Figure 24.5: Friction Factor and Net Head Figure 24.9: Submergence Head calculation ......... 144
Calculation ............................................................ 141 Figure 24.10: Surge Height calculation ................. 144
Figure 24.6: Voltage Drop Calculation .................. 142 Figure 24.11: Trashrack Sizing .............................. 145
Figure 24.7: Generated Schedule of Figure 24.12: Headloss in a Pressurized Box
EMI calculation ..................................................... 143 Culvert................................................................... 145
List of Tables
Table 1.1: Summary of Micro Hydropower Table 8.1: Distribution of Errors ............................. 56
Drawings ................................................................... 3 Table 8.2: Level field data of an open loop .............. 56
Table 1.2: Summary of 100kW Midim Mini Table 9.1: Summary of internal angles .................... 62
Hydropower Drawings .............................................. 4
Table 9.2: Precision in Engineering Surveying ........ 64
Table 1.3: Summary of Small Hydropower Drawings 4
Table 10.1: Drop intake and upstream flow ............ 78
Table 1.4: Summary of Spreadsheets ........................ 6
Table 11.1: Stability Criteria for a Gravity Dam...... 81
Table 2.1: MIP regional monthly coefficients .......... 20
Table 13.1: Settling diameter, trap efficiency and
Table 2.2: Mean monsoon precipitation computation gross head ............................................................... 93
at Intake ................................................................. 23
Table 16.1: Summary of forces .............................. 106
Table 2.3: Prediction coefficients for long term
average monthly flows ............................................ 24 Table 18.1: Turbine Selection Criteria .................. 112
Table 2.4: Standard normal variants for floods ...... 24 Table 18.2: Turbine specifications (for micro and
mini hydropower turbines) ................................... 114
Table 4.1: Typical Conductivity Graphs................... 33
Table 18.3: Turbine type vs. Power based Specific
Table 4.2: Input parameters for Salt speed ns (metric Hp units) ranges ........................ 115
Dilution Method ...................................................... 34
Table 18.4: Turbine type vs. Flow based Specific
Table 4.3: First set conductivity reading for Salt speed ns ranges adeopted by AEPC ........................ 115
Dilution Method (Example) .................................... 34
Table 19.1: Selection of Generator Type ............... 120
Table 4.4: Conductivity readings for calibrating ..... 34
Table 19.2: Generator rating factors ..................... 120
Table 6.1: Linear distance, relative accuracy
and Uses .................................................................. 42 Table 21.1: ASCR specifications............................. 128
Table 6.2: Summary of formulae used in Stadia ...... 43 Table 21.2: Rated current and voltage drop
calculation ............................................................. 128
Table 6.3: Summary of formulae used in electronic
tacheometry ............................................................ 43 Table 23.1: Summary of Subsidy as per AEPC
Renewable Energy Subsidy Policy, 2069................ 135
Table 6.4: Equipment and markings for site survey 45
Table 7.1: AutoCAD Scrip File (copied from
spreadsheet) ............................................................ 54
xiv
LIST OF MICRO-HYDROPOWER DRAWINGS IN AEPC FORMAT

SN Micro HP Drawing Name
1 01 General Layout
2 02A Side Intake Plan
3 02B Side Intake Sections
4 03 Drop Intake Plan
5 04 Headrace
6 05A Gravel Trap
7 05B Settling Basin
8 06 Headrace Canal
9 07 Forebay
10 08 Penstock Alignment
11 09 Anchor & Saddle Blocks
12 10 Powerhouse
13 11 Machine foundation
14 12 Gate and Flushing Cone
15 13 Trashrack Details
16 12 Transmission
17 13 Single line diagram
LIST OF 100kW MIDIM MINI-HYDROPOWER DRAWINGS

SN Mini HP Drawing Name Sheets
1 General Layout 10A01
2 Side Intake Plan 10A02
3 Side Intake Sections and Canal section 10A03
4 Settling Basin 20A01
5 Headrace Profile 20A02
6 Forebay 20A03
7 Trashrack and Sluicegate Details 20A04
8 Penstock Profile 20A05
9 Anchor Block and Support Pier Details 30A01
10 Powerhouse 40A10
11 Machine Foundation 40A11
12 Transmission Line Pole Details 40A12
13 Single Line Diagram 50A02
LIST OF 1500 kW LIPIN SMALL-HYDROPOWER DRAWINGS

SN Drawing no 7.D.np.5133/01/ Small HP Drawing Name
1 10A01 Project Location, District Map & Catchment Area
2 10A02 Project Layout, sheet 1 of 2, Plan
3 10A03 Project Layout, sheet 2 of 2, Profiles
4 20A01 Weir, Intake and Gravel Trap, sheet 1 of 3, plan and sections
7 20A04 Settling Basin, sheet 1 of 2, plan and sections
9 30A01 Plan and Profile and Typical Sections/Similar for penstock alignment
10 40A10 Anchor Blocks, sheet 1 of 2
12 40A12 Saddle Support
13 50A02 Powerhouse Plan and Sections
14 60A04 Geological Mapping, sheet 4 of 4
15 70A01 Single line diagram
xv
xvi
AEPC/NMHDA Micro/Mini Hydropower Survey and Design Tools (v 2013.08)
1. Introduction
1.1 General
This set of Micro/Mini-hydropower1 Survey and Design The Design Tools consist of a set of typical drawings, a
Tools is the updated version of the Mini-hydropower workbook with thirty typical spreadsheets and a users’
Design Tools published in August 2006. It consists of a manual for procedural guidance. This set of design Tools
complete set typical AutoCAD drawings, typical Microsoft also covers all aspects recommended by AEPC’s prevailing
Excel spreadsheets and a users’ manual recommended guidelines for its subsidized micro and mini hydropower
adequate for micro and mini hydropower feasibility levels. schemes. The Design Tools provide guidelines for users
Although the earlier version was especially prepared for to estimate engineering surveying and hydrological
Nepal and officially recommended by the Alternative parameters; design civil, mechanical and electrical
Energy promotion Centre (AEPC) of the Government of components and analyze financial robustness of the
Nepal2 for its subsidized micro-hydropower schemes in prospective micro and mini hydropower schemes in
Nepal up to 100kW, these design tools were also used in Nepal. Procedural guidelines, detailed step by step
micro, mini and small hydropower projects in more than calculations and guidelines for using the presented
two dozen countries. This version of the design tools spreadsheets are presented in this users’ manual. A copy
are expected to be used by more stakeholders in more of this manual in Acrobat PDF file format is included
countries and in bigger hydropower project designs. in the bundled CD. The Design Tools are distributed in
template/read-only formats so that the original copy is
The Micro/Mini-hydropower Survey and Design Tools always preserved even when the users modify them.
are prepared to provide a basis for consultants to
undertake calculations and prepare drawings as per The Design Tools were originally prepared for micro
the requirements set aside by the procedural guidelines hydropower schemes up to 100kW. Since there are many
of AEPC-NRREP of the Government of Nepal. Since common approaches and features in all hydropower
most of the stakeholders are familiar with Autodesk projects, these spreadsheets are modified to suit mini
AutoCAD (2006 or later) and Microsoft Excel (2010 and small hydropower design requirements as well. The
or later) application software, the Design Tools were spreadsheet on Hydrology is intended for Nepali micro
prepared based on these software to make them simple hydropower schemes only. Other spreadsheets are
and user friendly. During the preparation of these intended to serve micro and mini-hydropower schemes
Design Tools, special efforts were made so that the outside Nepal too (refer to Table 1.3).
skills and knowledge of practicing stakeholders such as
consultants, manufacturers and inspectors are further Preparation and use of the Design Tools is a continuous
enhanced by the use of these Design Tools. process. AEPC/NRREP, NMHDA and, of course, the
Author, have been continuously assisting in enhancing
This set of the Design Tools is an updated version of the Design Tools and this update (version 2013.08) is
the previous design Tools and suitable for designing the outcome of their integrated efforts in hydropower
micro, mini and small hydropower schemes. Update, sector development in Nepal and abroad. As always,
addition and publication of the design tools are the valuable suggestions and feedbacks are expected from all
symbols of continuous assistance and support to the the stakeholders/users so that the overall quality of the
Nepali hydropower sector by AEPC and Nepal Micro hydro sector is enhanced. Any suggestion and feedback
Hydropower Development Association (NMHDA)3. can directly be sent to pushpa.chitrakar@gmail.com.
1. In Nepal, hydropower projects up to 100kW are termed as micro hydropower projects. Projects 100kW to 1000kW are termed as mini
hydropower projects. 1000kW to 10,000kW are termed as small hydropower projects. Beyond this, they are termed as large hydro-
power projects.
2. Alternative Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC) is a Nepal Government organization established to promote alternative sources of
energy in Nepali rural areas. National Rural & Renewable Energy Programme (NRREP) of AEPC is promoting Nepali hydropower
schemes up to 1000kW.
3. Nepal Micro Hydropower Development Association was established, in 1992, and has been providing its services in promoting micro
hydropower projects mainly in Nepal. This organization dedicated to serve the nation with micro hydropower technology, skill and
expertise, has been providing its supports formulating policies, plans and programmes to concerned agencies.
1
Micro/Mini Hydropower Survey and Design Tools (v 2013.08) AEPC/NMHDA
1.2 Objectives of the Design Tools 1.4 Design Tools: Typical Micro
and mini hydro Drawings
The main objective of the Survey and Design Tools is to
enhance the quality of the micro and mini hydropower As stated earlier, seventeen micro-hydropower related
sector in Nepal. Use of these Design Tools helps fulfilling AutoCad drawings were prepared and incorporated in the
the main objective because: Design Tools in AEPC format. The presented drawings
cover from intake to transmission line. Since they are
1. The Design Tools function as a set of “Time Saver Kit” only typical drawings, additions of drawings and the level
for precision and speed (e.g. hydrological calculations of details may be changed to fulfill specific needs of a
based on exact flow measurement date, Q flood off- particular project. The level of consistency, compatibility
take, friction factor of penstock pipes, etc.). and the extent of information in the drawings are
2. They provide relevant references to micro and mini complete and appropriate for micro hydropower plants
hydro sector stakeholders for using and upgrading and all the concerned stakeholders should be able to
their skills and creativities. Useful information is understand and implement the presented content. The
incorporated within the design Tools so that external main features of the presented drawings are:
references are minimized. Cell notes, tables, figures,
etc., in the spreadsheets and information in this 1. These drawings are recommended only for micro-
manual are some of the examples that will greatly hydro schemes.
reduce external references. 2. Minimum required details such as plans and adequate
3. The depth of the study and presented reports by cross sections are provided.
different consultants are uniform and their data 3. Recommended values of elements such as the
presentations are consistent and to the required minimum thickness of a stone masonry wall,
depth. the longitudinal slope of a settling basin, etc, are
4. The Design Tools serve as templates so that presented in the drawings.
there is sufficient room for further creativity and 4. Standard line types and symbols are presented.
improvement and tailoring to include specific needs 5. Basic drawing elements such as a title box with
of particular projects. adequate information and controlling signatories;
5. In addition, the Design Tools are handy and user scale; etc are presented.
friendly. The user familiar AutoCad and MS Excel 6. All drawings with standard layouts for printing.
software platforms have been used to develop the
Design Tools. The dimensions and geometries of the presented
drawings should be amended according to the project
1.3 Sources of the Design Tools details. A set of all the drawings are presented in the
appendix. For an example, a typical drawing of a settling
The Design Tools were prepared aiming to enhance basin is presented in Figure 1.1. The MHP drawings that
the overall quality of the micro and mini hydro sector. are presented are listed in Table 1.1.
Reviews of following sources were carried out during the
preparation of the Design Tools: A total of 13 selected typical drawings of 100kW Midim
Khola Mini Hydropower Project Detailed Feasibility
1. Updated AEPC micro hydropower guidelines Study carried out by Universal Consultancy Services
and standards for Peltric and micro-hydropower P Ltd, as presented in Table 1.3, are also presented for
schemes. references.
2. Review, assessment and appraisal of more than 500
feasibility study reports in Nepal and more than 500 1.5 Design Tools: Typical Mini/
reports elsewhere like in Afghanistan. small hydro Drawings
6. Feedbacks from all stakeholders such as Independent
power producers (IPPs), lending agencies, GiZ A total of fifteen selected typical drawings of an actual
(formally GTZ), AEPC, NMHDA, Consultants, feasibility study of a 1500kW Lipin Small Hydropower
Manufacturers and Installers. Project, Sindhupalchowk District, Central Nepal are
7. Experience from other micro, small and large enclosed in the CD. The difference between the levels of
hydropower projects within Nepal and abroad. details of micro and small hydropower drawings are quite
8. Standard textbooks, guidelines and other standards. noticeable. A typical settling basin drawing is presented
in Figure 1.2. All the presented drawings listed in Table
1.3 are recommended for mini and small hydropower
projects.
2
1.6 Design Tools: Spreadsheets Background information and main features of the
presented spreadsheets are:
As stated earlier, MS Excel 2010 has been used to
develop the presented thirty spreadsheets. General as 1.6.1 Flow chart notations
well as special features of Excel have been utilized while
developing the spreadsheets. There are sixteen main Standard flow chart notations are used to describe
spreadsheets each covering a tool required for covering program execution flows. Following notations are mostly
computations for an element of hydropower schemes. used:
The “Utility” spreadsheets presented at the end of the
workbook covers minor calculations such as uniform
depth of water in a canal, loan payback calculations, etc. Start and End
The list of the presented spreadsheets and their areas of
coverage are presented in Table 1.4.
Input
The MS Excel workbook containing all the stated
worksheets have been saved in the new Macro Enabled
MS Excel file (Mini Hydropower Survey and Design Processing formulas and output
Tools.xlsm). Saving this file in ordinary .xls file in Excel
2010 or later will remove all macros and Visual Basic
for Application procedures and functions leading the Processing and output from other sub routine
spreadsheet mal-functioning.
Design of anchor blocks and saddles are site and project Conditional branching
specific. The presented anchor block spreadsheets are
based on two-dimensional calculations and are useful for
penstock aligned in straight lines without any horizontal Flow direction
deflection.
Table 1.1: Summary of Micro Hydropower Drawings

SN Drawing Name (*.dwg) Remarks
1 01 General Layout General layout of project components except the transmission and distribution
components.
2 02A Side Intake Plan A general plan of headworks including river training, trashrack, intake, gravel
trap and spillway.
3 02B Side Intake Sections A longitudinal section along water conveyance system from intake to headrace,
two cross sections of weir for temporary and permanent weirs respectively and a
cross section of a spillway.
4 03 Drop Intake Plan A general plan, a cross section across a permanent weir and a cross section of a
drop intake.
5 04 Headrace A longitudinal headrace profile showing different levels along it.
6 05A Gravel Trap A plan, a longitudinal section and two cross sections.
7 05B Settling Basin A plan, a longitudinal section and two cross sections.
8 06 Headrace Canal Two cross sections for permanent lined canal and one for temporary unlined
canal.
9 07 Forebay A plan, a longitudinal section, two cross sections and penstock inlet details.
10 08 Penstock Alignment A longitudinal section of penstock alignment.
11 09 Anchor & Saddle Blocks Plans and sections of concave and convex anchor blocks and a saddle.
12 10 Powerhouse A plan and a section of a typical powerhouse.
13 11 Machine foundation A plan and three sections of a typical machine foundation.
14 12 Transmission A single line diagram if a transmission/distribution system.
15 13 Single line diagram A single line diagram showing different electrical components.
3
Table 1.2: Summary of 100kW Midim Mini Hydropower Drawings

SN Title / Remarks
1 General Layout
2 Side Intake Plan
3 Side Intake Sections and Canal section
4 Settling Basin
5 Headrace Profile
6 Forebay
7 Trashrack and Sluicegate Details
8 Penstock Profile
9 Anchor Block and Support Pier Details
10 Powerhouse
11 Machine Foundation
12 Transmission Line Pole Details
13 Single Line Diagram
Table 1.3: Summary of Small Hydropower Drawings

SN Drawing no 7.D.np.5133/01/ Title / Remarks
1 10A01 Project Location, District Map & Catchment Area
2 10A02 Project Layout, sheet 1 of 2, Plan
3 10A03 Project Layout, sheet 2 of 2, Profiles
9 30A01 Plan and Profile and Typical Sections/Similar for penstock alignment
12 40A12 Saddle Support
13 50A02 Powerhouse Plan and Sections
14 60A04 Geological Mapping, sheet 4 of 4
15 70A01 Single line diagram
4
Figure 1.1: A typical Micro Hydro Settling Basin Drawing
Figure 1.2: A typical Small Hydro Settling Basin Drawing
5
Table 1.4: Summary of Spreadsheets

SN Name Area of coverage Uses
1 Salient Features Typical Salient Features to be included in the Feasibility Studies All sizes
2 GPS Chapter 7: Use of GPS in MHP All sizes
3 Levelling Chapter 8: Use of level in surveying
4 Open Traverse Chapter 9: Computation of coordinates in open traverse surveying. Micro/small
5 Traverse Point Chapter 9: Computation of coordinates in points by theodolite
surveying
6 Closed Traverse Chapter 9: Computation of coordinates in closed traverse surveying
7 Cond Calibration Chapter 4: Calibration of conductivity meter.
8 Conductivity Chapter 4: Computation of river discharge from Salt dilution Micro/small
method.
9 Current MeterRev Chapter 5: River discharges by current meters measuring revolutions.
10 Current MeterVel Chapter 5: River discharges by current meters measuring velocities.
11 Hydrology Chapter 2: Hydrological parameters calculations based on MIP and Micro/ small in
Hydest methods (Regression Methods) Nepal
12 Weir Chapter 11: Design of gravity weir
13 Side Intake Chapter 11: Design of side intakes including coarse trashrack, flood All sizes
discharge and spillways.
14 Bottom Intake Chapter 11: Design of bottom intake including flood discharges. All sizes
15 Headrace Canals Chapter 12: Design of user defined and optimum conveyance canals All sizes
with multiple profiles and sections.
16 Headrace Pipe Chapter 11: Design of mild steel/HDPE/PVC conveyance pipes. All sizes
17 Gravel Trap Chapter 13: Design of gravel traps and forebays with spilling and All sizes
flushing systems with spillways, cones and gates.
18 Settling Basin Chapter 13: Design of settling basins with spilling and flushing All sizes
systems with spillways, cones and gates.
19 Forebay Chapter 13: Design of forebays with spilling and flushing systems All sizes
with spillways, cones and gates.
20 Penstock Optimization Chapter 14: Optimization of penstock diameter All sizes
21 Penstock & Power Chapter 15: Design of penstocks with fine trashrack, expansion All sizes
joints and power calculations.
22 Anchor Loads Chapter 16: Calculations of forces on anchor blocks. All sizes (2D)
23 Anchor Block Chapter 17: Design of anchor block. All sizes (2D)
24 Turbine Chapter 18: Selection of turbines based on specific speed and gearing Micro
ratios.
25 Electrical Chapter 19: Selection of electrical equipment such as different types Micro
of generators, cable and other accessories sizing.
26 Machine Foundation Chapter 20: Design of machine foundation. Micro
27 Transmission Chapter 21: Transmission / Distribution line calculations with cable Micro /small
estimation.
28 Load & Benefit Chapter 22: Loads and benefit calculations for the first three years Micro
and after the first three years of operation.
29 Costing & Financial Chapter 23: Costing and financial analyses based on the project cost, Micro
annual costs and benefits.
30 Utilities Chapter 24: Utilities such as uniform depth, loan payment All sizes
calculations, Spillway length, pipe friction factor, voltage drop,
turbulent pipe coefficients, submergence depth, surge height and
trashrack area.
6
To make to the best use of these spreadsheets, minimum spreadsheet “Conductivity”. The objective of linking
knowledge of background information and main features such common inputs is to have consistent input with
of Microsoft Excel is mandatory. Although excel has minimal user effort. Some of the other processed data
many salient features, some of the basic features that such as the design discharge or flood discharge are also
were mostly used while preparing and using them are: linked by default. However, the users may change these
values for specific calculations i.e., the spreadsheets can
1.6.2 Iterative Processes also be used as individual spreadsheets for independent
calculations that are not linked to a single project. It is
The spreadsheets are designed to save tedious and long
recommended to save an extra copy of the workbook
iterative/repetitive calculations. Manual repetitive
before manipulating such linked cell so that the saved
processes are the main source errors and are also
copy can be used as a workbook with linked spreadsheets
time consuming factors. A typical repetitive process is
for a single project.
presented in Figure 1.3.
1.6.6 User specific inputs
Some parameters such as canal freeboards, width of a

canal, factor of safety for a mild steel penstock, etc., have
their standard optimum values. By default, the standard
optimum values are computed or presented. However,
Figure 1.3: Iterative process users are allowed to enter non-standard specific values
under special circumstances.
As shown in the figure, the initial assumed value of X0
is amended until an acceptable error limit is reached. By
1.6.7 Interpolated computations
default, this feature is disabled and generates Circular
Reference Error. The iterative features in Excel can
Some of the parameters such as frictional coefficient of
be activated by selecting Calculations tab (Options-
a bend, coefficient of gate discharge, etc., have standard
>Calculations>Tick Iteration (cycles & h)) and checking
proven values for standard conditions. In case the
the iteration box. Users of Excel 2010 have to activate
condition is of a non-standard type, interpolated values
Options by clicking File Menu as presented in Figure 1.4.
with the help of curve fittings are estimated and used.
1.6.3 Macro Security The users are cautioned to check the validity of such
values whenever they encounter them.
The spreadsheets contain Visual Basic for Application
(VBA) functions and procedures. Because of the safety 1.6.8 Errors
reasons against possible virus threats, MS Excel disables
such VBA functions and procedures by default. Mainly three types of errors are known in the presented
design Tools. One of them is the NAME# error which
Because of the high level of macro related risks, Excel is caused by not executing custom functions and
2007 and later have been designed to restrict many procedures because of the macro security level set to
of the standalone macros unless and until they are high or very high level. In case such an error occurs,
certified. Excel 2010 or later version file formats have close the workbook, activate the macro security level
to be saved in macro enabled Excel format (xlsm) for to medium and enable the macros when opening the
enabling macros. workbook again. Typical NAME# errors occur for the
depth of water during flushing yf l (m) and d50f during
1.6.4 Worksheet protection flushing (mm) in the settling basin spreadsheet.
Most of the presented spreadsheets are protected
VALUE# error is the other error that is generated by
against unwanted and accidental input which may result
the malfunctioning of circular references. When such
in wrong computational output. However, some of these
an error occurs, select the error cell, press F2 and press
spreadsheets are protected with a null password so that
Enter. Q intake Qf cumec in the side intake spreadsheet
only expert Excel user can amend them based on their
is an example of such an error.
requirements.
1.6.5 Individual vs. linked spreadsheets A REF# error in transmission line computation occurs
due to the deletion of unnecessary rows in a branch. In
By default, common inputs such as the project name, such an instance, copy the second cell from the second
etc., in all the spreadsheets are linked to the first design line of any branch.
7
Figure 1.4: Activation of iteration in Excel 2013 (MS or File => Excel Option =>Formulas)
Figure 1.5: Enabling macros in MS Excel (MS Office or File =>Excel Options=> Trust Centre=>Trust
Center Settings..=>Macro Settings)
1.6.9 Cell notes
Cell notes are comments attached to cells. They are useful

for providing, information related to computational
procedures. Adequate cell notes are provided in the
presented spreadsheets so that external references are
Figure 1.6: Cell formula incorporated in a cell note.
minimized.
8
For example, a cell note with a cell formula for calculating

specific speed of a turbine is presented in Figure 1.6.
Similarly, the cell note in Figure 1.7 presents a basic table
for selecting Manning’s coefficient of roughness of a canal.
Other information such as mandatory requirements set
by AEPC for its subsidized micro hydropower projects
are also presented. For hydropower projects that are
not subsidized by AEPC, these mandatory requirements
may be amended.
1.6.10 Cell Text Conventions Figure 1.8: Colour coding of cell texts
Three different colour codes are used to distinguish three 1.6.11 Types of inputs
different cell categories. A typical example of colour
coding of cells is presented in Figure 1.8. The colours and According to the nature of inputs, the inputs are further
categories of these cells are: categorized into the following three groups:
1. User or project specific inputs: The input variables
Blue cells: These cells represent mandatory input cells. that totally depend on the user and or the project are
These cells are project dependant cells and project categorized as the user or project specific inputs. The
related actual inputs are expected in these cells for programs do not restrict on or validate the values of
correct outputs. The mandatory input includes the name such inputs. The name and gross head of the project
of project, head, discharge, etc. Some of these cells are are some of the examples that fall on this category.
linked. The velocity through orifice (Vo) in the example
presented in Figure 1.9 can have any value hence it is
Red cells: These cells are optional input cells. Standard a user specific input.
values are presented in these cells. Values in this type of
cells can be amended provided that there are adequate
sufficient grounds to do so. It is worth noting that care
should be taken while changing these values. Typical
optional values / inputs are the density of sediment,
sediment swelling factor, temperature of water, etc.
Black cells: The black cells represent information and or

output of the computations. For the sake of protecting
accidental and deliberate amendment or change leading
to wrong outputs, these cells are protected from
Figure 1.9: Different categories of inputs
editing.
Figure 1.7: A cell for Manning’s n for different surfaces
9
2. Prescribed Input: Some of the inputs have some Some inputs such as the name of the month, MIP
standard values for standard conditions. The hydrological region and dates in Hydrology spreadsheet
programs list using such values and give choices for can have specific values in their respective cells. Since
the user to select. However, the programs do not the outcome of the computation will be erroneous if
restrict on or validate such variables. These inputs are the input data does not match with the desired values,
termed as prescribed inputs. For example in Figure the spreadsheets are designed to reject such an invalid
1.9, with the help of a pull-down menu, Manning’s value and flag an error message with suggestions. This
coefficients for different types of surfaces are listed example is demonstrated in Figure 1.10.
for selection. This will greatly reduce the need for
referring external references. However, any specific 1.6.13 Interactive Diagrams
values for specific need can be entered into this type
of cells. Most of the design spreadsheets are equipped with
dynamically linked interactive diagrams which change
Mandatory Input: Some inputs can only have specific according to the changes in the design parameters. A
values and the programs need to validate such values typical example of an interactive diagram for a side
for proper computations. These values are termed as intake is presented in Figure 1.11. Interactive diagrams
mandatory inputs. Since Nepal is divided into seven MIP are provided for the following designs:
regions, the value for a MIP region can have an integer
ranging from 1 to 7 only. In the example presented in 1. Side Intake.
Figure 1.10, the MIP region can have values from 1 to 7. 2. Bottom Intake.
In case the user enters different values (for example 8 as 3. Settling Basin.
presented in the figure), the program generates an error 4. Anchor Block.
prompting for the correct input of 1 to 7. The proper 5. Machine Foundation and
value between 1 and 7 can be entered after clicking 6. Headrace Canals, etc.,
“Retry” button.
Tyrolean X section; Upper Mai C Hydroelectric Project
HFL = 2358.05
NWL = 2356.37 4.207

Width=0.87
Trashrack 2.532
Width=0.87
2.317
0.500
Figure 1.11: Typical interactive diagram of Bottom

Intake
Figure 1.10: Different categories of inputs.
1.6.14 Design Tools Menu and
1.6.12 Pull Down menus and data Command Buttons
validation
A menu and a set of command buttons are added under
As demonstrated earlier, some input cells are equipped ADD-IN menu to facilitate users’ access all the design
with pull down menus to facilitate the users to input tools including online manual, drawings and feedback
standard values related to the input cell. Cells related to the Design Tools. Excel 2003 like menus are stored
to pull down menus can have any user specific values under Menu Commands whereas the command buttons
than the stated standard values if the data cells are not are shown directly under the Design Tools add-in (as
of mandatory type. In Figure 1.9, the pull down menu presented in Figure 1.12). These Design Tools Menu and
for Manning’s roughness coefficient (n) in cell B42 is Toolbars workbook specific and are not shown in other
activated. Different surface materials are listed in the workbook than the Design Tools.
pull down menu, stone masonry surface type is selected
and the corresponding standard value of the Manning’s 1.7 Installation Directory
coefficient of roughness of 0.02 is substituted in the
corresponding cell. Since the value in this cell is not It is recommended to install the Design Tools under
restricted, users can enter any values for this cell. “C:\Design Aids\MiniHydro\” directory for the full
10
functionality of these tools. In case it is installed 1.9 Project Information and

elsewhere, the external links for online manual will not Results in Salient Features
work. It is also recommended that the working copy
of project specific spreadsheet to be saved under the Most of the input and output parameters are summarised
installation directory. in the spreadsheet called “SalientFeatures”. Based on
the input given to this spreadsheet and any individual
1.8 Solver Addin spreadsheets, the output in the salient features are
linked from the respective individual spreadsheets. Blue
Activate Solver Addin by cells are input cells that are linked to the other design
File  Options  Add-Ins  Manage Excel Add-in  sheets whereas the black cells are the outputs linked
Go  Solver Add-in. In case it is not activated, “Compile to the results obtained in the linked individual sheets.
error in hidden module 4” occurs and Add-in control A sample Salient Feature with data adequate for a
bottons for menu is not activated. mini hydropower project is presented in the following
section:
Figure 1.12: Design Tools Menu and Toolbar
11
1.10 Salient Features

and outputs required for processing the design and
A spreadsheet containing Salient Features of the Project subsequent formalities according to the requirement set
under consideration is included in the workbook. The aside by AEPC. A typical Salient Features is presented in
Salient Features consist of the summary of inputs the following Table:
Salient features
Salient Features: Upper Mai C Hydroelectric Project
General
Name of the Project Upper Mai C Hydroelectric Project
Category of the Project New
Developer Mai Valley HP P Ltd
Name of the River Mai Khola
Type of Scheme Run-of-the-river
Project Location Mabu VDC, & Sulubung VDC
District Ilam
Zone Mechi
Development Region Eastern
Project Boundary Latitutes 270 31’ 17” N to 270 32’ 55” N
Project Boundary Longitudes 860 35’ 19” E to 860 34’ 27” E
Intake Coordinates 270 31’ 17” N, to 860 35’ 19” N, 1900 m
Powerhouse Coordinates 270 31’ 17” N, to 860 35’ 19” N, 1840 m
Main Load Center Coordinates 270 31’ 17” N, to 860 35’ 19” N, 1900 m
Nearest Town Mabu
Access Earthen Road and Foot Trails
Gross Head (m) 161.8
3
Net Head @ Q = 12 m /s (m) 156.006
Design Discharge (l/s) 600
Installed Capacity (kW) 521
Consultant EHS
Users
Area Class A
Households 3000
Households (disadvantaged category) 200
Hydrology
Catchment Area (km2) 80.000
Catchment Area below 5000m (km2) 70.000
Basin Perimeter (m) 36.000
Highest Elevation (Number) (m) 5200.000
Monsoon Wetness Index (MWI) 1600
Average Annual Precipitation (mm) 1400
Design 100 yrs Flood Discharge (DHM/UP) (m3/s) 54.521
Headworks and Intake Structure

Weir
Location Upper Solulung, Mabu V.D.C.
Type Boulder lined, overflow type
12
Crest Length (m) 35

River Bed Level at Weir Location (m) 1900.000
Weir Crest Level (m) 1901.14
Intake
Type Sluice-trashrack-orifice intake
Number of orifice 2
Size (WxH) 1m X 0.5m
Flushing gate (WxD) 1m x 1m
Gravel Trap
Type Surface
Settling Criteria 90% >=2mm
Number of Basin 1
Gravel Trap Size (L x W x D) 18m x 4.5m x 1.401m
Spillway Length (m) 7.38
Size of Flushing canal (WxD) 1m x 0.401m @ 1:25
Settling Basin
Type Conventional
Settling Criteria 90% >=0.2mm
Number of Units 2
Settling Basins Size (L x W x D) 18.2m x 2.5m x 2.061m
Size of Flushing canal (W x D) 1m x 0.299m @ 1:50
Headrace Canal
Shape
Type of lining Stone masonry
Dimension (W x D) 2m x 2.5m
Length (m) 974
Forebay
Type Conventional
Settling Criteria 90% >=0.5mm
Number of Units 1
Forebay Size (L x W x D) 11.6m x 2.5m x 1.853m
Size of Flushing canal (W x D) 1m x 0.299m @ 1:50
Live Storage capacity (sec) 54
Penstock
Type Subsurface ad Surface
Material Mild Steel
Length (m) 111.5
Diameters (mm) 500
No of Branches near Turbine 3
Thicknesses (mm) 6 mm - 3 mm
Number of Anchor / Thrust blocks 9
Number of Expansion joints 7
Powerhouse
Location Loding Dobhan, Tamakhani V.D.C
Type Semi-Surface
Dimension (L x W x H) 13 m x 8 m x 5 m
13
Tailrace Canal
Type Rectangular
Size (W x D) 1.0 m x 1.0 m
Length (m) 15
Turbine
Type Pelton
Number of Units 3
Efficiency 90.00%
Speed rpm 600
Rated output (kW) 3 x 260.179
Generator
Power Factor 0.8
Speed rpm 1200
Efficiency 95.00%
Rating (kVA) 3 x 200
Number of Poles 4
Frequency (Hz) 50
Rated Voltage (V) 400
Transformer
Type 3-Phase, ONAN Cooled
Efficiency 99.00%
Rating (kVA) 600
Frequency (Hz) 50
Transmission Line
Transmission Voltage (kV) 11
Length (km) 2
Connection Point Ramite substation
Distribution Line
Distribution Voltage (V) 400/230
Length (km) 4/3.5
Power and Energy

Installed Capacity (kW) 521
Annual Available energy (kWh) 4126320
Load Factor (first three years) % 36.42
Load Factor (after three years) % 41.53
Financial Indicators
Project Life (years) 30
Project Cost w/o financing 143,719,564
Project Cost w/ financing 147,349,498
Construction Period (Yr) 2
Annual Operation, Maintenance and other Costs (Rs) 545,000
Annual Income without probable business loads (Rs) 4,140,000
Annual Income with probable business loads (Rs) 5,458,800
Subsidy (Rs) 115,120,000
Total Capitalized Loan (Rs) 28,329,498
Equity (Rs) 3,900,000
Total Capitalized Project Cost (Rs) 147,349,498
14
Return on Equity
EIRR 16.88%
NPV 12,094,907
B/C Ratio / Profitability Index 4.29
Return on Project Cost Without Subsidy of 32229498

Internal Rate of Return (IRR) 13.06%
Net Present Value (NPV) 25,865,603
Return on Total Project Cost

Internal Rate of Return (IRR) -0.90%
Net Present Value (NPV) (82,738,170)
15
16
PART ONE: TECHNICAL DATA COLLECTION
17
18
2. HYDROLOGY
2.1 General WECS/DHM 1990 Study (Hydest)” are incorporated in

“Hydrology” spreadsheet. Brief introduction of these
Hydrology is the science that deals with the waters of two methods are presented in the subsequent sub-
the earth, their occurrence, circulations and distribution sections. It is worth noting that MIP and HYDEST are
on the planet, their physical and chemical properties only applicable for Nepal.
and their interactions with the physical and biological
environment, including their responses to human 2.2 Hydrological Data
activity (UNESCO, 1964).
As presented in Figure 2.1, the hydrological data
Assessment of hydrological parameters is of key constitute of stream flow records, precipitation and
importance to all water resources projects. Assessment of climatological data, topographical maps, groundwater
long term mean flows, estimation of flood flows, etc., are data, evaporation and transpiration data, soil maps
the major hydrological parameters critical to hydropower and geologic maps. Large projects may need all the
projects. Although the standard hydrological parameters hydrological data. However, only the first three data are
comprise of stream flow records, precipitation and sufficient for the estimation of MIP monthly flows and
meteorological data and analyses of these data, only Hydest floods in micro and mini hydropower projects.
stream flow records are considered adequate for micro
and mini-hydropower project being facilitated by AEPC
Nepal.
Hydrological data of most of the major rivers have

not been updated for use. Most of the potential
hydropower project sites in Nepal have relatively small
catchment areas and are located in remote areas where
there is a complete lack of hydrological information.
It is recommended that at least one set of actual flow
measurement should be carried out in lean season
(preferably during November-April). Based on the
measured flows and local information (information Figure 2.1: Hydrological Data and MHP
from local people, flood marks, etc.), estimation of
approximate long term mean monthly flows and flood 2.3 Medium Irrigation Project (MIP)
flows can be estimated in order to forecast long term Method: mean monthly flows
run-off patterns .
As stated earlier, this method is developed by M. Mac
Tools developed for estimating hydrological parameters Donald in 1990. According to this method, Nepal is
for un-gauged catchment areas are mainly based on divided into 7 regions. Based on wading measurements
regional correlations. The outputs of these tools are by the Department of Hydrology and Meteorology,
quite comparable to the actual hydrological parameters Government of Nepal, non-dimensional regional
for rivers having bigger catchment areas (100km2 or hydrographs were developed for each region. The month
more). of April was used for non-dimensionalizing. Seven sets
of average monthly coefficients for the seven regions for
Long term mean monthly flows are estimated by the each month were prepared.
use of a regional regression methods called Medium
Irrigation Project (MIP) method developed by M. Mac The seven regions are graphically shown in Figure 2.2
Donald in 1990. For hydropower schemes having a and the corresponding seven sets of mean monthly
design discharge more than 100 l/s, flood hazards are coefficients are presented in Table 2.1. It is worth
generally critical and flood flows should be calculated. noting that these monthly coefficients have to be
Long term mean monthly flows based on MIP method interpolated to get the actual monthly coefficients if the
and flood flows based on ‘methodologies for estimating flow measurement is not on the 15th of the measured
hydrologic characteristics of engaged locations in Nepal, month.
19
Figure 2.2: MIP Regions
Table 2.1: MIP regional monthly coefficients

Regions
Month
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
January 2.40 2.24 2.71 2.59 2.42 2.03 3.30
February 1.80 1.70 1.88 1.88 1.82 1.62 2.20
March 1.30 1.33 1.38 1.38 1.36 1.27 1.40
April 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
May 2.60 1.21 1.88 2.19 0.91 2.57 3.50
June 6.00 7.27 3.13 3.75 2.73 6.08 6.00
July 14.50 18.18 13.54 6.89 11.21 24.32 14.00
August 25.00 27.27 25.00 27.27 13.94 33.78 35.00
September 16.50 20.91 20.83 20.91 10.00 27.03 24.00
October 8.00 9.09 10.42 6.89 6.52 6.08 12.00
November 4.10 3.94 5.00 5.00 4.55 3.38 7.50
December 3.10 3.03 3.75 3.44 3.33 2.57 5.00
Figure 2.3 represents a flow chart of the MIP model for These mean monthly flows are calculated as:
calculating mean monthly flows based on a set of low Mean Coefficient for this month by interpolation if the
flow measurement. As shown in the figure, this model date is not on 15th
takes low flow measurement, its date and MIP region April coeff = 1/coeff this month (interpolated)
number as inputs and processes them for estimating April flow = April coeff * Q
mean monthly flows for that point on the catchment Monthly flows = April flow * coeffs (Qi = QApril * Ci)
area. As stated earlier, the actual measurement date
plays an important role in computing more realistic The importance of considering actual date of
mean monthly flows. This critical factor is often ignored measurement and the need of calculating actual mean
by micro-hydropower Consultants resulting in highly monthly flows are further explained in Figure 2.4. The
unlikely flow estimation. measured flow is 54 l/s and the project lies in region 3.
20
Figure 2.3: MIP model
Interpolation of April 1, 15 and 30 data

Q measured =54 l/s
2
1.9 Q corr f or mid month = Q measured * Average Coef f /Actual Coef f 60, 1.88
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.5
45, 1.44
1.4 0, 1.38
1.3
1.2 15, 1.19
1.1
1 30, 1
0 15 Days 30 45 60
March 15 April 1 If measured on April 15 April 30 May 15
April 15 Q corr 45.38 Q calculated 54.00 37.50
Figure 2.4: Need of interpolation for calculating mean monthly coefficient
The corrected flows for April are 45.38 l/s, 54 l/s and 2.4 WECS/DHM (Hydest) Method:
37.5 l/s corresponding to the measurement dates as Hydrological Estimatation
April 1, 15 and 30 respectively. This important factor is
incorporated in the spreadsheet. The WECS/DHM (Hydest) Method, which is also
known as “Methodologies for estimating hydrologic
The fact that the mean monthly coefficient calculation characteristics of un-gauged locations in Nepal”, was
plays a major role in AEPC acceptance criteria is developed by WECS/DHM in 1990. Long term flow
illustrated further by the following example. records of DHM stations (33 for floods and 44 for
low flows) were used to derive various hydrological
Measured flow (m3/s): 1 parameters such as the monsoon wetness index (June-
MIP region (1 -7): 3 September precipitation in mm). The entire country is
2
Area of basin below 3000m elevation A3000 (km ): 65 considered as a single homogenous region. This method
Turbine discharge (m3/s): 1.173 generally estimates reliable results if the basin area is
Water losses due to evaporation/flushing (%): 15% more than 100 km2 or if the project does not lie within
Siwalik or Tarai regions.
Figure 2.5 is the graphical representation of the
outcome of the MIP method. Interpolated MIP flows Mean monthly flows, annual, 20-year and 100-year
corresponding to the measurement dates of April 1, 15 floods and flow duration curve based on Hydest method
and 30 are presented. The design flow exceeds 11 months are presented in the spreadsheet. It is recommended to
and fulfils AEPC criteria if it is measured on April 15th. use instantaneous floods of 20-year return period while
However, the design flow exceeds only 10 months and designing Nepali micro hydro intake structures up to
does not meet AEPC criteria if it is measured on either 20kW. In case of bigger hydropower projects more than
1st or 30th of April. 20kW, it is recommended that the headworks structures
should be able to bypass 100-year instantaneous flood.
21
E rro rs G e n e rate d b y u sin g mid mo n th ly flo w s

30
1-A pr
25
15-A pr
30-A pr
Q diverted
20
Discharge (m 3/s)
15
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
M O NTH
Figure 2.5: Effect of interpolation on mean monthly flows
Following input parameters are required for estimating 2. Catchment Areas: From available topographic
hydrological parameters in Hydest method: maps, find out total (ATotal), below 5000m (A5000A)
and below 3000m (A3000A for flood flows) catchment
1. Monsoon Wetness Index (MWI): Estimate areas in square kilometers. A typical figure for
average monsoon wetness index (MWI) using Figure catchment area calculations is presented in Figure
2.6 or similar figures or data. Average monsoon 2.7. Alternatively, these areas can easily be found out
wetness index for a particular headworks point is by using GIS software and GIS data of Nepal.
the summation of average monsoon contour indices
times the catchment area within these contour
lines.
Figure 2.6: Monsoon Wetness Index Isolines of Nepal
22
Table 2.2: Mean monsoon precipitation computation at Intake

S.No Precipitation(P), mm Area(A), sq.km P*A
1 1150 33.22 38203.00
2 1250 24.93 31162.50
3 1350 24.39 32926.50
4 1450 30.58 44341.00
… …… ….. ……
13 2350 32.04 75294.00
14 2450 28.93 70878.50
15 2550 15.38 39219.00
16 2600 1.46 3796.00
Total 425.24 785747.18
Average annual precipitation, mm 1847.77
Area above 500m

1150
Area between 3000m and 5000m

1250
1350
1350
1450
1550
1550
1650
1750
Menchel Khola 1850
Ankhu Khola 1950
Lapa khola
2050
2150
Area below 3000m 2250
Hahan khola
Intake 2350
2450
Gaseli Khola
Aphal khola 2550
Power house 2600
2600
Figure 2.7: Catchment Areas and Isohydel lines
2.4.1 Estimation of long term mean above snowline. The 2-year and 100-year flood can be
monthly flows calculated using the following equations:
1. Long term mean monthly flows: By inserting input Q2 daily = 0.8154 x (A3000A +1) 0.9527
coefficients from Table 2.3 and other inputs in the Q2 inst = 1.8767 x (A3000A +1)0.8783
following equation, long term mean monthly flows Q100 daily =4.144 x (A3000A +1)0.8448
of the specific months in m3/s can be estimated: Q100 inst = 14.630 x (A3000A +1)0.7342
Flood peak discharge, QF , for any other return periods

Qmean month = C(ATotal)A1 . (A5000A + 1)A2 . (MWI)A3
can be calculated using:
2. Flood flows: The catchment area below 3000 m QF = e (lnQ2 + S. σlnQF )

contour line is used for the estimation of floods of
various return periods. 3000m elevation is believed Where, S is the standard normal variant for the chosen
to be the upper elevation that is influenced by the return period, from Table 2.4, and
monsoon precipitation. This method has to be used ⎛ Q100 ⎞
ln ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
with caution for catchments having significant areas
σlnQF = ⎝ Q2 ⎠
2.326
23
Table 2.3: Prediction coefficients for long term average monthly flows
Power, Area of basin Power, Area of basin below Power of Monsoon
Month Constant coefficient, C
(km2), A1 5000 m +1 (km2), A2 Wetness Index, A3
January 0.01423 0 0.9777 0
February 0.01219 0 0.9766 0
March 0.009988 0 0.9948 0
April 0.007974 0 1.0435 0
May 0.008434 0 1.0898 0
June 0.006943 0.9968 0 0.2610
July 0.02123 0 1.0093 0.2523
August 0.02548 0 0.9963 0.2620
September 0.01677 0 0.9894 0.2878
October 0.009724 0 0.9880 0.2508
November 0.001760 0.9605 0 0.3910
December 0.001485 0.9536 0 0.3607
Table 2.4: Standard normal variants for floods

lnQ0% = −3.5346+ 0.9398 ln(A 5000A + 1) + 0.3739 ln(MWI)
Return period (T)
(yrs)
Standard normal variant (S) lnQ5% = −3.4978 + 0.9814 ln(A5000A + 1) + 0.2670 ln(MWI)
2 0 lnQ20% = −5.4357 + 0.9824 ⋅ ln(ATotal ) + 0.4408 ⋅ ln(MWI)
5 0.842
lnQ 40% = −5.9543 + 1.0070 ⋅ ln(ATotal ) + 0.3231 ⋅ ln(MWI )
10 1.282
20 1.645 lnQ60% = −6.4846 + 1.0004 ⋅ ln(ATotal ) + 0.3016 ⋅ ln(MWI)
50 2.054
lnQ80% = −4.8508 + 1.0375 ln(A5000A + 1)
100 2.326
lnQ95% = −5.4716 + 1.0776 ln(A5000A + 1)
As shown in Figure 2.8, the Hydest method requires
different catchment areas and monsoon wetness index Q100% = −0.09892 + 0.08149 (A5000A + 1)
as inputs to estimate hydrological parameters such as
the mean monthly flows, floods, low flows and flow The percentage of exceedances in between adjacent
duration curve. exceedances presented above are calculated by taking
arithmetic mean of them. For example, Q65% can be
3. Flow Duration Curve (FDC): Q% at 0%, 5%, 20%, calculated as:
40%, 60%, 80%, 95% and 100% of exceedance are
calculated by using total area (A Total ), area below Q65%=Q80%+(P80%-P65%)/(P80%-P60%)*(Q60%-Q80%)
5000m (A5000A) and monsoon wetness index (MWI)
by using following equations:
Figure 2.8: Hydest Model
24
2.5 General Recommendations project with an installed capacity of more than 2MW,
the design flows should not exceed 40% probability
General recommendations on estimating hydrological of exceedance. For projects less than or equal to
parameters for hydropower projects in Nepal are 1MW, the design flows are estimated by optimizing
summarised as: project installed capacities.
1. Discharge measurement at the proposed intake site 6. Construction of flood wall against annual flood is
should be between November and April. recommended if the design flow exceeds 100 l/s.
2. The recommended discharge measurement methods 2.6 Program Briefing & Examples
for different discharges are:
As per the standards and guidelines, the presented
Method Discharge (l/s) spreadsheet is designed to compute MIP mean monthly
flows and exceedance of the design flow, Hydest floods
Bucket collection <10
and design discharges for different components of
Weir 10-30
a hydropower scheme. For simplicity, the program
Salt dilution >30
considers 30 days a month for all the months. The
Current Meter >100 flow chart for the proposed hydrological calculations is
3. Since MIP method utilizes actual measured flow data,
mean monthly flows should be computed by using 2.6.1 Example 2.1: Estimation of
this method. Alternatively, HYDEST method may be Hydrological Parameters
used for catchment area equal to or more than 100
km2. A typical example of the spreadsheet including
inputs and outputs are presented in Figure 2.10. The
4. The design flow for AEPC subsidized micro considered project is 55kW Chhotya Khola Micro-
hydropower projects should be available at least 11 Hydropower Project in Dhading. The information
months in a year (i.e., the probability of exceedance required for computations such as the MIP regions
should be 11 months or more). The design flow and the corresponding coefficients are presented in
corresponding to the installed capacity (Qd) should the spreadsheet. The project lies in MIP region 3. The
not be more than 85% of the 11-month exceedance measured discharge of 80 l/s on March 23 shows that the
flow. Loses and environmental releases should also project is proposed to utilize a small stream. Although
be considered if it exceeds 15% of the 11-month the floods are not critical to the project, they are
exceedance. There is a provision of ±10% tolerance calculated for sizing floodwall and other structures. The
on Qd at the time of commissioning a scheme. design discharge of 80 l/s has a probability of exceedance
of 10 months only and hence does not qualify AEPC
5. The design flow for other projects should be based on acceptance criteria. For AEPC to qualify this project, the
the prudent practices of the stakeholders and project turbine design discharge should not exceed 73.389 l/s.
optimization. For example for a small hydropower The detailed calculations are:
Start Q designed
& MGSP
Q diverted
Project name, location, Q losses
river, Qd, % losses Q release
Q available
Q measured, MIP Q exceedance
date measured, Q monthly of selected Q
MIP region
Hydest Monthly
Catchment areas Monthly flows Hdrograph Q
MWI Flow duration curve FDC
Flood flows Floods
Measured flows
End
Figure 2.9: Flow chart of Hydrology spreadsheet
25
MIP mean flows:
Corrected coefficient and midmonth discharges (Kc March) for Region 3:
Since the measured date of March 23 lies in between March 15th and April 15th,
K March = 1.38
K April = 1.00
Kc March = K March+ (K April -K March)*(Date -15)/30 = 1.38 + (1.00-1.38)*(23-15)/30 = 1.2787
Q March = Q measured *K March /Kc March = 80 *1.38/1.2787 = 86.34 l/s
Q April = Q March /K March = 86.34/1.38 = 62.57 l/s
Q May = Q April *K May = 62.57 * 1.88 = 117.62 l/s
Other mean monthly discharges are calculated similar to the discharge calculation for the month of May.
Hydest flows:
Long term mean monthly flows:
Long term mean monthly flow for the month of January is calculated using the following equation:
Q mean January = C.(ATotal)A1.(A5000A+1)A2.(MWI)A3
Q mean January = 0.01423.(15) 0.(10+1) 0.9777.(1600) 0
Flow Duration Curve (FDC):
Hydest method gives flow exceedance corresponding to 0%, 5%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, 95% and 100% calculated
using the equations above. For example Q 5% is calculated by using following equation:
lnQ5% = - 3.4978 + 0.9814*ln(10+1) + 0.2670*ln(1600) = 0.82536
Q5% = e0.82536 = 2.283 m3/s
Flood Flows
The 2-year and 100-year floods are:
Q2 daily = 0.8154 x (A3000 +1) 0.9527 = 0.8154 * (1.5+1) 0.9527 = 1.952 m3/s
Q2 inst = 1.8767 x (A3000)0.8783 = 1.8767 x (1.5+1)0.8783 = 4.197 m3/s
Q100 daily =4.144 x (A3000 +1)0.8448 =4.144 x (1.5 +1)0.8448 = 8.987 m3/s
Q100 inst = 14.630 x (A3000 +1)0.7343 = 14.630 x (1.5+1)0.7343 = 28.669 m3/s
26
Peak discharges for other return periods are calculated by using these formulas:
⎛ Q 100 ⎞
ln ⎜⎜
⎝ Q2 ⎠
⎟⎟
QF = e
(lnQ 2 + S σ lnQF )
σ l nQF =
2.326
Q20 daily = EXP(ln(1.952 )+ 1.645*(ln(8.987/1.952)/2.326)) = 5.747 m3/s
Q20 inst = EXP(ln(4.197 )+ 1.645*(ln(28.669/4.197)/2.326)) = 16.334 m3/s
Different discharge calculations (as per AEPC criteria):
Qturbine = 85% of the 11 month flow exceedance from the MIP flow if the designed flow is higher or the design
flow.
= 73.389 l/s (since the design flow is higher and has 10 months exceedance only)
Qdiverted = Qturbine / (1-%losses) = 73.389 / (0.95) = 77.252 l/s
Qlosses = Qdiverted -Qturbine = 77.252-73.389 = 3.863 l/s
Qrelease = Qmin MIP *%release = 62.57 * 0.05 = 3.128 l/s
Qrequired at river = Qdiverted + Qrelease = 77.252+3.128 = 80.380 l/s
Mean monthly flows estimated by Hydest, 2 sets of MIP and measured/derived are presented in the spreadsheet.
MIP 1 is chosen for further computations. A hydrograph including the design flow, exceedance of the proposed
design flow and the flow acceptable for AEPC is presented in Figure 2.10. Flow duration curves along with
corresponding data at different probability of exceedances and floods corresponding to different return periods
ranging from 2 to 100 years of return periods are also presented in the spreadsheet.
27
m3/s
Figure 2.10: Hydrological estimation by “Hydrology”
28
3. Discharge Measurement
3.1 General Use of conductivity method has been widely used in

prevailing micro hydropower projects in Nepal. Although
This chapter has been prepared to provide an overview the current meter method is very useful for measuring
of discharge measurement methods useful for mini flows within wide ranges, use of current method is
and micro hydropower projects. The methods that limited in Nepali micro and mini hydropower projects
are recommended for minor water resources projects mainly because of the lack of knowledge, skills amongst
such as pico-hydropower projects, rural gravity water the engineers and inadequate budget allocation for
supply systems, minor irrigation projects, etc., are not hiring external consultants.
presented in this manual. Hydrological studies including
discharge measurements for major water resources Other methods such as the bucket method is only
schemes require rigorous analysis, which is beyond the recommended for measuring discharges up to 10 l/s.
scope of this manual.
Based on the observed flood marks, average cross
3.2 Stream Flow Measurement section of flow at a particular cross section, stream bed
characteristics and longitudinal slope of the channel,
Stream flow measurement is the process of measuring flood discharge can be estimated by slope area method.
discharges that are flowing at a particular time at a
particular point of a channel of water. Measurement of A site visit should be made between the months of
stream flows (often expressed in m3/s or l/s) in natural November to April to measure the river discharge at the
channel is relatively complicated and problematic due to intake site. Flows measured in May were found to be
the change of flow parameters (such as cross sectional erroneous and hence should be avoided.
areas, velocity, sub-surface flow, etc.).
Salt dilution method (conductivity meter) should be
Although there are a number of standard and advanced used to measure the flows up to 1500 l/s. For flows
flow measurement methods, use of one or more of greater than 1500 l/s current meter should be used.
the following methods are considered adequate and
recommended for AEPC subsidized hydropower projects Minimum of three sets of measurement should be
in Nepal: provided for discharge measurement.
1. Conductivity Method or Salt Dilution Method For projects greater than 50 kW, minimum of two sets
2. Current meter of flow measurements should be taken at a time span of
one month minimum.
29
4. Conductivity Meter Flow

Measurement
4.1 General • The salt type / brand should be identical to the one
that is used for calibrating the instrument.
Conductivity of water increases with its salt contents
and temperature. Flow measurement using conductivity 4.2 Measurement Procedure
meter, also known as the “salt dilution method”, involves
pouring a known quantity of salt solution some distance 4.2.1 List of equipment and accessories
upstream of gauging location (usually 30 to 100m) and
measuring the change in conductivity as the salt wave 1. A conductivity meter covering a range of 0 – 10,000
approaches. The salt solution changes the conductivity micro-Siemens (μS) and spare batteries. HANNA HI
of the river (as the salt wave travels downstream) and 933000 is the mostly used meter although HACH
this change in conductivity can be related to the river Sension5 is better with respect to the performance
flow if base line conductivity of the river, the type and and cost.
amount of salt added and water temperature are known.
2. A thermometer to measure the water temperature.
As the salt wave passes the measurement location, the
Hach SensION 5 has a built in temperature probe
conductivity of the river returns to its original level (i.e.
and has the capability of adjusting salt constant for
base line conductivity).
different temperature.
The salt dilution method is quick (generally less than 10 3. Salt (according to estimated discharge and in sealed
minutes per set of measurement), easier to accomplish, plastic bags of 200, 500 and 1000 grams). The same
reliable and its accuracy level is relatively higher (less brand of powdered salt that was used for calculating
than 7% error) than other methods. This method the salt constant k should be used. Aayonoon is the
suitable for smaller fast flowing streams (up to 1500 l/s). recommended brand of salt available in Nepal.
The instrument and accessories are easier for carrying in
remote places. In this method, the change of conductivity 4. A weighing machine for weighing salt. The standard
levels of the stream due to pouring of known quantity packets of salt have to be weighed and the actual
of predefined diluted salt (50-300gm per 100 l/s) are weight should be marked/tagged on the individual
measured with a standardized conductivity meter (with bags. Any digital weighing machine with 20 grams or
known salt constant, k) at a regular interval (e.g., 5 less sensitivity is recommended.
seconds).
5. A stop watch. Experiences shows that a wrist watch
with a second hand is more convenient for stating
For accurate results, following conditions have to be
digital reading of conductivity meter.
ensured:
6. A 20 liter plastic bucket for mixing salt and water
• The salt solution poured upstream must be completely and pouring. A stirring rod and a one liter plastic jug
mixed throughout the river cross section before it are also recommended for better mixing.
arrives at the measurement location.
• Stream should be as turbulent as possible. 7. Graph papers (mm type) for plotting conductivity
• The stream section should not have large stagnant meter reading versus time graph.
pools.
• There should not be any inflows into or outflows 8. Recording and Calculating forms as presented in
from the stream between the points where the salt the spreadsheets.
solution is poured and the measurement location. 9. A pocket calculator for flow calculation at site. A
Use of conductivity meter is not recommended to scientific calculator (such as CASIO FX 78) can be
use during heavy raining and flood season. used for calculating the discharge quickly.
• The conductivity meter probe should be submerged
in fairly fast flowing section of the river. 10. Pencils and erasers.
• The amount of salt stated in the packets is verified.
The salt should also be dry and free flowing. 11. Cloth to clean and dry conductivity meter probe.
30
Figure 4.1: Hach sensION 5 and HANNA HI 933000 conductivity meters
4.2.2 Discharge measurement and The entire solution should be poured quickly and
Computation in one go. Slow pouring may cause fluctuations in
the conductivity readings and hence less accurate
1. Stream Reach: Find a section of the stream with results.
no inflows, no outflows and no stagnant pools in
between the salt pouring point and the gauging 6. Reading and Recording: Start the stopwatch and
point. This section should preferably be turbulent. note down the readings on the conductivity meter as
The length of this reach should be between 30m for soon as there is an increase in the values from the
very turbulent to over 100m for tranquil water. base line conductivity. The common practice is to
note down the readings in five seconds intervals. It
2. Baseline Conductivity: Turn on the conductivity is useful to have two persons to take the readings at
meter and submerge the probe in a fast flowing the measurement site. One person to read aloud the
section of the stream. Record the baseline conductivity values every 5 seconds intervals and the
conductivity (i.e. natural conductivity of the river other to record these values in standard recording
before the addition of the salt solution). Based on the and calculation form.
baseline conductivity, adjust the probable recording
setting in mili-Siemens (mS) or micro-Siemens (μS) The conductivity readings should be taken
in case HANNA HI 933000 is used. No record setting continuously until the value diminishes back to
is needed for Hach SensION 5. the baseline conductivity of the stream. Note that
sometimes, the conductivity values will remain
3. Stream Temperature: Measure and record stream above the baseline value by a few μS for a long time.
temperature for adjusting conductivity coefficient. If this is the case, then the conductivity readings
No adjustment of conductivity constant is necessary can be stopped since the difference of a few percent
for Hach SensION 5 because it is capable of adjusting in conductivity does not contribute significant
conductivity reading with respect to any temperature additional flows.
change.
Record other data such as weather, date, time etc. as
4. Salt Solution: Estimate (visual) the stream flow. shown in the presented data sheet.
Prepare the first salt water solution at the rate of 100
gram of salt for every 100 l/s of stream flow. Stir the 7. Plotting: Plot the reading on the graph paper with
solution with a clean stick until the salt is completely time in seconds in the horizontal axis and conductivity
dissolved. The amount of salt to be poured depends in mili or micro Siemens (mS or μS) in vertical axis
on the baseline conductivity of the flow and it ranges as shown Figure 4.3. Repeat the measurement with
from 50 to 300 gm of salt for each 100 l/s of stream more or less amount of salt, changing stream stretch
flow. Care must be taken in mixing known quantity or both unless the satisfactory results as presented
of salt and the solution should not be spilled. in Table 4.1 are obtained. Inaccurate graphs and their
probable reasons as well as remedial measures are also
5. Pouring of Salt: Signal the person at the pouring presented in the Table. As presented in condition (a)
point to pour the salt-water solution into the stream. of the Table, the perfect condition graph has smooth
31
rise and fall limb with distinct peak. Generally, the of conductivity in μΣ in the vertical axis and time in
results are perfect with the peak ranging from two to seconds in the horizontal axis excluding the baseline
three times the base conductivity. conductivity (i.e., conductivity measure before pouring
the salt solution upstream). Hence, the units of "Area"
8. Calculation of Discharge: Once a satisfactory graph under the graph are μS sec. nr is the number of
is obtained, the flow can be calculated as follows: readings taken at an interval of dt. μbaseline is the baseline
conductivity of the stream.
Stream Flow, Q (l/s) = M (mg) x k(μS /(mg/lit))/A(sec x μS)
9. Second Set Measurement: After satisfactory results
Where, are obtained, take a second set of measurement to
Q = flow in liter/sec verify the first. Note that this will only require about
half an hour of additional work at site and will be cost
M = mass of dry salt in mg (i.e.10-6 kg) effective compared to coming back to site the second
time for flow measurements.
k = salt constant in (μS)/(mg/litre) and is dependent on
the nature of salt and water temperature (if conductivity 4.2.3 Example 4.1: Flow calculation
meter is not of temperature adjustment type). The units using conductivity meter
of k are (μS)/(mg/litre) or micro Siemens per milligram
per liter. Note that conductivity is the reciprocal of The input parameters required for the discharge
resistivity and, 1micro Seamen (1 μS) = 1 ohm-1 x 10-6 calculation are presented in Table 4.2. Discharge
and 1 Siemen = 1 ohm-1. For determination of k –value, measurement carried out in a small river is considered as
refer to section 4.2. an example. The typical input parameters considered in
the example are presented in the adjacent column. The
A = effective area under the graph of conductivity versus first set of field readings are presented in Table 4.3.
time, after excluding the area due to base conductivity.
The units for the area under the graph is sec x μS. The The calculation procedures for the first set of
area is determined as follows: measurement (Set 3) are:
Area (A) = (Σμ– nr x μbaseline) * dt
Area (A) = (Σμ– nr x μbaseline) * dt = (3997-106*24)*5
= 7265 sec x μS
Note that the "Area" here is the area under the graph
Figure 4.2: Flow measurement using conductivity meter
32
Discharge (Q) = M x k/A conductivity and it is multiplied by 106 since there are
= 1795000*1.8/7265 106 readings. Finally, (3997 – 106 x 24) is multiplied by 5,
= 444.735 l/s = 445 l/s since the readings are taken in 5 seconds intervals. Thus,
the area under the curve above the baseline conductivity
The calculated net area of 7265 is the sum of the net is calculated. The graph of the above reading is also
increased total conductivity readings. 24 is the baseline presented in Figure 4.4. Note that the shape of the graph
is similar to that of the ideal case (Table 4.1a).
Table 4.1: Typical Conductivity Graphs
Condition Graph Remarks
Perfect: The rise and fall of conductivity are smooth. It is not too
a
steep or stepping and has a distinct peak.
Meter Saturated: Change scale or pour less salt of use more

b
distance. HACH Sension5 is capable of adjusting automatically.
c Badly Skewed: Use longer distance
Uneven reading. Salt not mixed properly. Use longer distance.

d
Presence of a pool might be the other reason.
Insufficient response compared to base level. Use more salt or

e
short distance.
Conductivity μ (10-6 ohm-1)
80
60
Area under curve

40
20
Background conductivity
0
30 60 90 120 150 180
Time (seconds)
Figure 4.3: Effective Area under Curve
33
Table 4.2: Input parameters for Salt Dilution Method

SN Input parameters Input for the cited (Example)
1 River Mai Khola
2 Conductivity Meter HANNA Instruments HI 933000
3 Date July 17, 2007
4 Type of Salt Iodized Salt
5 Conductivity Constant (μ Siemens) 1.8 at 15oC
6 Water temp 15oC
7 Time Intervals (dt) 5sec
8 Weights of salt for sets 1 to 4 (M in g) 1795g
9 Readings (μ & μbaseline) Presented in Table 3.3
Table 4.3: First set conductivity reading for Salt Dilution Method (Example)
Time(sec)
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 Sum
24 25 25 26 27 29 30 32 33 37 39 42 369
45 48 49 51 52 54 55 56 58 58 58 58 642
59 58 58 57 57 56 56 55 54 53 52 52 667
51 50 49 48 48 47 46 45 44 44 43 42 557
Water Conductivity in μS 42 41 40 39 39 38 37 37 36 36 35 35 455
34 34 34 33 33 32 32 32 31 31 31 30 387
30 30 30 29 29 29 29 28 28 28 28 27 345
27 27 27 27 27 27 27 26 26 26 26 26 319
26 26 26 26 26 26 25 25 25 25 256
Total (μΣ) = Σμ 3997
Table 4.4: Conductivity readings for calibrating
Incremental amount of Cumulative amount of
Salt concentration Conductivity Slope
calibration solution added calibration solution
in Bucket (mg/l) readings (μs)
Volume (ml) Wt. (mg) Volume (ml) Wt. (mg)
0.00 0 0.00 0 0 20.35 --
10.25 205.00 10.25 205.00 20.48 67.30 2.293
11.50 230.00 21.75 435.00 43.41 115.00 2.081
22.75 455.00 44.50 890.00 88.61 205.00 1.991
10.00 200.00 54.50 1090.00 108.41 238.00 1.666
10.25 205.00 64.75 1295.00 128.67 290.00 2.567
Slope based on average slope 2.120
Slope based on trend line (using k=INDEX(LINEST(Conductivity, Salt concentration),1) 2.014
Slope based on trend line graph reading(150/74) 2.027
Figure 4.4: Graph of conductivity over time (Based on data from Table 4.3)
34
Figure 4.5: Graph of conductivity over time (Based on data from Table 4.4)
4.3 Determination of K-value 3. Measure the temperature and the base conductivity
of the water in the bucket and note them.
The accuracy of flow measurement depends on the
calibration of the conductivity meter. The conductivity 1. Inject 10 ml of the above-calibrated solution into
meter is calibrated by carefully determining the salt the bucket. Stir the salt-water solution to ensure
constant (k value) for the type of salt used under proper mixing and then note the conductivity
controlled laboratory conditions. reading when the reading does not fluctuate.
4.3.1 List of equipment and accessories Weight of salt added = 10ml*20mg/ml = 200mg
for determining the value of k Volume of water in the bucket = 1.0 liter + 20 ml =
1000 ml + 20 ml = 1020 ml.
1. Conductivity meter
2. Thermometer 2. Repeat step 4 about five times so that there are
3. Weighing machine adequate data to calculate the salt constant.
4. Plastic Bucket (10 – 20 liter)
5. Graduated cylinder (1 liter) made of glass or plastic 3. Now plot the conductivity values (μS) in the
6. Pipette (100ml syringe as an alternative if pipette is vertical axis and the cumulative salt concentration
not available) (mg/liter) in the horizontal axis. Then draw a
7. Stirring rod made of glass or plastic best-fit straight line joining the five data points.
8. Salt (of the type that will be used for flow Determine the slope of this line, i.e., rise in
measurement) conductivity over rise in salt concentration which
is the value for the salt constant (k value).
4.3.2 Procedures
Note that if the conductivity meter is not of temperature
The value of k for the chosen conductivity meter and salt compensating type then the calibration method presented
for specified temperature is determined using following above should be repeated at various temperatures and
procedures: then the change in k value with change in temperature
can be determined. If the procedure is repeated 3
1. Pour 10 liters of tap water in the bucket. Use the – 4 times for temperatures between 5oC to 20oC, the
graduated cylinder to measure the exact volume of calculated values cover most of the cases at site.
water.
An example is presented below to further illustrate the
2. Using the weighing machine weigh 20 gm of salt. calibration of the conductivity meter.
Pour 1.0 liter (1000 ml) of tap water in the graduated
cylinder. Pour the salt in water and stir with a 4.3.3 Example 4.2: Conductivity meter
stirring rod until it is completely dissolved. Now the calibration
concentration of salt in the calibration solution is
20gm/1000 ml = 20mg/ml. Concentration of calibration solution = 20 mg/ml
Volume of water in the bucket = 5 liter
35
Baseline conductivity = 20 μs (i.e., conductivity before 4.5 Calculation at site

the calibration solution is poured in the bucket
Temperature of water (t) = 15oC Calculation of measured flows and plotting of graphs
Conductivity readings are presented in Table 4.4 of the corresponding data are always recommended at
site for verification. This saves critical time of revisiting
The plot of the salt concentration data in the bucket the intake site in case the measured discharge is not
(mg/l) in the horizontal axis and conductivity readings within acceptable limits. It is recommended to carry out
(μS) in the vertical axis is presented in Figure 4.5. The a number of measurements until at least two consistent
slope of the straight trend line is the salt constant which results (within 10%) are obtained. Procedural steps for
is 2.014. Alternative, less precise methods of based on checking flow with the help of a scientific calculator
the average of individual straight line segments and (Casio Fx 78 or equivalent) are presented in this
graphical reading of the plot can also be used in case section. This procedure uses inbuilt standard deviation
linear trend line is erroneous. functions.
4.4 Program Briefing & Examples INV MODE => starts standard deviation mode (STD)
“Hydrology” spreadsheet presented in the tools can INV SAC => standard deviation all memory clear
handle up to four sets of data. The input parameters
required for the discharge calculation are presented 25x, 26x….=> input data (conductivity meter readings)
in Table 4.4. The third set of conductivity readings are
presented in Table 4.3. Conductivity readings of other Σx-n* (xbase) = *(dt) = (Area) =>2062-70*25=*5=1560
sets are presented in the Tools. The typical spreadsheet => gives area (A)
is presented in Figure 4.6.
INV MODE – exits STD MODE
For calculating and calibrating a conductivity meter for
1/x* (M)* (K)=Q => 15601/x *400000*1.8=461.54 (Q in
a particular salt, the “Condcalibration” spreadsheet is
l/s)
presented in the tools.
Note Italic & Underlined letters are individual calculator

keys
36
Figure 4.6: Discharge calculations by salt dilution method
37
5. Current Meter Method
5.1 General v̄ i = velocity at the mid-point of the considered strip =

(vi+vi+1)/2, since velocities are taken at di.
Current meters consist of a shaft with a propeller or
cups connected to the end. The speed of propeller
rotation is related to the stream velocity at the location
of the propeller. Current meters are supplied with their
individual velocity formulae relating to their rotational
speeds. Generally these devices are used to measure
velocities from 0.2 to 5.0 m/s with a probable error of
approximately 2%.
This is the most common method for measuring velocities

at any depth in larger streams and rivers (Q>1500 l/s)
which are not turbulent. Since most of the micro and
mini hydropower projects in Nepal utilize less than 1500
l/s of water; and the use of current meter requires well- Figure 5.1: Area velocity method
trained technicians, this method is recommended only
bigger schemes. There are two types of current meter readings commonly
used at present. The traditional one gives revolutions
In case the velocity of a stream does not vary significantly, in a specified time. Mean velocities in the given strips
an average velocity at a depth of 0.6 of the depth of are calculated by using number of revolutions within
channel is measured and used as an average velocity. specified time and given four instrument coefficients.
Alternatively, velocity of a deeper section where it is likely Modern current meters are capable of calculating
that the velocity changes considerably with the water velocities directly.
depth, an average of velocities measured at 0.2d and
0.8d is considered as the representing average velocity 5.1.1 Example 5.1: Discharge calculation
at that section. The average velocity is then multiplied by using a revolution based current
the cross sectional area of the flow to calculate discharge meter
flowing through that section.
The input parameters such as chainage, depths, time
Q=A*v periods, revolutions, instrument formulae, etc., related
to this example are given in Figure 5.2. The river
In case the velocities and depth at the considered that was gauged was a small and shallow. Therefore,
location vary significantly, the cross section is divided the instrument that was used was also a small size
into strips of parallel sections and discharge through instrument. The velocities were measured at 0.6 of the
these sections are calculated and summed to calculate corresponding depths. As can be seen in the Figure 5.2,
the total discharge. This method is termed as Mean it was not possible to use the current meter at the first
Section Method. The discharge based on the mean depth because the depth is only 0.04m. The procedures
section method is: for calculating stream discharges using mean section
method are as:
Q=a1v1+a2v2+…..anvn = ∑ai*vi
Strip 2-3
Where, Given parameters are:
Q = discharge (m3/s)
Current meter formulae for calculating velocity:
2
ai = mean section (m ) = (di+ di+1)/2*w for equally spaced VN>40=0.6831N/T+0.00686,
widths
VN=<40=0.6598N/T+0.01150
= [(di*wi) +(di+1*wi+1)] /2 for unequally spaced widths.
Where, N and T are the number of revolutions and time
wi = strip width taken for observation respectively.
38
Considering the second strip, Discharges for other strips are calculated in similar
Depth d2 = 0.04m manner and they are summed to get the total discharge.
The total discharge is 0.447 m3/s as shown in Fig 5.2.
Depth d3 = 0.09m
5.2 Program Briefing and Example
Width w2 = Chainage 3 – Chainage 2
5.2.1 Program Briefing and Example for
= 1-0.5 = 0.5m Revolution based Current Meter
Velocity, v1 = 0 m/s (from strip 1 calculations) The Tools for estimating gauged discharge using a
current meter consists of two main parts namely the
Time taken T= 46 seconds calculations and the interactive chart of the river cross
section profile. Note that the instrument coefficients
Number of revolutions (N) = 20 (a, b, c and d) are taken from the given input of string
Solution: formulae. These formulae should be entered properly so
Strip area, a2 = (d1 + d2)/2 *w2 that the coefficients do not result in errors.
= (0.04+0.09)/2*0.5
= 0.0325 m2 The spreadsheet is designed to accommodate, format
and copy the necessary rows based on the user input.
Since the number of revolution is less than 40, the Any insertion or deletion of rows is also possible
velocity v2 is given by: manually. However, it should also be noted that the
first and last depth rows should not be deleted. The
v2= VN=<40 example presented in 5.1.1 is utilized in the presented
spreadsheet “CurrentMeterRev” in Figure 5.2.
= 0.6598N/T+0.011500
= 0.6598*20/46 + 0.01150 5.2.2 Program Briefing and Example for
= 0.2984 m/s Velocity based Current Meter
Mean velocity, v2 = (v1 + v2)/2 The spreadsheet “CurrentMeterVel” utilizes velocities

= (0 + 0.2984)/2 computed by digital current meters for calculating river
= 0.1492 m/s discharges. An example is presented in Figure 5.3. As
presented in the figure, the spreadsheet can calculate for
Discharge, q2 = a2 * v2 discharges measured either at 0.6 depth or 0.2 and 0.8
= 0.0325 * 0.1492 depths.
= 0.004849 m3/s
39
Figure 5.2: An example of discharge calculation by revolution based current meter
40
Figure 5.3: An example of discharge calculation by velocity based current meter
41
6. Engineering Surveying
6.1 General adequate (1:100), it is not recommended for surveying

of engineering sub-projects in Afghanistan.
Land surveying has been defined as the art and science
of determining the position of natural and artificial The length or distance of one step or pace depends
features on, above or below the earth's surface; and on person to person. Therefore, “calibration” is
representing this information on paper plans, as figures recommended. “Calibration” consists of walking casually
in report tables or on computer based maps. over 100m counting the number of steps so that the
length of a casual step is known.
Introduction of basic engineering surveying methods
are briefly described in the first part of this chapter. For example, it took 125 steps to walk 100 m,
Some basic introduction and definitions of important so 100/125 = 0.8m average for each casual step.
terms are described in the second part of this chapter. If the number of steps measured is 89 steps, the distance
Standardization and basic assumptions made used covered is 89 x 0.8 = 71.2m.
in modern surveying equipment are also described
and compared with the academic surveying text 6.2.2 Chaining/Taping
book assumptions. Standard assumptions adopted
in the modern equipment are used in the subsequent Historically a chain is made up of 100 metallic links.
chapters. Now-a-days, this kind of chain is replaced by tapes made
of steel band, fibreglass, 'Stylon', or a cloth. Chaining or
6.2 Linear Distance: Distance taping is fairly quick, easy and cheap, and hence is the
most common form of distance measurement.
Between Two Points
Chaining is useful and accurate for short distance where
One of the fundamentals of surveying is the need
actual slope distance is concerned. Use of chaining in
to measure distances between points. Although the
Afghan engineering sub-project surveying should be
distances between two points on earth’s surface is not
limited to Abney and levelling methods.
linear due to the curvature of the earth, it is considered
a straight line in most of the engineering surveying.
Table 6.1 presents some relevant methods of measuring
6.2.3 Tacheometry
distances and their respective level of accuracies. It is
Tacheometry is an optical solution to the measurement
worth noting that higher level of accuracy necessitates
of distance. This method of survey consists of using a
more sophisticated and expensive instrument as well as
level, theodolite or specially constructed tacheometer to
higher level of skills, knowledge and longer time period.
make cross hair intercept readings on a levelling staff.
As the angle subtended by the crosshairs is known, the
6.2.1 Pacing
distance can be calculated. Broadly used present day
methods of tacheometry can be classified as:
Pacing is the basic form of linear distance measurement
and consists of walking casually from one point to another
1. Stadia System: A theodolite is directed at the level
point in straight line. It does not need any measuring
staff and the distance is measured by reading the top
instrument. Since the accuracy level of pacing is not
and bottom stadia hairs on the telescopic view. The
Table 6.1: Linear distance, relative accuracy and Uses

Method Relative Accuracy Use
Pacing 1:100 Rough identification surveys
Chainage/Taping 1:10,000 Title & Engineering surveys, Control
Range Finder 1:300 Navigation, Artillery ranging
1:1000
Tachaeometry Site Investigation, Mapping, Plans
1:5000
Electronic Distance 1:10,000 Title & Engineering surveys, Control, Geodetic surveys,
Measurement (EDM) 1:100,000 Deformation monitoring
42
reduced formula for calculating the distance (D) in 2. Electronic Tacheometry: Uses a total station which
Figure 6.1 is: contains an EDM, able to read distance by reflecting
off a prism placed at a target.
D= ks+C, where k and C are constants with a standard
value of 100 and 0 respectively. “s” is the staff Although electronic tacheometry is widely used
interception (T-B) which is equal to the difference elsewhere at present, the stadia method is still used
between top and bottom readings. in most of the Afghan engineering surveys.
In case the line of sight is not horizontal, the distance Modern total stations are capable of reducing the
SD is the slope distance (SD) as presented in Figure surveyed data into three dimensional coordinates
6.2 and can be calculated as: enabling to produce plans of large areas in a matter
SD = 100x s x cos (θ), of days that previously would have taken weeks. The
stadia formulae are replaced by slope distance and
This equation is used in most of the surveying text vertical angles and stored in electronic format.
books. However, modern surveying equipment uses
zero on vertical axis (zero at top as presented in Formulae for reducing different data used in
Figure 6.3) and hence the formula reduces to: electronic tacheometry are presented in Table 6.3.
SD = 100x s x sin (θ),
Table 6.3: Summary of formulae used in electronic
The equations based on the second assumption tacheometry
is recommended and used in all illustrations, electronic tacheometry
calculations and programs throughout this book. Particular
formulae
Horizontal Distance (HD) HD = SD * sin (θ)
Formulae for reducing different data using Vertical Distance (VD) VD = SD * cos (θ)
conventional textbooks are compared with that used Reduced Level of target RL = RLstn + VD-HT+HI
in modern equipment in Table 6.2.
HT and HI are reflector height and height of instrument
respectively
Table 6.2: Summary of formulae used in Stadia

Particular Conventional Modern Equipment (recommended)
Slope Distance (SD) SD = 100*(T-B)*cos(θ) SD = 100*(T-B)*sin(θ’)
Horizontal Distance (HD) HD = SD * cos (θ) HD = SD * sin (θ’)
Vertical Distance (VD) VD = SD * sin (θ) VD = SD * cos (θ’)
Staff Height (STAFF) STAFF = (T+B)/4+M/2
Reduced Level of target RL = RLstn + VD-STAFF+HI
T,M,B are staff readings, HI is the height of instrument
Figure 6.1: Stadia tacheometry concept Figure 6.2: Stadia method
43
Figure 6.3: Recommended vertical plane Figure 6.4: Electronic Tacheometry method
6.3 Coordinate Systems
Coordinates are unique identifiers which locate points of are mostly used in Engineering surveying.
interest in space with respect to a reference frame. The
point of interest may be a survey instrument station or Whole circle bearing is as an angle measured from a
a point of detail such as a land parcel corner on a map reference meridian, generally north, commencing from
or a building feature in a CAD model. Once a point has 0 degrees (0°) and increasing clockwise to 360 degrees
coordinates associated with it, the location can always (359°59'60").
be recovered with respect to the reference frame.
Although there are a number of standard and advanced
There are two basic coordinate systems used in surveying, engineering surveying methods, use of one or more of
namely the Rectangular or Cartesian System and the the following methods are considered adequate and
Polar System. recommended for AEPC subsidized hydropower projects
in Nepal:
The Cartesian system uses orthogonal axes (a right angle
or 90o between the axis and the coordinate lines), to 1. GPS surveying for transmission line and location of
uniquely define the location of each point. project components
The Polar system uses only one axis such as the North. 2. Levelling for small micro hydropower and head
Each point can be described in terms of its distance or measurement for all projects
radius from the datum origin and the angle between the
radius and the North axis. 3. Theodolite or total station for all kind of surveying.
6.4 Angular Units The equipment recommended for use during the site
survey are presented in Table 6.4. Since there can be a
An angle is the arithmetic difference between two significant time gap between the detailed survey and
directions or bearings. Angle measurement is a construction of the scheme, permanent markings should
fundamental part of surveying field observations, as the be made and photographs should be taken at locations of
combination of a direction and a distance gives a polar key structures so that the contractor can determine the
vector to a point and hence a unique location of that site locations and alignment with ease. Depending on the
point in space. The instruments that have been developed ground conditions, wooden pegs driven to ground with
to facilitate angle (or direction) measurement are the exposed end painted or paint marks on nearby boulders/
magnetic compasses, the sextants and the theodolites. rock outcrops are appropriate. Paints, such as enamel,
that do not easily wear off due to adverse weather
Angles can be measured in radians, gradians and degrees conditions should be used. Guidelines for marking at
(π radian = 200g = 180o). Angles in gradians and degrees site and photographs are also presented in Table 6.4.
44
Figure 6.5: Cartesian coordinates system Figure 6.6: Polar coordinate system
Table 6.4: Equipment and markings for site survey

S.N. Area Survey Equipment Markings & photographs
Level machine with GPS
Enamel paints on permanent boulders and rock
(for locations) and Tape, or
1. Intake site outcrops at river banks & photograph of the intake
Theodolite or similar accuracy
area
equipment.
Wooden pegs along the alignment at 10 m – 20 m
Level machine with GPS and
intervals and along bends & an overall photograph
2. Headrace alignment Tape, or Theodolite or similar
showing the alignment and others if there are site
accuracy equipment
specific features such as crossings, siphons etc.
Wooden pegs at the anchor block locations and 10 m
– 20 m intervals along the alignment. A photograph
3. Penstock alignment Tape, or Theodolite or similar
showing the penstock alignment should be taken at
accuracy equipment
site.
Level machine with GPS and Wooden pegs or marking on boulders/rock. A
4. Powerhouse site Tape, or Theodolite or similar photograph showing the powerhouse should be
accuracy Equipment taken.
Wooden pegs along the alignment at 10 m – 20 m
intervals or marking at boulders. A photograph of the
5. Tailrace Tape, or Theodolite or similar
tailrace alignment should be taken if this cannot be
accuracy Equipment
shown in the powerhouse photograph.
Transmission and/or A photograph showing the overall transmission and or
6. Compass and tape or GPS
distribution lines distribution lines should be taken.
Note: for schemes less than 10 kW of installed capacity, the survey work from intake to tailrace may be conducted using
an Abney level and a tape.
45
7. GPS Surveying
7.1 General
In this chapter, the topic of Global Positioning System

(GPS) will be dealt at a very introductory level and the
use of GPS. In order to understand the GPS fully, a high
level of geodetic and mathematical knowledge is required
and is beyond the scope of this chapter. GPS can be used
for micro and mini hydropower projects for:
1. GIS: location of VDCs and project components.
2. Road: Location of different points along roads.
3. Ground Surveying: For calculating bearing and first
benchmark coordinates.
4. Micro-hydropower projects:
• Mapping of locations (longitudes and latitudes)
of different civil structures during pre-feasibility
survey.
• Mapping of altitudes if digital altimeter is in-built
in the receiver.
• Fixing transmission and distribution line routes.
Fixing pole stations (way point). GPS can be used
in both prefeasibility and detailed feasibility
transmission line surveying.
5. Water supply: locations and major pipe lengths.
7.1.1 GPS and Introductory Phrases
The Navigation Satellite Timing and Ranging

(NAVSTAR) Global Positioning System (GPS) is a
network of 24 orbiting satellites that can be used to
provide information of the location of a signal receiver Figure 7.1: Waypoints, tracks & routes
(GPS units) on the earth’s surface. These satellites were
placed into elliptical orbits at an altitude of 26,000km 3. WGS 84: World Geodetic System 1984. It is a
by the US Department of Defence. They have been made mathematical model of presenting earth’s surface
available for civilian uses since 1980s. GPS works in any projection on paper.
weather conditions, anywhere in the world, 24 hours a
day. There are no subscription fees or setup charges to 4. Waypoint: A landmark on one’s way (recorded during
use GPS. Following introductory definitions related to positioning or mapping or navigation).
GPS are worth understanding: 5. Route: A route is a line connecting waypoints.
1. Positioning: Positioning is the process of acquiring 6. Track: A track is a log of trails without any
location point coordinates of an unknown location waypoints.
on the earth’s surface. It answers the question of
7. Location format: GPS sets are capable of presenting
“Where am I?”.
locations in different projections and formats.
2. Navigation: Navigation is the process of revisiting a WGS 84 is the most widely used system. Two
known location on the earth’s surface. It answers the formats of locations or coordinates namely, the
question of “Where am I going?”. decimal degrees (for example N37.1234567o,
46
E67.1234567o, Z1830.346m) and rectangular 2. Control segment: The control segment is the ground
coordinates (N3860708m, E5841481m, 1830 m) are station which controls the GPS satellites by tracking
recommended for Global Information System (GIS) them and then providing them with corrected orbital
and engineering surveying respectively. GPS units and time information. There are 5 control stations, 4
and the bundled software are capable of calibrating unmanned and 1 manned master control stations.
and interchanging formats.
8. Differential GPS: A GPS capable of receiving corrected

signal from a nearby known DGPS transmitter. It has
relatively higher level of accuracy (1 – 5 metres).
7.1.2 Segments of GPS
Figure 7.4: GPS receivers
3. User segment: The user segment consists of GPS

receivers and their users. A GPS receiver with world
map, built in altimeter, USP data capable (example:
Figure 7.2: Segments of GPS Garmin Etrex Vista Cx) is highly recommended.
GPS consists of a space, a control and a user segments. 7.1.3 GPS Working Principles
1. Space segment: The space segment consists of:
A GPS receiver compares the time signal transmitted by
• 24 solar powered satellites (21 operating and 3 the satellites with its time. Based on the time difference,
spare) travelling at 7,000 miles per hour with the receiver calculates the position (distance) of the
a period of orbit of 12 hours (two orbits in 24 satellites as:
hours) and transmitting low power radio signals.
Distance = velocity of radio wave * travel time
• 6 elliptical orbital planes (4 satellites in each
plane) at an altitude of 12,000 miles. With the help of illustration presented in Figure 7.5,
the working principle of GPS can be demonstrated. If
the receiver calculates that it is X miles away from one
satellite, it knows that it must be somewhere on an
imaginary sphere, with the satellite as the centre and a
radius of X.
If the receiver can generate these spares for two satellites,

it knows it can only be located where the surfaces of the
two spheres intersect. The surfaces of the two spheres
intersection is a ring of possible receiver positions
(i.e., along a circle). By generating a sphere for a third
satellite, the receiver narrows its possible positions
down to two points. The fourth satellite sphere locates
the actual possible location. In case the signal from the
fourth satellite is not available, the receiver dismisses
unlikely point located in space, leaving only one possible
position.
Figure 7.3: Satellite Segment
47
Figure 7.5: GPS working principles
7.1.4 GPS Data
As stated earlier, a GPS receiver is used for acquiring

positional data on earth’s surface. It consists of
Longitudes, Latitudes and Elevations of those locations
in a desired format. Moreover, the GPS data can also be
used for navigating to the desired locations. The GPS
receiver can also be used for acquiring trip information
such as current heading, current speed, average speed,
current time and date, trip odometer, etc.
Morden GPS receiver (such as GARMIN Etrex Vista) can

also be used for acquiring celestial data at the prescribed
location. Sunrise, sunset, moon rise, moon set (to know
Eid in Afghanistan; for example), calendar, games, etc.
are the data that can be acquired from modern GPS.
In case the GPS is equipped with digital barometer,

altitudes based on barometric pressure can also be
acquired from the GPS.
Most of the GPS is equipped with digital compass which

is mostly used for navigational purposes.
Most of the modern GPS receivers are also equipped

with inbuilt or loadable digital maps with topographical
as well as political features such as rivers, lakes, cities,
country, railways, roads, etc.
In case the GPS is equipped with digital barometer,

altitudes based on barometric pressure can also be
acquired from the GPS.
Most of the GPS is equipped with digital compass which

is mostly used for navigational purposes.
Most of the modern GPS receivers are also equipped

with inbuilt or loadable digital maps with topographical
as well as political features such as rivers, lakes, cities,
country, railways, roads, etc.
48
7.1.5 GPS and Maps • Ionosphere and troposphere delays: The satellite
signal slows as it passes through the atmosphere. The
A paper map is the projection of earth’s spherical (3- GPS receiver uses a built-in model that calculates an
D) shape to a flat paper map with minimal distortion. average amount of delay to partially correct for this
Mercator Projection and Universal Transverse Mercator type of error.
Projection (UTM) are mostly used cylindrical projections
• Signal multipath: This occurs when the GPS signal
for creating paper maps. As presented in Figure 7.6, GPS
is reflected off objects such as tall buildings or large
maps are Space Oblique Mercator Projection which lines
rock surfaces before it reaches the receiver. This
the cylinder up with the orbital path of a satellite in
increase the travel time of the signal, thereby causing
order to accurately map the Earth from satellites with
errors.
little or no distortion.
• Receiver clock errors: A receiver’s built-in clock is
Orbital Path of a NAVSTAR GPS Satellite not as accurate as the atomic clocks on board the GPS
satellites. Therefore, it may have very slight timing
errors.
• Orbital errors: Also known as ephemeris errors,
these are inaccuracies of the satellite’s reported
location.
• Number of visible satellites: The more satellites
a GPS receiver can “see”, the better the accuracy.
Buildings, terrain, electronic interference, of
Figure 7.6: GPS map projection: Space Oblique
sometimes even dense foliage can block signal
Mercator Projection
reception, causing position errors or possibly no
position reading at all. GPS units typically will not
In addition to using for talking relative measurements
work indoors, underwater or underground.
of waypoints, distance, tracks and routes, GPS receivers
with maps can be used for performing following map • Satellite geometry / shading: This refers to the
related activities: relative positing of the satellites at any given time.
1. Measuring distance from map locations. Ideal satellite geometry exists when the satellites are
located at wide angles relatives to each other. Poor
2. Automatic bearing features (GoTo function).
geometry results when the satellites are located in a
3. Automatic plotting (marking waypoints). line or in a tight grouping.
4. Auto navigation.
• Intentional degradation of the satellite
5. Marking current location.
signal: Selective Availability (SA) is an intentional
6. Creating a route out of waypoints. degradation of the signal once imposed by the US
7. Automatic calculations (trip computers). Department of Defence. SA was intended to prevent
military adversaries from using the highly accurate
Maps can be either base maps or highly detailed maps. GPS signals.
Modern receivers are generally loaded/bundled with
base maps. Base maps consist of states, metro, roads,
lakes, rivers, airports, cities and other major data.
Relatively detailed maps can also be purchased and
loaded into modern GPSs. Highly detailed maps include
streets, restaurants, public utilities, banks, gas stations,
tourist information, topographical details, etc. For
infrastructure projects in Afghanistan, a GPS with the
base map of world is considered adequate (for example,
Garmin, Etrex Vista Cx with world map).
7.1.6 GPS Errors, Accuracy and

Limitations
Figure 7.7: GPS signal errors
Factors that can degrade the GPS signal and thus affect
accuracy include the following:
49
7.1.7 Settling up and using a GPS For Nepal infrastructure development engineering
Receiver projects, following advanced set ups are recommended
for horizontal datum and scale factor so that they can
Although every type of GPS receiver is unique in terms directly be plotted on Finmap:
of operational procedures, the common basic principles
of operating a GPS receiver are: Finmap Horizontal Datum:
1. Install batteries.
Spheroid: Everest 1830
2. Power on. Projection: Modified Universal Transverse Mercator
3. Adjust screen contrast and backlighting. Origin: Longitude 84o East, Latitude 0oNorth
4. Set up location, local time, desired output format. False co-ordinates of origin: 500,000m Easting, 0m
Northing
5. Move to a required page (such as the main, satellite,
map, trip, etc.). Scale Factor at Central Meridian: 0.9999
6. Perform required GPS action such as positioning,
navigation, find, data transfer, play games, calendar, δa = 860.655, δf = 0.28391368, δX = 289, δY = 734, δZ =
etc. 257 (these are required only for plotting GPS data into
7. Power off. existing Finmaps)
Since Garmin Etrex Vista Cx is one of the recommended 7.2 Set up and using etrex vista cx
GPS receiver, a detailed illustration of setting of and receiver
using this model for positioning and navigation are
presented in section 7.2. 7.2.1 Features of Etrex Vista Cx
7.1.8 Importing GPS data in Google Etrex Vista Cx receiver is capable of storing 500
Earth waypoints and maps, has 176 x 220 pixel display, 32-
hour battery life, automatic routing capabilities, colour
Advanced set up of a GPS receiver can be used for screen, microSD card slot. It also has built-in barometer.
transferring GPS data to tailored local paper maps or The features and button functions are presented in Figure
AutoCAD. The local tailored paper maps are prepared 7.8. Features and procedures related to positioning and
using: navigation are presented in this section.
• Horizontal datum: This consists of project name and 7.2.2 Main Pages of Etrex Vista Cx
system, origin and false coordinates of origin.
Etrex Vista Cx has six main Pages namely Main, Satellite,
7.1.9 Advanced Set up of a GPS Compass, Altimeter, Trip and Map. These pages are
presented in Figure 7.9. Page sequence can also be
Advanced set up of a GPS receiver can be used for amended. Additional user specific pages can also be
transferring GPS data to tailored local paper maps or added in this receiver.
AutoCAD. The local tailored paper maps are prepared
using: Satellite page is used for positioning purpose whereas
compass page is used for navigational purpose. Map
• Horizontal datum: This consists of project name and page can be used for both positioning and navigational
system, origin and false coordinates of origin. purposes.
• Scale factor at Central Meridian: such as δa, δf, δX, Main page is used for setting up the instrument and
δY and δZ. additional features.
50
Figure 7.8: Kay Functions of Etrex Vista Cx
Figure 7.9: Main Pages of ETrex Vista Cx
51
7.2.3 Positioning using Etrex Vista Cx Source software is presented in Figure 7.10. Detailed
software operational procedures is beyond the scope of
Display the Satellite or Map page. After required number this manual and hence not presented.
of satellites is visible, proceed as:
1. Press “enter” for a while (about 2 seconds). GPS data can directly be downloaded into Google Earth
and plotted the same with Google Features. Waypoints,
2. Change the default waypoint symbol (optional) tracks and routes recorded by GPS can be downloaded
3. Change the default waypoint name (optional) by activating Tools => GPS => Import as shown in Figure
4. Replace the GPS elevation with the actual elevation if 7.11. As can be seen in the figure, the data contained
known to refine a 3D position (optional) in Garmin and other GPS or digital files can be inserted
into Google Earth.
5. Press OK (delete, Goto and map options are also
available)
7.3 Program Briefing and
6. Proceed further (walk/drive) to record tracks/ Examples
routes.
The presented spreadsheet on GPS can be used for
7.2.4 Interfacing with computers (Map calculating different lengths along a set of continuous
Source and Google Earth) lines, bearings and deflection angles. The spreadsheet
can also be used for plotting the GPS points on to
Etrex Vista Cx receiver can be used and interfaced with a AutoCAD using scrip language.
computer as a USB flash drive or as a GPS receiver. It can
only be used as a GPS receiver if Map Source software An example of the main page of the spreadsheet is
is installed in the computer. As a GPS receiver, it can presented in Figure 7.12. Click the Input Rows button
be used to exchange waypoints, routes, track logs and for inputting and copying required number of rows along
Map Source Data to and from the computer in specified with formulas and formats.
formats. An example of the interface screen using Map
Figure 7.10: Interfacing Software main page screen for Etrex vista Cx receiver (Yakawlang, Bamyan,
Afghanistan)
52
Figure 7.11: Garmin GPS data of 20MW Lower Modi HEP inserted into Google Earth.
An example is presented in Figure 7.12. Manual = tan -1(2/16)

calculations of horizontal and slope distances, bearing = 7.1250 degrees
of individual lines and deflection angle of this line with
=7o07’30”
the previous line will be calculated. The formulae used
for calculations and their results are:
Since this is the first line, the deflection angle is the
deviation angle of this line with north. Outcome of
Calculation of Line 1-2
other points are presented in Figure 7.12. The deflection
Difference in Northing dN= N2 - N1 angle is the difference of the bearing of a line with the
= 3060990.000 - 3060974.000 previous bearing. For example, the deflection angle of
line 2-3 with Line 1-2 is:
= 16m
Difference in Easting, dE = E2 – E1 Bearing of line 1-2, φ1 = 7o07’30” and bearing of line 2-3,
= 668472.000-668470.000 φ2 = 17o21’14”. The deflection angle of line 2-3 with line
1-2 is:
= 2m
δ1 = 17o21’14” - 7o07’30”
Difference in Reduced level, dRL = RL2 – RL1
=10o13’44”
= 730.000 - 729.000
= 1m
It is worth noting that the bearings in other quadrants
Horizontal Distance, H1 (m) = √(dN2 + dE2) than the first quadrant have to be adjusted to the whole
= √(162 + 22) circle bearing. The processes of reducing bearings in
= 16.125 m other quadrants are presented in Chapter 10.
Slope distance, L (m) = √(H12 + dRL2) An example of AutoCAD a plan using script file is
= √(16.1252 + 12) presented in Figure 7.13. There are five AutoCAD scrip
= 16.155 m command line sets for plotting 3D poly line, points,
station names with reduced levels, Northing and Easting
Since both dN and dE are positive, the bearing line is in respectively. As described in Chapter one, text files with.
the first quadrant and bearing of line 1-2 is scr extension should be created and run in AutoCAD
φ1= tan-1(dE/dN) environment. The scrip file commands are presented in
53
Table 7.1. It is worth noting that the tabulated data is a and hidden data formatting such as spaces and carriage
single scrip file containing all the five sets of commands return.
Figure 7.12: GPS Data processing spreadsheet
Table 7.1: AutoCAD Scrip File (copied from

spreadsheet)
Figure 7.13: AutoCAD Plot of GPS points
54
8. Levelling
8.1 General Reduced level of the second staff station

RLb = Cola - Foresight (FSb)
Levelling is a method of surveying used for determination
of the difference of elevations or levels of various points Setting up levelling machine and checking of plumb
on the surface of the earth. Levelling is an important line of staff is very important for proper reading. It is
method of surveying for many engineering works and recommended that the horizontality of the instrument
construction projects such as road, irrigation, water line of sight has to be checked and any such error should
supply, micro-hydropower, building, drainage, etc. be compensated in all the reading.
Modern levelling machines are equipped with horizontal

Engineer’s or dumpy level is used for taking back and
graded circle and it can also be used for traversing on
foresight or intermediate sight readings. Height of
fairy levelled ground using stadia method.
Instrument method and Rise and Fall method are the
two mostly used methods of level reduction. Height of
8.1.1 Arithmetical Checks
Instrument Method recommended for use. Since the
line of collimation is considered to be horizontal, the Depending on the type of the first bench mark and
difference in the readings on the vertically held graduated looping, levelling can be of:
staff is a direct measurement of the differences in height
1. Open type levelling: The starting and ending
of the two points.
point of levelling are different points. The starting
collimation axis point can be of arbitrary. Alternatively, the both the
cross hairs starting and ending point can be known points with
known reduced levels.
2. Closed type levelling: The starting point and
cirular
ending point of levelling is the same point with or
bubble objective lens without established reduced levels.
levelling
screws
Depending on the type of levelling, one or more of
tripod
the following arithmetical checks can be applied for
calculating levelling errors:
Figure 8.1: Schematic illustration of a basic level 1. nBS = nFS: The number of back sight readings must
be equal to the number of fore sight readings. This
c arithmetical check is applicable for both the open
and closed type levelling.
b
a (RL = 100m)
backsight
1.75
foresight
0.70
2. dH = ΣBS – ΣFS = RLlast – RL first: The total difference
backsight foresight in height H between the starting point and the end
1.85 0.95
change
point is equal to the difference of the sums of all back
point sight and fore sight readings. This arithmetical check
is also applicable for both the open and closed type
La-b Lb-c
levelling.
3. ΣBS = ΣFS: If the loop is closed, dH becomes zero
Figure 8.2: Leveling at site and the sums of back sight and foresight readings
must be equal to each other.
From Figure 8.2:
In case there is an error, it is equally distributed over
Reduced level of the first staff station (station a) is the back sights (or foresights). An example of error
assumed to be known (RL=100). correction is presented in Table 8.1. As can be seen in
the table, the total error is 0.243m and distributed to
Collimation height of the first instrument station,
the three foresight readings arithmetically so that the
Cola = RLa + Back sight (BSa)
last known reading is 104.000m.
55
8.2 Measurement Procedures 8.2.3 Example 8.1: Level reduction by

Height of Instrument method
8.2.1 List of equipment and accessories
Field data from an open loop level surveying is presented
1. A leveling machine set with tripod and plumb
in Table 8.2. As presented in the table, the RL of the
bob.
first station is known and the last station is unknown.
2. Two sets of 4m graduated staff preferably with Therefore, no error can be trapped and distributed.
bubbles. However, arithmetical checks can be carried out.
3. A 50m tape for measuring slope distance.
Height of collimation of the first instrument station,
4. A permanent spray.
HC1 = RL1 + BS1
5. Surveying formats, note pads and pens.
= 100 + 1.850
8.2.2 Leveling and Computation = 101.850m
1. Reconnaissance Survey: A walk through surveying Two readings were taken from the first instrument
of the project area is recommended for planning for station, an intermediate sight of 2.185m at SN2 and a
number of stations, selecting routes, etc. fore sight of 0.95m at SN3. RL of these points can be
calculated based on HC1.
2. Marking: Mark the instrument and staff stations
with the spray. It is recommended that the vertical RL of IS, RL2 = HC1 - IS2
height between two consecutive stations should be = 101.850 – 2.185
within 4m.
= 99.665m
3. Setting up and centring the bubble: Set up the
RL of station 3, RL3 = HC1 – FS3
tripod, instrument and level by adjusting foot screws
in standard manner. = 101.850 – 0.950
4. Reading: Read and record a back sight, intermediate = 100.90m

sights and a foresight. Record the height of The instrument is moved to another station and back
instrument, horizontal angles and staff interception sighted to RL3 and RL3 is used as reference level for
in case the level machine is used for traverse surveying calculating level of station 4 (RL4).
using stadia method. HC2 = RL3 + BS3
5. Repeat: Repeat steps 2 to 4 for the remaining = 100.90 + 1.750
instrument stations.
= 102.650m
6. Computations: Calculate reduced levels.
RL of station 4, RL4 = HC2 – FS4
7. Arithmetical Checks: Perform arithmetic checks as = 102.650 – 0.700
described in section 8.1.1.
= 101.95m
Table 8.1: Distribution of Errors
Reduced Levels, RL (m)
Remarks
Calculated Corr. Factor Correction Corrected
100.000 100.000 Known level
99.665 99.665
100.900 1 -0.0810 100.819 Fore sight
101.950 2 -0.1620 101.788 Fore sight
104.243 3 -0.2430 104.000 Fore sight & known level
Table 8.2: Level field data of an open loop

SN Back Sight, BS Intermediate Fore Sight, FS Slope Distance Remarks
(m) Sight, IS (m) (m) (m)
1 1.850 Back sight to known RL of 100m
2 2.185 19.500
3 1.750 0.950 14.020
4 3.905 0.700 15.720
5 1.612 27.710 Fore sight to an unknown point
56
A summary of all the calculations are presented in If closed is chosen, the spreadsheet uses the first
Figure 8.3. Since the loop is an open type the first two reduced as the last reduced level and make necessary
arithmetical checks are applicable and are: corrections.
1. nBS = nFS:
Arithmetic checks in all the three cases are carried out
3 = 3, hence ok. and presented in the spreadsheet. For proper error
2. dH = ΣBS – ΣFS = RLlast – RLfirst: trapping and distribution, the last row should be not
7.505-3.262=104.243-100 deleted. The script command sets and the AutoCAD
Or, 4.243 = 4.243, hence ok. plotting using these script commands are presented in
Figures 8.4 and 8.5 respectively.
Examples
The presented spreadsheet on level reduction can be

used for level reduction in open as well closed loop with
optional error correction. The spreadsheet can also be
used for plotting a longitudinal profile along the levelled
points on to AutoCAD using script language.
An example of the main page of the spreadsheet is

presented in Figure 8.2. Click the input rows button for
inputting and copying required number of rows along
with formulas and formats. The script commands and
subsequent AutoCAD drawing are presented in Figure
8.3.
As presented in Figure 8.3, the Circuit Type (or loop) is

open with the first known reduced level. As stated earlier,
two options for open type are possible. The first one is an
open but ended at the known reduced level which should
be input to the Last RL cell. The difference between the
calculated last RL and the given Last RL is the error and
distributed to all the back sights accordingly. In case the
circuit type is an open and the last RL is not given, the
spreadsheet assumes that it is an open loop ending at
Figure 8.4: Script commands
an unknown point. In such a case error is unknown and
hence not distributed.
Figure 8.3: Level Data reduction spreadsheet
57
Figure 8.5: Plotting for level reduction results by scrip commands
58
9. Traversing
9.1 General
Traverse surveying and subsequent data reduction using

theodolites for stadia reduction method is described
in this chapter. Traversing and data reduction using
electronic distance measurement (EDM) are simpler
than the same with stadia method. Familiarity on stadia
method is adequate to understand the EDM method and
not presented in this chapter. However, option for using
EDM made available in the presented spreadsheets.
The alignment of projects or project elements such as

canals, access roads, transmission line, etc., seldom be
straight lines but will follow the natural features of the
topography. In such a case measurement of distances
and levels as described in earlier chapters is not sufficient
to produce plans and drawings representing the area
surveyed. In order to represent the actual surveyed area
on plans and drawings, these measured lines and levels
must be related to a coordinate system.
Traversing is an accurate method to represent such

details on plans and drawings. A series of control points
or stations, each one being inter-visible with its adjacent
stations, are chosen. The lines joining these stations, also
called traverse lines or legs, are measured. The horizontal
angles between successive lines, also called bearings, are Figure 9.2: Open and Closed Traverses
measured. Vertical angles of targets are also measured.
In case the legs form a closed polygon, it is called a closed For three dimensional controls, either of the following
traverse. An open traverse does not form a polygon. A criteria should be met:
closed traverse is recommended because it allows the 1. Two known coordinates of a reference and the first
correction of the inevitable random errors. instrument stations, or
2. Coordinates of the first instrument station and the
bearing of instrument to reference line.
distance Since most of the rural as well as urban reconstruction and

rehabilitation infrastructure project in Afghanistan are
distance far away from national benchmarks, it is recommended
that coordinates from GPS should be used as two known
coordinates.
distance It is also recommended that at least two stations of

the whole traverse should be marked with permanent
distance benchmarks either by stout wooden pegs or short pipes
or bolts set in concrete. These benchmarks can be used
for setting out future activities or reconstruction of the
whole traverse.
Figure 9.1: Traversing by angle & distances
59
Theodolites are normally used for measuring angles and 4. Angular Measurement – Set reference point as zero
staff interceptions or reflector heights. Coordinates of degree horizontal. Measure and record horizontal
the subsequent points and stations are calculated using and vertical angles of targets.
standard methods. In case a total station is used, no data
5. Linear Distance – Measure height of instrument.
reduction is required.
Measure staff interceptions of targets.
Traversing using theodolites is recommended for 6. Computations – Office works for checks and data
all the engineering reconstruction sub-projects in reduction include:
Afghanistan. a. Reduction of field data: Calculation of linear
distances (slope, horizontal and vertical
9.2 Measurement Procedures distances), reduced levels, bearings, coordinates
computations, etc.
9.2.1 List of equipment and accessories
b. Traverse table and drawings: Calculations of mis-
1. A theodolite set (with 20” accuracy) along with a closures including reduced level mis-closures,
tripod and plumb a bob. A theodolite with electronic distribution of these mis-closures, Calculations
distance measurement (EDM) or a total station can of accuracy and precision levels. It also includes
be a better alternative option although they are rarely preparation of final traverse table and preparation
used by the facilitating partners of the sub-projects of a plan.
at present.
2. Two sets of 4m staff. Two sets of reflector in case Detailed descriptions of reconnaissance and laying out,
EDM or total station is used. station marking, angular and linear measurements and
computations are presented in the subsequent sections.
3. A 2m tape for measuring instrument height.
4. Pegs, a hammer and accessories for establishing 9.2.3 Reconnaissance and Laying out
benchmarks and stations.
Reconnaissance and laying-out consists of the following
5. A pocket calculator.
procedures:
6. Surveying formats for recording readings.
1. Go over the route to be followed before commencing
7. Note pads and pens. work to know any special difficulties if any, the
number of pegs required, accessibility, etc.
8. Two sets of walky-talky (radio) for communication
(optional). 2. Locate approximate points on topographical maps if
they are available.
9. A color spray for marking stations.
3. As far as practical, the individual legs should be as
10. Permanent marker for marking pegs.
long as possible, as equal in length as possible, not
11. A camera. very short and are inter-visible to previous and next
stations. They should avoid grazing rays and heavy
9.2.2 Traversing and data reduction clearing or damage to crops, forest or property. The
1. Planning - Establish requirements for accuracy, maximum distance of reading using a 4m staff is
density and location of control points. Time and 400.
resources available should also be determined. 4. At least two stations should be visible from the future
Prepare a layout of the traverse. Tolerances should major construction sites.
be known to get the degree of precision, to select
the suitable equipment and materials needed and 9.2.4 Station marking
method of surveying.
2. Reconnaissance and laying out – Reconnaissance Station should preferably be marked on hard ground
survey of the traversing area to find out nature of with suitable markings. For minor constructions such as
terrain, access, location of points, etc. earth excavation, river training etc. temporary station
marks made of bamboo or wooden pegs can be used
3. Station marking – Decide and establish type of satisfactorily. For major and important construction,
mark, reference and protection. Write down special permanent station marks made of concrete should be
remarks if any. used.
60
Figure 9.3: Securing traverse stations
9.2.5 Angular and linear measurements 6. Shift the instrument to E & target the point A as the
reference point (000.0000g or o).
Angles are mostly measured in gradians and distances
7. Repeat steps to steps (3) to (6) for other stations.
in metres. Although EDM (electronic distance
measurement) is widely used for quicker and reliable
linear measurements, theodolite with stadia method is
recommended for Afghanistan (because of availability of
theodolite, scarcity of electricity for charging batteries,
skill and knowledge of surveyors and equipment
costs). Therefore, stadia method for angular and linear
measurements is described in this section.
1. For quick processes, two staff-men along with two
staffs are recommended one at the preceding station
and the other at succeeding station simultaneously.
For example, referring to Figure 9.4, if the instrument
is at A, one staff man with a staff should be at B and
the other at E. Figure 9.4: A cited closed traverse
2. Start setting instrument and place a staff at

the known reference coordinates. If reference 9.2.6 Computations and data reduction
coordinates are not available, use of GPS coordinates
in meters are recommended for the first bearing and Arrange observed horizontal included/excluded angles
station coordinates e.g. bearing of AB and station as presented in Table 9.1. Check the sum of the interior
coordinates of A. (anti-clockwise) or exterior (clockwise) angles using:
3. Set instrument at A and a staff at B and make it ΣAinternal = (n-2)* π, or

000.0000g or o and read the staff interceptions (top, ΣAexternal = (n+2)* π
middle and bottom hair readings) for calculating
linear distances.
4. Set a staff at E and measure the included angle (∠BAE)
and read the staff interception (top T, middle M and
bottom B hair readings) e.g., 98o54’ 10” as presented
in Figure 9.4.
5. Take minimum of two sets of measurements changing
the face of theodolite for each instrument station. Figure 9.5: Exterior and Interior angles
61
The value of π is 200 or 180 if the angles measured 9.2.8 Calculation of reduced levels.
are in gradians or degrees respectively. If the error is
permissible within the range for the specified work, the Generally calculations and corrections of reduced levels
main work of computing coordinates is to be proceeded. are not carried out in traverse computations. It is worth
noting that stadia surveying may produce considerable
Consider the closed traverse presented in Figure 9.4, the error in reduced levels. Therefore, a separate level
sum of interial angles is presented in Table 9.1. surveying is recommended if possible.
Table 9.1: Summary of internal angles In case the reduced levels are calculated using stadia
Angles Degrees Minutes Second Remarks method, the linear mis-closure on vertical plane is
A 98° 54' 10" Sum of internal distributed to all stations based on the cumulative leg
B 107° 32' 30" angles should be lengths from the beginning.
C 141° 27' 10" equal to (n - 2)π =
D 87° 15' 40" 540° in this case. mis-closure
E 106° 49' 40" Therefore the 1:x
A’ E D C B A
Total 539° 59' 10" angular mis-closure perimeter
1:y
= 50" which is
10"/angle and is Figure 9.6: Distribution of vertical mis-closure
permissible.
• STAFF= (T+B)/4 + M/2 = Middle reading of staff, this
Computation and data reduction consists of following formula distributes errors of reading T, M and B.
four parts:
• Vertical height difference, dV= VD –STAFF+ Height
1. Calculation of linear distances. of instrument (HI)
2. Calculations of reduced levels. • RLpoint = RLstn + dV
3. Calculation of bearings.
9.2.9 Calculation of bearings
4. Sum of internal/external angles check
5. Calculations of coordinates of new stations. In case bearing of the first reference line (line 2-1) is not
available, it should be calculated using station and RO
6. Calculations of mis-closures and levels of accuracies. coordinates as:
7. Distribution of mis-closures. • Bearing (θSTN-RO) of Reference point (RO) to Station
(STN).
As stated earlier in Chapter 4, the modern equipment
having zeroed upward on vertical plane and North • dN = NRO-NSTN
up on horizontal plane is assumed in the subsequent
N 1 (RO)
calculations. This is in contrast with most of the academic
literatures on surveying.
θ2
9.2.7 Calculation of linear distances.
a 3 (SOP)
Calculations of linear distance for stadia surveying are
carried out using the formulas and methods as briefed
2 (INST)
in Chapter 6. Slope, horizontal and vertical distances are
calculated. Figure 9.7: Included angle and bearing
• Slope Distance, SD=Abs(k*s*sin(VA))
• dE = ERO-ESTN
• Horizontal Distance, HD=Abs(SD.sin(VA))
• dRL= RLRO-RLSTN
=|ks.sin2(VA)|
• θSTN-RO = tan-1(dE/dN) which should be within zero and
• Vertical Distance, VD= SD.cos(VA) =ks.sin(VA). the whole circle. Correct using following conditions:
cos(VA) = ks/2*sin(2*VA)
• If dN is negative, add π
• k = 100
• If dN>0 and dE<0, add 2*π
• s = (T-B)
• Where, π is 180o or 200g or 22/7 radians
62
Bearing of the other legs are calculated using following understanding of the measurement process, and an
expression: acknowledgement that a line measured in extra-ordinary
conditions such as through dense bush in steep country,
Bearing = fore bearing of previous line + clockwise rainy day, etc. The Surveyor would perhaps add a few
included angles of that station centimetres or so to one of these 'suspect' lines and re-
compute the mis-closure.
For example, bearing of line 2-3 in Figure 9.7 is:
Although rarely performed, a graphical traverse
θ2-3 = θSTN-RO + a = θ21+ a, which should satisfy 0 < θ2-3 < adjustment is a good illustration of the principles of
2*π the Bowditch adjustment. A graphical traverse could be
done where graphical data only had been obtained, for
If θ2-3 < 0 then θ2-3 = θ2-3 + 2* π example when using a plane table. Mis-closure vectors
for each leg is calculated and adjusted vectorically.
If θ2-3 > 2* π then θ2-3 = θ2-3 -2* π
Bowditch method is the recommended method of
For example, if the angles are measured in gradian, calculating and distributing linear mis-closures. The
then other methods are not recommended for use in Afghani
Calculated bearing (g) Corrected Bearings (g) engineering sub-projects because they require higher
θ = 360 θ = 360 levels of understanding of measurement process and they
θ = -30 θ = -30+400 = 370 may produce relatively higher errors while distributing
θ = 504 θ = 504-400 = 104 the mis-closures.
9.2.10 Calculation of mis-closures The Bowditch adjustment assumes that the mis-closure
of a traverse is proportional to the total length of the
Mis-closure is characterized by the fact that the perimeter (which when using tapes or chains is a valid
calculated coordinates of the first station point are not assumption). The correction applied to each side is
equal to the actual coordinates. The mis-closures errors proportional to the length of that side as a ratio of the
may be generated due to errors in bearings or coordinates perimeter, and can be expressed as:
(linear).
Correction to DE (or DN) = mis-closure of DE (or DN) *
Calculation and distribution of angular mis-closure are Cumulative leg length up to present leg / perimeter
carried out as:
After calculating the corrected bearings of all the
Calculated bearing of the first line/leg is compared to the traverse legs, coordinates of all the traverse stations are
actual bearing and the bearing error if any is calculated calculated and corrected as:
as:
1. Coordinates calculations
eB = θcalculated - θactual
Northing difference, dN=HD.cos(θ)
Correction factor CB = eB/ No. of stations
Easting difference, dE=HD.sin(θ)
The corrections are applied from the first bearing to the
final bearings are calculated. Northing of new point, Npoint= Nstn+dN
nth correction = - n * CB Easting of new point, Epoint = Estn + dE
third correction = - 3 * CB RLpoint = RLstn + dV (as calculated above)
Last correction = - nlast * CB = -eB

2. Closing error calculations
The observed linear mis-closures are distributed by the After completing the calculation of coordinates of all
following methods: the stations, linear errors in Northing (dN), Easting
(dE) and reduced level (dRL) are calculated as:
1. Bowditch Method
dN =Ncalculated-Nactual = Nlast - Nfirst
2. Intuitive Method
dE =Ecalculated-Eactual = Elast - Efirst
3. Graphical Method
dRL =RLcalculated-RLactual = RLlast - RLfirst
Intuitive method is purely based on the Surveyor's
63
3. Correction factor (C) calculations or, L*tan (dθ) = eL

CN = dN/Perimeter (P) therefore,
CE = dE/Perimeter dθ = tan-1(eL/L)
CRL = dRL/Perimeter Examples:
Station coordinates are corrected using Bowditch If the precision of linear measurement = 1:5000, the
Method as: allowable angular error is
nth correction N’n = -CN*∑Ln dθ = tan-1(1/5000) = 0.0127 g
1st correction N’1 = -CN*L
And, if the allowable angular measurement is 0.0060 g,
2nd correction N’2 = -CN*L2 + N'1 the allowable precision of linear measurement is
Last correction N’last = -CN*Llast + N'second last = dN eL/L = tan (dθ) = 1:10610
Calculation of station coordinates as:
The precision order, accuracy, permissible angular
Ncorrected = Ncalculated + Ncorrection mis-closure, and their uses in traverse surveying are
Or, Nn = Ninitial + N'n presented in Table 9.2.
Similar procedures are applied for the calculations of Table 9.2: Precision in Engineering Surveying
Northings and reduced levels. Precision Linear Accuracy Uses
Order
9.3 Closing Error and Accuracy 1st Order 1:25000 Traversing for the control
of Arial mapping, extensive
The degree of accuracy depends upon the accuracy in engineering project.
linear and angular measurements of the traverse. For the 2nd Order 1:10000 Engineering survey.
same effect of error in angular and linear measurements, 3rd Order 1:5000 Setting out of points.
the degrees of precision used for both of them are 4th Order 1:2000 Small scale survey.
desirable to be the same. Compass 1:300 to 1:600 Compass survey.
Traverse
For example consider Fig 9.8. Let C' be the calculated
position of actual position C. eθ be the linear mis-closure Closing Error and Accuracy
due to angular error dθ. Let eL be the linear error.
Closing linear error is the shortest distance between the
Now, calculated and actual first starting point. If this error is
eθ = L*tan (dθ) and within permissible range, Bowditch method is used to
correct the mis-closure.
eL = L'-L
Linear closing error (dL) is given by
For the same degree of precision in angular and linear
measurements, dL = (dN2+dE2+dRL2)1/2
eθ = eL Accuracy of the linear measurement with respect to the

perimeter of the traverse is:
A = dL/P = 1: N

Examples
Traverse surveying with stadia method is widely used,

adequate and appropriate for Afghan reconstruction
and rehabilitation engineering sub-projects. Therefore,
Figure 9.8: Angular and linear mis-closures program briefing and their examples are mainly
concentrated on stadia method along with degrees and
gradians angular measurements. However, the presented
three spreadsheets are capable of reducing data for stadia
64
as well as electronic distance measurement surveying. The main part of the spreadsheet is presented in Figure
The possible angular measurements are either in degrees 9.9. The AutoCAD script file for all five sets of commands
and gradians. Detailed procedures along with examples is presented in Figure 9.10. Finally the AutoCAD drawing
are presented in subsequent sub-sections. The presented thus plotted by using scrip commands is presented in
spreadsheets and their uses are: Figure 9.11.
1. Open Traverse: This spreadsheet is prepared for As presented in Figure 9.9, the method of surveying
calculating and plotting coordinates of an open was Stadia open traversing with degrees as angular
traverse coordinates. measurement. Since coordinates of reference and first
station stations are given as inputs, the bearing of this
2. Closed Traverse: This spreadsheet is prepared for line is calculated first.
calculating and plotting coordinates of a closed
Bearing of Line STN1-RO (θ STN1-RO):
traverse coordinates.
dN = NRO-NSTN1
3. Coordinates: This spreadsheet is prepared for = (3850374-3850388) = -14m
calculating and plotting individual independent
points taken from known points. These points may dE = ERO-ESTN1
not belong to any traverse system and hence polygons = (725640 - 725663) = -23m
are not plotted. More than one set of data with
instrument being at different stations are possible. dRL = RLRO-RLSTN1
= 2576-2593 = -17m
Input of the required rows, copying and formatting of
Bearing of line STN1-RO (θ STN1-RO)
them are included in all three spreadsheets.
θSTN1-RO = tan-1(dE/dN)
9.4.1 Open Traverse = tan-1 (-23/-14) = 58.6713o
“Open Traverse” spreadsheet is capable of calculating Since dN is negative, add π (or 180 degrees)
three dimensional coordinates of an open traverse. θSTN1-RO = θSTN1-RO + 180 o
This spreadsheet is capable of reducing surveyed field
data either in degrees or in gradians using either stadia = 58.6713o + 180 o
or EDM method. This traverse does not calculate and = 238.6713o
correct any mis-closures. This traverse is recommended
for most of the engineering sub-project surveying. Using this bearing and the first station coordinates,
coordinates of the second station (STN2) are calculated
The second part of the spreadsheet includes five sets of by stadia method.
AutoCAD scrip commands for plotting a 3D poly line, Stadia inputs from traverse:
points, station name with reduced levels, northing and
Horizontal angle, HAN = 106o02’40” = 106.0444o
easting points respectively.
Vertical angle, VAN = 92o13’00” = 92.2167o
Height of Instrument, HI = 1.500m
Figure 9.9: Open traverse main sheet
65
Staff readings, T = 3.59m, M = 2.88m, B = 2.17m Traverse reductions for points STN3 and PTN6 are
carried out in similar fashion.
Bearing of line connecting the first and second stations (θ
STN1- STN2)
θ STN1- STN2 = θ STN1-RO + HAN
= 238.6713o + 106.0444o
=344.7157o
Staff Height
STAFF= (T+B)/4 + M/2
= (3.59+2.17)/4 + 2.88/2
= 2.88m
Distances
Slope Distance (SD) = Abs(100(T-B).sin(VAN))
= Abs(100(3.59-2.17).sin(92.2167))
= 141.8937m
Horizontal Distance, HD=Abs(SD.sin(VAN))
= Abs(141.8937.sin(92.2167))
= 141.7876m
Vertical Distance, VD= SD.cos(VAN) Figure 9.10: Open traverse AutoCAD scrip file
= 141.8937.cos(92.2167)
= -5.4883m
Vertical height difference, dV= VD–STAFF+HI
= -5.4883-2.88+1.5
= -6.8683m
Coordinates
Northing difference, dN=HD.cos(θ STN1- STN2)
= 141.7876.cos(344.7157)
= 136.7724m
Easting difference, dE=HD.sin(θ STN1- STN2)
= 141.7876.sin(344.7157)
= -37.3767 m
Northing of STN2 (NSTN2)= NSTN1+dN
= 3850388+136.7724
= 3850524.7724m
Easting of STN2 (ESTN2) = ESTN1+ dE
=725663+ (-37.3767)
=725625.621m
Reduced level of STAN2 (RLSTN2)= RLSTN1 + dV
= 2593+ (-6.8683)
= 2586.1317m
Figure 9.11: Open traverse AutoCAD drawing
66
9.4.2 Closed Traverse The second part of the spreadsheet includes five sets of
AutoCAD scrip commands for plotting a 3D poly line,
“ClosedTraverse” spreadsheet is capable of calculating
points, station name with reduced levels, Northing and
three dimensional coordinates of a closed traverse. This
Easting coordinates respectively.
spreadsheet is capable of reducing surveyed field data
either in degrees or in gradians using either stadia or
The main part of the spreadsheet is presented in Figure
EDM method. This spreadsheet calculates and corrects
9.12. Press Calculate Traverse bottom after inputting
mis-closures. This spreadsheet is recommended for
all the blue cells. Make scrip file/files by copying and
engineering sub-project surveying that needs higher
arranging the command scripts as in Figure 9.13 in order
precision (e.g., road surveying).
to get the drawings presented in Figure 9.14.
Figure 9.12: Closed traverse main sheet
Figure 9.14: Closed traverse AutoCAD drawing
Figure 9.13: Closed traverse script file
67
Figure 9.15: Summary of manual calculations of closed traverse
A summary of the manual calculations of the example Similarly bearing corrections and corrected bearings of
is presented in Figure 9.15. The procedures for manual all the legs are calculated.
calculations are:
Calculation of linear mis-closure: Using the corrected
Bearing calculation: Calculations of bearings of bearing, the deviations dN and dE are calculated to
traverse legs are similar to open traverse. The bearing is calculated the Easting and Northing of subsequent
calculated and distributed as: traverse stations (as described in section 10.4.1). The
linear mis-closures are:
eB = θcalculated - θactual
dN = Nlast – Nfirst
= 221.3750 – 219.1698
= 3106010.966 - 3106014.874
= 2.2052 g
= -3.9084m
Correction factor CB = eB/ No. of stations
dE = Elast – Efirst
= 2.2052 / 5
= 382452.310 - 382451.043
= 0.44104 g
= 1.267m
The corrections are applied to the first bearing is:
dRL = RLlast – RLfirst
The first bearing correction = - 1 * CB
= 999.970 – 1000.000
= -0.44104 g
= 0.030m
The first corrected bearing = 129.0614 – 0.44104.
= 128.6204g
68
Correction factor of dN, CN = dN/Perimeter Slope distance: Based on the final corrected coordinates,
actual leg lengths are calculated.
= 3.9084/535.412
= 0.007299799 9.4.3 Coordinates
First correction N’1 = -CN*∑L1
“Traverse Points” spreadsheet calculates coordinates of
= 0.007299799 * 95.713 new point observed either in stadia or EDM method. The
= 0.69869m spreadsheet has two parts, namely, the main output area
and AutoCAD script commands for plotting points and
First corrected coordinate N1 = N1+N’1 their levels on plan as shown respectively in Figure 9.16
= 3105973.412+0.69869 to 9.18.
= 3105974.109m
Unlike other traverse spreadsheet and as presented
Similar procedures are followed to calculate the in Figure 9.16, the first input row of each station has
corrected remaining coordinates. The linear mis-closure different input. This spreadsheet can handle more than
is calculated as: one traverse stations. A “NEW” command terminates
dL = (dN2+dE2+dRL2)1/2 the present station and commences the new station. An
“END” command terminates the computations.
= (3.9082+-1.2672+0.0302)1/2
= 4.1087m out of 536.709m i.e., accuracy level of
1:130.
Figure 9.16: Main page of Traverse Point spreadsheet
69
Figure 9.17: Script file of TraversePoint spreadsheet
Figure 9.18: Plot of TraversePoint spreadsheet
70
PART TWO: TECHNICAL DESIGN AND

FINANCIAL ANALYSES
71
72
10. Headworks
10.1 General water from the bed of a river and drops it directly in to
a headrace is known as a bottom intake. They are mainly
10.1.1 Headworks useful for areas having less sediment movement, steeper
gradient, and surplus flow for continual flushing.
A headworks consists of all structural components Inaccessibility of trashrack throughout the monsoon
required for safe withdrawal of desired water from a season and exposure of the system to all the bed load
source river into a canal/conduit. Intake, weir, protection even though only a small part of the water is drawn are
works, etc., are the main structural components. the common drawbacks of drop intakes.
Indicators of an ideal headworks can be summarized as:
10.1.5 Weir
1. Withdrawal of desired flows (i.e., Qdiverted and spilling
in case of flood).
A weir is a structure built across a river to raise the river
2. Sediment bypass of diversion structure (Continued water and store it for diverting a required flow towards
sediment transportation along the river). the intake.
3. Debris bypass (Continued debris bypass without any
accumulation).
10.1.6 Protection Works
4. Hazard flood bypass with minimum detrimental Protection works are the river protection and river
effects. training works to safeguard the headworks against
5. Sediment control at intake by blocking/reducing floods, debris and sediments.
sediment intake into the system.
10.1.7 Trashrack
6. Settling basin control (settling and flushing of finer
sediments entered into the system through intakes A trashrack is a structure placed at an intake mouth to
or open canals). prevent floating logs and boulders entering into headrace.
Coarse trashracks and fine trashracks are provided at the
10.1.2 Intake river intake and penstock intake respectively.
An intake can be defined as a structure that diverts water

10.2 General Recommendations
from river or other water course to a conveyance system
downstream of the intake. Side intake and bottom intake
General recommendations and requirements for
are the common types of river intakes that are used in
headworks components such as weirs, intakes and
Nepali hydropower schemes.
trashracks are briefly outlines in this section.
Conveyance Intake is an intake which supplies water

10.2.1 Weir
to a conveyance other than the pressure conduit to the
turbine. Power Intake is an intake which supplies water • Type: A weir can be either temporary or permanent
to the pressure conduit to the turbine. in nature. A dry stone or gabion or mud stone
masonry can be termed as a temporary weir whereas
10.1.3 Side Intake a cement masonry or concrete weir can be termed as
a permanent weir.
A structure built along a river bank and in front of • Location: It is recommended that the weir should be
a canal / conduit end for diverting the required water 5m to 20m d/s of side intake. This will assure that
safely is known as a side intake. Side intakes are simple, water is always available and there is no sediment
less expensive, easy to build and maintain. deposition in front of the intake. A narrow river
width with boulders is preferable for weir location.
10.1.4 Bottom/Drop/Tyrolean/Trench
Intake • Height: The weir should be sufficiently high to create
enough submergence and driving head.
A structure built across and beneath a river for capturing • Stability: Permanent weir should be stable against
73
sinking, overturning and sliding even during the Since most of the program and flow chart in this section
designed floods. are self-explanatory, only critical points are explained.
10.2.2 Intake Figures 10.1 present the assumptions, flow charts and
typical examples for calculating trashrack parameters,
• Type: Side intakes are suitable for all types of river
side intake and drop intake dimensioning.
categories whereas the drop intake is recommended
for rivers having longitudinal slopes more than 10%
with relatively less sediment and excess flushing
discharge. The side intake is generally is of rectangular
orifice type with a minimum submergence of 50mm.
The side intake should be at:
o Straight river u/s & d/s of the intake.
o Alternatively, on the outer side of the bend to
minimize sediment problems and maximize the
assured supply of water.
o Relatively permanent river course.
o By the side of rock outcrops or large boulders for
stability and strength.
• Capacity: According to the flushing requirement and
tentative losses the intake has to be oversized to
allocate an excess flow of 10% to 20% (or Qdiverted).
• A coarse trashrack should be provided to prevent big
boulders and floating logs from entering into the
headrace system.
• A gate/stop log should be provided to regulate flow
(adjust/ close) during operation and maintenance.
• To optimize downstream canal and other structures,
a spillway should be provided close to the intake.
10.2.3 Intake Trashrack Figure 10.1: Trashrack parameters
The recommended intake coarse trashrack is made of The trashrack coefficients for different cross section of
vertical mild steel strips of 5mm*40mm to 5mm*75mm the bars are presented in the pull down menu. Typical
with a clear spacing not exceeding 75mm. The approach bar thickness, clear spacing and approach velocity are
velocity should be less than 1.0m/s. For transportation by suggested in the respective cell notes.
porters in remote areas, the weight of a piece of trashrack
should not exceed 60 kg. Placing of trashrack at 3V:1H According to the flow chart presented in Figure 10.2,
is considered to be the optimum option considering the the trashrack losses consist of frictional and bend
combined effect of racking and hydraulic purposes. losses. The frictional losses depend on the geometry of
trashrack such as the trashrack coefficient, thickness
10.3 Program Briefings and and clear spacing of bars, inclination of the trashrack
Examples and the approach velocity. The bend loss depends on the
hydraulics of the approaching flow such as the approach
There are two spreadsheets for designing intake velocity and its deviated direction with respect to the
structures namely, “side Intake” and “Bottom Intake” normal of the trashrack surface.
for designing side and bottom intakes respectively.
The first part of the side intake calculates trashrack The trashrack surface area coefficient K1 for automatic
parameters while the second part of it calculates side raking is 0.8 whereas it is 0.3 for manual raking
intake parameters including spillways for load rejection suggesting that the raking area for manual operation
and flood discharge off-take. The second spreadsheet to recommended surface area is 3.33 times more than
calculates all the design parameters for a drop intake. the theoretical area. Manual racking is recommended
74
Figure 10.2: Flow chart for trashrack calculations
for Nepali micro and mini hydropower. Since the 10.3.1 Side Intake calculations
consequence of temporary reduced trashrack area in
micro and mini hydro is not severe and the trashrack Trashrack Design:
sites are generally accessible to operators all the year,
hfriction = kt * (t/b) (4/3) * (Vo 2/2g)* sin φ
the average of automatic and manual racking coefficient
of 0.55 (i.e., 80% more than the theoretical area) is = 2.4*(4/25) (4/3)*(0. 5 2/2/9.81)* sin 60o
recommended for practical and economic reason. = 0.0023m
Typical side intake parameters considered in the hbend = (Vo 2/2g)* sin β
spreadsheet are presented in Figure 10.3. The procedures = (0. 5 2/2/9.81)* sin 20o
for designing a side intake parameters are presented in
Figure 10.4. An example is presented in Figure 10.5. The = 0.0044m
calculation processes for designing a typical side intake htotal = hfriction + hbend
are also presented in the following section.
= 0.00232 + 0.0044
= 0.0067m
Asurface (S)= 1/k1*(t+b)/b * Q/Vo * 1/ sin φ
= 1/0.55*(4+25)/25*0.077*1/ sin 60o
= 0.3763 m2
Width B = S/(h/ sin φ) = 0.3763/(.3/ sin 60o)
= 1.09 m
Normal condition:
Depth @ canal (hc)= hsubmergence + height of orifice + height
of orifice sill from bottom of the canal
= 0.05+0.2+0.2 = 0.45m
Figure 10.3: Side intake parameters
Driving head (dh) = (Vo/c)2/2/g
= (1.2/0.8)2/2/9.81 = 0.115 m
75
Head at river (hr) = hc+dh (this value can be provided) cell generates VALUE# error, select the cell, press F2 and
press Enter. Increase provided water depth in the river
= 0.45+0.115 = 0.565
hr, if #NUM error occurs. The final canal depth is
Height of weir (hw)= hr +0.1
(hcf ) = 0.490m
= 0.565+0.1 = 0.665 m
Q intake (Qf ) = 0.218 m3/s
Orifice area (A) = Q/V
Spillway overtopping height (hovertop)
= 0.77/1.2 = 0.064 m2
= 50%(Free board –hnwl)
Orifice width (B) = A/H
= 0.5*(.3-.05) = 0.125 m
= 0.064/.2 = 0.322 m
Spillway length 100% (Ls for Qf )
Flood:
= Qf/C/(2*hovertop)1.5
2 2 1/3
Critical depth at crest (yc) = (Qf /L /g)
= 0.218/1.6/(2*0.125)1.5= 1.525 m
= (102/52/9.81)1/3 = 0.742 m
Spillway length 50% = Qf/C/(hovertop)1.5
Head at river (hfr) = hw+yc
= 0.218/1.6/(0.125)1.5 = 3.078 m
= 0.665+0.742 = 1.407 m
Care should be taken while designing spillway lengths,
Water depth at canal during flood is calculated by Ls1 for Qf (d/s Obs & 100% hovertop -50) is only applicable
equating and iterating flow coming from orifice to that when full downstream obstruction for flood off-take is
of canal flow. Since this iterative process is tedious and provided with the help of stop logs or gates. Otherwise,
erroneous, most of the micro-hydropower consultants the gradually varying water profile at the spillway has to
do not calculate it precisely. This iterative process is be considered.
introduced in the presented spreadsheet. In case this
Start Orifice Canal & Spillway River

V coeff c, Vo, n, Spillway above NW L Crest length L
d/s submergence hsub, Cd spillway Qf flood
H from canal bed h bot, Freeboard h fb1
height H canal width d/s of orifice
hc=hsub+H+hbot
h overtop = 50% (FB - spillway dh = (Vo/c)^2 / 2g
crest height above NW L) hr = hc + dh
Ls 100% =Qf/C/(2*h overtop)^1.5, hw = hr+0.1
End Ls=max(Ls1 =Qf/C/h overtop^1.5, Is Yes
Ls2 =2*(Qf-Qd)/C/h overtop^1.5) W c provided? W c=W c
Ls1=>obstruction d/s=> h ot const
Circular references (flood): No
dhf = hrf -hcf W c=2*hc
Qo = A * C * (2*g*dhf)^0.5
hcf = (Qo*n/2^(1/3)/SQRT(1/S))^(3/8)
1/S = 1/{Q * n * P^2/3 /A^5/3 }^2
Vof =c*SQRT(2*g*dhf)
A = Q/V, B = A /H
FB = FB if provided
ycf = (Qf^2/L^2/g)^(1/3)
Or else Min(300, 0.5*hc))
hrf = hw+yc
Figure 10.4: Flow chart for side intake calculations
76
Figure 10.5: An example of side intake calculations
77
10.3.2 Drop Intake calculations 10.1. In the presented spreadsheet, critical depth of
upstream flow of the intake is calculated and presented
The example presented in Figure 10.7 follows the if normal flow (sub-critical) is considered.
procedures presented in Figure 10.6. This example is
taken from a 4500kW Sarbari Small Hydropower Project, Table 10.1: Drop intake and upstream flow
Kullu, India. Although the calculation procedures for the Parameters Normal flow Critical Depth
drop intake are relatively straightforward and simple, considered
it has more restrictions and limitations regarding the Velocity head (h) 2/3 * c * he ¾ * Yc
stream geometry and operational conditions. Qo u/s of intake Br * ho * Vo √(9.81*ho3 * Br 2)
3
(m /s) normal
Based on the flow conditions and the slope of rack, Qo u/s of intake Br * hof * Vo √(9.81 * hof3 * Br 2)
flow immediately upstream of the rack may be either (m3/s) flood
critical or sub-critical. Critical depth at the entrance of
the rack has to be considered if the rack is steeper (more The calculations presented in Figure 10.7 are verified in
than 15o). For more details, please refer to EWI UNIDO the following section. In this example the flow upstream
Standard. of the intake is considered to be of critical.
The main differences between considering critical flow

and normal flow conditions are presented in the Table
Figure 10.6: Parameters and flow chart of drop intake design
78
Normal condition: Qo u/s of intake = √(9.81*ho 3*Br 2)

c/c distance of trashrack bars (d) = √(9.81*.226 3*11 2)
= t + a = 60+30 = 90mm = 3.702 m3/s
Kappa (χ)= 0.00008*β^2 - 0.0097*β + 0.9992 Qu d/s of intake = Qo u/s –Qd
(by curve fitting)
= 3.702-2.7
= 0.00008*36^2 - 0.0097*36 + 0.9992
= 1.002 m3/s
= 0.749
Intake length across the river (b) = L/B ration * L
Velocity head (h) = ¾ * of Yc
= 4.5*2.397
= ¾ * 0.226 = 0.170 m
= 10.786m
Correction factor (c)
Flood:
= 0.6*a/d*(cos β)1.5
h flood (hf ) = 2/3*χ*(ho flood+vo flood2/2/g)
= 0.6*30/90*(cos 36)1.5 = 0.146
= 2/3*0.749*(3+4^2/2/9.81)
Length of Intake (L)
= 1.906 m
=√(3*Q/(2*c*μ*L/B ratio
Qo u/s of intake = √(9.81*ho flood 3*Br2)
*√(2*9.81*h)))
= √(9.81*1.9063*11 2)
=√(3*2.7/(2*c*0.85*4.5
= 325.497 m3/s
*√(2*9.81*.170)))
Qo in (off-take) = 2/3*c*μ*b*L *√ (2*9.81*h f )
= 2.397 m, which is less than 2.5m, hence ok
= 2/3*0.146*0.85*10.786*2.397 *√(2*9.81*1.906)
Length (L’) m = L*cos(β)
= 10.549 m3/s (this discharge can be reduced by
= 2.397*cos (36) = 1.939 m introducing a throttling pipe d/s of the intake)
Intake length across the river (b) m = L/B ration * L Qu d/s of intake = Qo u/s –Qd
= 4.5*2.397 = 315.497-10.549
= 10.786m = 314.948 m3/s
Area of intake (A) m2 = L * b
= 2.397 * 10.786
= 25.852 m2
79
Figure 10.7: An example of drop intake
80
11. Design of Gravity Weir
11.1 General Table 11.1: Stability Criteria for a Gravity Dam

Resultant Foundation
Load Minimum
A gravity weir is a structure built across a river to raise Location at Bearing
Condition Sliding FS
the river water and store it for diverting a required flow Base Pressure
towards the intake. Loads acting at gravity weir are Usual Middle 1/3 2.0 ≤ allowable
resisted by the weight of the weir itself. In micro and Unusual Middle 1/2 1.7 ≤ allowable
mini hydropower projects, weir can be constructed of ≤ 1.33 x
Extreme Within base 1.3
gabion boxes, stone masonry or mass concrete. Gabion allowable
weirs are considered as a temporary weir whereas the
other two are considered as permanent weirs. In micro and mini hydropower projects, it usual to
consider two load cases, namely, normal condition with
If there is no significant boulder movement along the water at the upstream of weir and flood condition with
river stretch at the intake area, a gabion weir may be water at the upstream and downstream of the weir. In
suitable for micro hydropower projects. Permanent weirs both the cases, considering the location of resultant
are generally constructed of mass concrete (1:1.5:3 with forces within the middle third of the base, factor of
40% plums), or stone masonry in 1:4 cement mortar. A safety against sliding of 1.5 and foundation bearing not
reinforced concrete surface layer may be considered to exceeding the allowable soil pressure are recommended.
protect the weir from damage by boulders moving in
flood.
11.1.1 General Stability Requirements
The basic stability requirements for a gravity dam for all

conditions of loading are:
1. Overturning Stability: It is safe against overturning
at any horizontal plane within the structure, at the
base, or at a plane below the base.
2. Sliding Stability: It is safe against sliding on any
horizontal or near-horizontal plane within the
structure at the base or on any rock seam in the
foundation.
3. Bearing Stability: That the allowable unit stresses in
the concrete or in the foundation material shall not
be exceeded.
Other factors that deteriorate weir stability conditions

such as safety against scour (by founding on rock or large
boulders, or by constructing a ‘counterweir’ downstream Figure 11.1: Loading at Normal and Flood Conditions
to form a stilling pool), seepage control (by using an
impermeable membrane) and uplifting (by providing 11.1.2 Overturning Stability
adequate structural weight) shall also be checked while
designing weirs. The overturning stability is calculated by applying all the
vertical forces (∑V) and lateral forces for each loading
The general stability criteria for concrete gravity dams condition to the dam and, then, summing moments (∑M)
for each load condition are listed in Table 11.1. caused by the consequent forces about the downstream
toe. The resultant location along the base is:
81
⎛ ∑M ⎞
d= ⎜ ⎟ μ∑ V
⎝∑V⎠ FS = ≥ 1 .5
∑H
The eccentricity of the resultant (e) is:
The sliding FS is defined as the ratio of the maximum
L b a se resisting shear (TF = μΣV) and the applied shear (T=
e= −d
2 ΣH) along the slip plane at service conditions it should
not be less than 1.5, where μ is the frictional coefficient
The calculated eccentricity shall be within the allowable
between two surfaces of the considered plant.
eccentricity (e allowable) given by the following
equation:
11.1.4 Bearing Stability
L
e allow able = b a se For the dam to be in static equilibrium, the resultant of
6
all horizontal and vertical forces including uplift must
be balanced by an equal and opposite reaction of the
foundation consisting of the total normal reaction and
the total tangential shear. The location of this force is
such that the summation of moments is equal to zero.
Figure 11.2: Resultant (R) location at base
In case the resultant along the plane of study remain

within the middle third, compressive stresses in
the concrete or the stone masonry structured are
maintained. In case ΣV is negative, the structure will be Figure 11.4: Bearing Stability
uplifted making the direction of the resultant upwards.
11.1.3 Sliding Stability
The sliding stability is based on a factor of safety (FS) as

a measure of determining the resistance of the structure
against sliding along the base and within the foundation The maximum and minimum computed base pressure
and any surface within the structure. In micro and (pbase) should be equal to or less than the allowable
mini hydropower project weir, sliding along the base is bearing capacity for the all load conditions. In order to
considered adequate for the sliding stability. exert compression in the base of the structure, pbase shall
always be positive for gravity dams.
11.2 Program Briefings and

Examples
The spreadsheet “Weir” can check all three stability

criteria for both normal and flood conditions. The loading
conditions presented in Figure 11.1 are calculated as per
the processes presented in the flow chart presented in
Figure 11.5.
Figure 11.3: Sliding Stability
82
Figure 11.5: Weir Stability Calculation Procedures
11.2.1 Stability Analyses of Weir
An example of a simple gravity concrete dam is considered

and presented in Figure 11.6
Figure 11.6: Concrete dam considered in the Example
83
Dead load due to concrete (1m strip): w3= +2/3 = +0.667

Calculate dead load, u=-6/3*(10+2*45)/(10+45) =-3.636m
G1= 22* 2.5*1.5*1 = 82.5kN Soil Loads

G2= 22*1*6*1 = 132kN S1 = upstream soil load @ 1/3 of h3= ½*ka*(gs-gw)*h3*h3
G3= 22*0.5*2.5*2*1 = 55kN = ½*0.33*(22-10)*1*1 = 1.98kN @ -0.33m
G = G1+G2+G3 = 269.5kN S2 = downstream soil load @ 1/3 of h4 = ½*ko*(gs-
gw)*h4*h4= ½*1*(22-10)*1*1 = 6kN @ +0.33m
Calculated loads are presented in Figure 11.7.
Weir Stability
ΣV= 52+82.5+55+132-165 = 156.5kN
ΣH= 101.25+1.98-5 = 98.23kN
ΣMo = 52.5*5.25+82.5*3.75+132*3+55*2.333-
165*3.636-101.25*1.5-1.98*0.5+5*0.667+6*0.5
= 362.845 kN-m
Lever arms from O

Stability against overturning:
g1 = 1+2+1.5/2=3.75m e allowable = 6/6 = 1m
g2 = 6/2=3m d = ΣMo/ ΣV = 362.845/156.5 = 2.3185
g3 = 1+2/3*2=2.333m e= |L/2-d| =|6/2-2.3185|
Calculate center of gravity of G = 0.6815m <1m, Okay, the resultant is within the middle
g’=(G1*g1+ G2*g2+ G3*g3)/G third strip.
= (82.5*3.75+132*3+55*2.333)/269.5 = 3.0934m
Stability against Uplifting:
52+82.5+55+132>1.2*165
Water Loads
Or, 321.5 > 198, true, hence okay.
W1= 10*1.5*3.5*1=52.5kN
Stability against sliding (μ=0.5 of stiff soil)
0.5*156.5/98.23 = 0.7966 <1.5 not okay.
Incorporate a shear key (e.g., 1m deep by 0.75m thick)
and or increase self-weight by replacing W1 with stone
masonry or gabions.
Bearing or sinking (no –ve pbase)

Pbase = 156.5/(6*1)*(1+/-6*0.6816/6)
= 43.8617 and 8.30493 kN/m2 <200 kN/m2 for stiff soil.
Hence, safe against bearing.
Conclusions:
The structure in not safe against sliding. Increase of

W2= 0.5*10*4.5*4.5= 101.25kN dead weight or provide of shear key/s may improve the
stability.
W3= 0.5*10*1*1= 5kN
U1= 6(10*4.5+10*1)/2=165kN The structure may be stable for normal load condition.
Exit gradient shall also be calculated for possible piping.
Lever arms from O
w1= +6-1.5/2 = +5.25m The weir is stable for all cases for increasing h3 from 1m
w2= -4.5/3 = -1.5m to 1.4m
84
Figure 11.7: “Weir” Spreadsheet
85
12. Headrace/Tailrace Canals & Pipes
12.1 General 7. Stability and Safety against rock fall, landslide

& storm runoff. A catch drain running along the
A headrace or a tailrace can be defined as a conveyance conveyance canal is recommended for mini and small
system that conveys designed discharge from one point hydropower projects.
(e.g. intake) to another (e.g. forebay). Generally canal 8. Optimum Canal Geometry: Rectangular or
systems are used in all micro hydropower schemes trapezoidal section for lined canal and trapezoidal
whereas pipe systems are used for specific e.g. difficult section for unlined canal are recommended. Unequal
terrain. A canal can be unlined (earthen) or lined (stone settlement of lined trapezoidal canal should be
masonry or concrete). Rectangular and trapezoidal canal prevented.
cross sections are mostly used profiles. Pipes used in
MHP can be of HDPE or mild steel and it can be either 12.2.2 Pipe
open or buried.
1. PVC/HDPE/GRP: Buried at least 1m into ground.
Mild steel and glass reinforced pipe (GRP) headrace- 2. Steel/Cast Iron: As pipe bridge at short crossings/
cum-penstock pipes are getting popularity in mini and landslides. They are also used for low pressure
small hydropower schemes in Nepal. Because of the headrace and headrace-cum-penstock alignments.
easier sediment handling facility and better financial
parameters, a layout with headrace-cum-penstock 3. Pipe inlet with trashracks for a pipe length of more
pipe has been adopted in many micro, mini and small than 50m.
hydropower projects in Nepal. 4. Minimum submergence depth of 1.5*v2/2g at
upstream end.
For computing head losses, Manning’s equation is used
5. Provision of air valves and wash outs where
for canal whereas Darcy-Weisbach equation is used for
necessary.
pipe.
12.2 General Recommendations 12.3 Program Briefing and

examples
General recommendations and requirements for
designing canal and pipe headrace systems are outlined 12.3.1 Canal
here. 1. Permissible erosion free velocities for different soil
conditions:
12.2.1 Canal
Fine sand =0.3-0.4
1. Capacity: The canal should be able to carry the design
Sandy loam =0.4-0.6
flow with adequate freeboard and escapes to spill
excess flow. A canal should generally be designed to Clayey loam =0.6-0.8
carry 110 to 120 % of the design discharge.
Clay =0.8-2.0
2. Velocity: Self-cleaning but non erosive (≥ 0.3m/s).
Stone masonry =0.8-2.0
3. Unlined canal: In stable ground for Q ≤ 30 l/s
Concrete = 1.0-3.0
4. Lined canal: For higher discharge and unstable
2. Sectional profiles considered in the program are:
ground. Canals with 1:4 stone masonry or concrete
are recommended. Care should be taken to minimize 㻝㻕㻌 Semicircular (not popular because of the
seepage loss and hence minimize the subsequent construction difficulty)
landslides. 㻞㻕㻌 Rectangular
5. Sufficient spillways and escapes as required. 㻟㻕㻌 Triangular (not popular because it is not
6. Freeboard: Minimum of 300mm or half of water financially attractive)
depth. 㻠㻕㻌 Trapezoidal
86
3. Two parts of calculations for canals are provided for: Critical Velocity (Vcrit) = √(A*g/T)
㻝㻕㻌 Evaluation of the design parameters based on = √(0.15*9.81/.5) = 1.72 m/s
user specified inputs.
Velocity (V) = Q/A
㻞㻕㻌 Optimum canal parameters based on MHP
= 0.185/0.15 = 1.233 m (Okay since it is less than
Sourcebook by Allen R Iversin.
80% of Vcrit (1.376 m/s))
4. Two spreadsheets are included in the Design Tools
Headloss (hl) = S*L + di (drops)
for:
= 0.01299*20+0 = 0.260m
㻝㻕㻌 Canal calculations: Calculations procedures
are presented in Figure 12.1 with the help of a Critical dia of sediment (dcrit)
flow chart and a typical spreadsheet with an = 11000*r*S = 11000*0.136*0.01299
illustration is presented in Figure 12.2.
= 19.48mm (i.e., the canal can transport sediments
㻞㻕㻌 Pipe calculations: Pipe calculation flow chart of diameter 19.48mm or less during its normal
is presented in Figure 12.3. The calculation operation)
procedures are further illustrated in Figure 12.4.
Optimum Canal:
12.3.2 Canal
Area (A) = Q/v desired
Calculations for a rectangular stone masonry headrace = 0.185/1 = 0.185 m2
canal for 185 l/s flow presented in Figure 12.2 (Intake
Canal in second column) are briefly described in the Hydraulic Radius (ro )= 0.35*√(A)
following section. This example is taken from a 750kW = 0.35*S√(0.185) = 0.1505 m
Sisne Small Hydropower Project, Palpa, Nepal.
Depth (Do ) = 2*ro
Present Canal: = 2*0.1505 = 0.301m
Area (A) = D*B = 0.3*0.5 = 0.15 m2 Top Width (Bo ) = 4*ro
Top Width (T) = B+2*H*N = 4*0.1505 = 0.602m
= 0.5+2*0.3*0 = 0.5m Critical Velocity (Vcrit) = √(A*g/T)
Wetted Perimeter (P) = 2*D+B = √(0.185*9.81/.602) = 1.74 m/s (Okay since the
desired velocity of 1m/s is less than 80% of Vcrit)
= 2*0.3+.5 = 1.1m
Headloss (hl ) = S*L + di (drops)
Hydraulic Radius (R) = A/P
= 0.0050*20+0 = 0.100m
= 0.15/1.1 = 0.136 m
Critical dia of sediment (dcrit)
Calculated flow (Q c) = A*r2/3*S0.5/n
= 11000*r*S=11000*0.136*0.0050
= 0.15*0.1362/3*0.012990.5/n
= 8.271mm (i.e., the canal can tranport (self clean)
= 0.226 m3/s
sediments of diameter 8.271mm or less during its
normal operation)
87
Figure 12.1: Flow chart for canal design
88
Figure 12.2: An example of canal design.
89
12.3.3 Pipe
Calculations for a headrace pipe presented in Figure

12.4 are briefly described in the following section. α = √(1/f)
The trashrack calculations are similar to the trashrack l V2 l
Friction loss = f = 0.0826 * Q 2 * f 5
calculations presented earlier in the intake design, d 2g d
hence it is not presented in this section. Trashrack loss 140
hwallloss = 0.0826* 0.1602 * 0.0153* = 3.82 m
of 0.02m is taken in this example. In this example, one 0.265
140m long HDPE pipe with 260mm internal diameter is
Turbulent losses considering, K entrance for inward
considered for a design flow of 160 l/s each.
projecting pipe= 0.8, Kexit=1.0 and Kbends based on the
bending angles (see Table in the Appendix)
Sizing of headrace pipe
⎛ K entrance + K bends + K valve ⎞⎛ V 2 ⎞
Headloss ∴ hturbulentlosses = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + hltrashrack
⎝ + K others + K exit ⎠⎝ 2 g ⎠
2
k 0.06 mm = (0.8 + 0.86 + 0 + 0 + 1) *
3.01
+ 0.0063 + 0.0063 = 1.2385m
= = 0.000231 2 x 9.81
d 260 mm
Total head loss= 3.82 m + 1.2385 m = 5.059 m
HDPE pipe roughness, k =0.06 mm
Water level difference between intake and storage

1.2Q 1.2 x0.160
= = 0.73846 reservoir is 7m and 95% of this head is allowed for total
d 0.260 headloss. Only 72.27% is estimated as the total headloss.
From Moody chart (Appendix), f=0.0153. Based on an Although the exiting water has some residual head, it is
iterative method presented in Layman’s Guidebook recommended to provide some marginal residual head
on How to Develop a Small Hydro Site, European for safety. The HDPE pipe does not need expansion
Small Hydropower Association (ESHA), the presented joints and therefore not calculated.
spreadsheet calculates this friction factor and greatly
speeds up the pipe selection decision for consultants by
iterating following equations:
Figure 12.3: Flow chart for pipe design
90
Figure 12.4: An example of headrace pipe design
91
13. Settling Basins
13.1 General Micro hydro settling basins are generally made of stone
masonry or concrete with spillways, flushing gates,
A settling basin traps sediment (gravel/sand/silt) from trashracks, and other accessories as and when necessary.
water and settles down in the basin for periodical flushing Most of the mini and small hydropower settling basins are
back to natural rivers. Since sediment is detrimental to of concrete (M20 or higher). However, for functionality,
civil and mechanical structures and elements, the specific all settling basins should have following components:
size of specified percentage sediment has to be trapped, 1. Inlet Zone: An inlet zone upstream of the main
settled, stored and flushed. This can only be achieved settling zone is provided for gradual expansion of
by reducing turbulence of the sediment carrying water. cross section from turbulent flow to smooth/laminar
The turbulence can be reduced by constructing settling flow.
basins along the conveyance system. Since the settling
basins are straight and have bigger flow areas, the 2. Settling Zone: A settling zone is the main part of
transit velocity and turbulence are significantly reduced a settling basin for settling, deposition, spilling
allowing the desired sediments to settle. The sediment flushing and trash removal.
thus settled has to be properly flushed back to the 3. Outlet Zone: An outlet zone facilitates gradual
natural rivers. contraction of flow to normal condition.
Thus a settling basin:
A typical section of a settling basin with all the
1. Prevents blocking of headrace system assuring components (inlet, transition, settling and outlet zones)
desired capacity of the system. and accessories (spillway, gate) is presented in Figure
2. Prevents severe wearing of turbine runner and other 13.1.
parts.
3. Reduces the failure rate and O&M costs.
13.2 Settling basin theory
An ideal settling basin is a basin having a flow flowing

According to the location and function, a settling basin
in a straight line (no turbulence, no eddy current).
can be of following types:
In practice, no single basin is ideal. For an ideal basin
1. Gravel Traps for settling particles of 2mm or bigger shown in Figure 13.2:
diameter.
H/W = L/V
2. Settling Basins for settling particles of 0.2mm or
Or, B *H /W = B*L/V
bigger diameter.
Or, Ax/W = As/V
3. Forebays for settling similar to settling basin
(optional) and smooth flow transition from open Or, Q/W = As = Surface area (i.e., the surface area is
flow to closed flow. directly proportional to the discharge and inversely
proportional to the settling velocity /sediment diameter
/ temperature).
Figure 13.1: Typical section of a settling basin
92
Figure 13.2: An ideal setting basin
Efficiency of a real basin is generally 50 % or less than 13.3.2 Settling Basin

that of an ideal basin. This is mainly because of the
following factors: General recommendations for designing a settling basin
are outlined below:
1. Presence of water turbulence in basin.
1. Location: Close to gravel trap/Intake.
2. Imperfect flow distribution at entrance.
2. Dimensions: Sufficient to settle and flush the
3. Flow convergence towards exit.
designed sediment size.
Vetter’s equation takes care of the factors stated above 3. Spilling: Sufficient spillway/vertical flushing pipe
and hence recommended for use in settling basin design. (layout dependent).
According to Vetter’s equation, trap efficiency (η) for a
4. Spilling and flushing: back to the river.
given discharge (Q), surface area (As) and falling velocity
of critical sediment diameter (w) is: 5. Material: 1:4 cement stone masonry with 12mm
thick 1:2 plastering on the waterside or structural
concrete.
6. Recommended settling diameter (trap efficiency)
and head are presented in Table 13.1
Table 13.1: Settling diameter, trap efficiency and
13.3.1 Gravel Trap
gross head
General recommendations and requirements for Particles to Trap Efficiency
Gross Head (m)
settle d (mm) %
designing a gravel trap are outlined in the following
Up to 10m 0.50 (90%)
sections:
10 - 50m 0.30 (90%)
1. Location: Close to intake and safe. 50 - 100m 0.25 (90%)
2. Dimensions: Sufficient to settle and flush gravel 100 -300m 0.20 (90%)
passing through upstream coarse trashrack. >300m 0.15 (90%)
3. Spilling: Sufficient spillway/vertical flushing pipe. 7. Sediment storage zone: Adequate storage for 12
hours (flushing interval)
4. Spilling and flushing: back to the river.
8. Drawdown: Drawdown discharge capacity should be
5. Material: 1:4 cement stone masonry with 12mm at least 150% of the design discharge.
thick 1:2 cement plastering on the waterside or
structural concrete. 9. Aspect ratio (straight length to width ratio): 4 to 10.
6. Recommended settling diameter and trap efficiency 13.3.3 Forebay

are 2mm and 90% respectively.
7. Sediment storage zone: Adequate storage for 12 Following criteria have been outlined for designing a
hours minimum (flushing interval). forebay:
8. Drawdown: Drawdown discharge capacity should be 1. Dimensions and functions: Similar to settling basin
at least 150% of the design discharge. if upstream system is of open type or the forebay
functions as a combined settling basin cum forebay.
9. Aspect ratio (straight length to width ratio): 1.5 to 2
for micro-hydropower gravel trap. The recommended 2. Submergence: Sufficient to prevent vortex (i.e. 1.5 *
aspect ratio of mini and small hydropower gravel v2/2g).
trap is 4.
93
3. Active Storage: At least 15 sec * Qd. Active storage a. Incoming flood

capacity should be based on closing time of
b. Load rejection
turbines.
6. Spilling of excess flow with
4. Freeboard: 300mm or half the water depth whichever
is less. a. Spillway
5. Drawdown: A drain pipe/Gate. b. Vertical flushing pipe
6. Spilling capacity: Minimum of spilling Qd during c. Combination of both

load rejection. 7. Drawdown / Dewatering with:
7. Fine Trashrack: a. Vertical flushing pipe
a. At the entrance of the penstock b. Gate
b. Inclination: 3V:1H 8. Rating curve for the gate: According to Norwegian
c. Bars: Placed along vertical direction for ease of Rules and Regulations of Dam Construction, a gate
racking. rating curve for the designed parameters is computed.
According to this manual, the flow through gate is of
d. Clearance: 0.5 * nozzle diameter in case of Pelton
free flow type until the gate opening is two third of
or half the distance between runner blade in case
the water depth behind the gate. Beyond this level
of Crossflow/Francis.
(i.e., the gate opening higher than 2/3 of the water
e. Velocity: 0.6 to 1 m/s depth behind the gate), the flow through gate is a
pressure flow.
f. Weight: =< 60kg (porter load) for transportation
by porters. 9. Multiple basins
10. Combination of approach canal / pipe options
examples 13.4.2 Vertical flushing pipe
13.4.1 Features of the spreadsheets Vertical flushing pipes (used in micro hydropower
projects) are used for spilling of excess water and flushing
The spreadsheets are designed to cater for all types of of the basin. The diameter of vertical flushing pipe is
settling basins and with all possible spilling and flushing estimated based on the critical parameter of these two
mechanisms. Some of the main features are listed functions.
below:
1. Overflow: Acts as a sharp crested weir. Discharge
1. Three spreadsheets for: through the flushing pipe having a diameter d1 is:
a. Gravel Trap Qf =π*d1*Cw*hf 2/3 for Cw = 1.6
b. Settling Basin (Desilting) d1 = Q f/(1.6*π*hf2/3)
c. Forebay-cum-Settling Basin 2. Drawdown / Dewatering through the vertical flushing
2. Settling of sediment using: pipe:
a. Ideal settling equation 1.5*Qd =C*A*(hb+fflush) 0.5:
b. Vetter’s equation A=π*d212/4: C=2.76 for L=<6m
3. Flushing of deposited sediment during:

a. Normal operational
b. Drawn-down condition
4. Sediment flushing with:
a. Vertical flushing pipe
b. Gate
c. Combination of both
5. Spilling of excess flow due to: Figure 13.3: Flushing pipe details
94
d21=(6*Qd/( π *C *( hb+fflush)0.5 )0.5 @ full Max section width for hydraulic flushing
d22=(4*Qd/( π *C *( fflush)0.5 )0.5 @ empty = 4.83*Q0.5 = 4.83*0.4550.5
3. Design diameter: Maximum of above (d1, d21,d22) = 3.258m
Provided Width (B) = 2.5m
13.4.3 Spillway at intake
Length of basin (L)= Asi/B = 25/2.5
Length of a spillway is the function of spilling discharge, = 10m, which is 4 times the width hence, satisfies
freeboard and downstream obstruction. In case there the requirement.
is not downstream obstruction such as a gate the Basin transit velocity (Vt) = 0.44* √(d)
cross section area of flow is of a triangular shape. For a
downstream obstructed condition, the flow is rectangular = 0.44*√(0.2) = 0.241m/s
in section across the spillway. According the conditions, Water depth Hi= Qi/B/Vt
the spillway length is calculated as:
= 0.455/2.5/0.241 = 0.755m
hovertop = 50% of (FB – spillway crest height above NWL)
Sediment storage volume assuming 100% trap
Ls1 =Qf/C/h overtop
1.5
: for downstream obstruction and efficiency (conservative side)
constant hovertop. V = (Qtotal)*(Flushing intensity in sec)*Concentration
1.5
Ls2 =2*Abs(Qf-Qd)/C/ hovertop ) for no downstream max in kg/Bulk Sed. Density in kg/m3/Sed
obstruction and average hovertop Swelling factor
Ls3=Qf/C/(2* hovertop -0.05)1.5: for downstream obstruction = (Qtotal)*(FI*3600)*Cmax/G*S

and constant hovertop (100%-0.05). = 0.455*(8*3600)*2/2.6*1.5
= 15.12m3
13.4.4 Gate
Sediment depth Hs = V/Asi
Lifting force (F)=Wbuoyant + 1000*μ*Asub* hcg
= 15.12/25 = 0.6m
Where,
b. Ideal Settling equation
Wbuoyant = buoyant weight of gate
Length of an Ideal Basin= Maximum of (4xB and Q/
μ = coefficient of static friction
B/w)
Asub = submerged area of gate
= MAX(4*2.5, 0.455/2.5/0.035)
hcg = depth of water upto the centre of gravity of Asub
= MAX(10, 5.2) = 10 m
Gate flow (dh) = hwater - hg Opening = hw - hg
2. Spilling of excess flow due to load rejection: A
If dh<2/3*hw = > Pressure flow (as a gate):
combination of a 0.3m diameter vertical pipe and
Q = C*L*(hw1.5 - hg1.5) spillway of 1.0m length is used.
If dh = >2/3*hw => Open flow (as a spillway ): Q=C * L * hw1.5 H overtopping=hot
Enter the maximum gate opening in the lowest gate = (Q1/(1.9*π*n1*d1+Cd*Ls))(2/3)

opening cell and press the Calculate Gate Rating Curve Where,
button for computing rating curve.
n1 = number of pipe
An example of a settling basin design is presented in d1 = diameter of pipe

Figure 13.4. The procedures for designing the settling = (0.455/(1.9*π*1*.3+1.6*1))(2/3)
basin are briefly described in the following section.
= 0.262 m
Sizing of settling basin Q pipe= 1.9*π*n1*d1*hot1.5
1. Settling of sediment using: = 1.9*π*1*.3*0.2621.5
a. Vetter’s equation = 0.240 m3/s
Surface area of basin=-(Qtotal)/w*ln(1-neff ) Asi Q spillway = Cd*Ls*hot1.5
= -(0.455)/.035* ln(1-neff ) = 25 m2 = 1.6*1*0.2621.5

= 0.215 m3/s
95
3. Flushing of deposited sediment through the flushing considered here. The recommended minimum diameter
pipe: The pipe diameter will be the biggest of : of the flushing pipe diameter is 0.4 m. Use of flushing
pipe should be restricted to micro-hydropower projects.
a. For incoming flow and draw down:
For larger projects, use of gates is recommended.
D1 = (Qflushing%*4*Qi/π*Cd*√(hNWL+hflush)))0.5
= (100%*4*0.455/π**2.76*√(1.36+1.7)))0.5 The gate curve in the example presented in Figure 13.4
includes the gate dimensions, forces and the rating
= 0.35m curve. The rating curve of the gate versus different gate
c. For incoming flow only: opening can be computed by entering allowable gate
opening at the lowest input cell and clicking “Calculate
D2 = (4*Qi/(π*Cd*√(hflush)))0.5 Gate Rating Curve” button.
= (4*0.455/(π*2.76*√(1.7)))0.5
The last part of the spreadsheet can be used if the
= 0.4m
considered basin is a settling basin cum forebay. The basic
penstock inlet geometry is computed in this section. An
In the second case, the depth of water during flushing
example is presented in Figure 13.4.
(yfi) may be added to hflush for higher precision. This is not
96
Figure 13.4: Typical example of a settling basin with spilling and gated flushing
97
14. Penstock Optimization
14.1 General 14.2 General Recommendations
A penstock is designed to carry water to a turbine Optimization of penstock diameter shall be carried
with the least loss of head, consistent with the overall out first. It considers the maximum thickness as the
economy of the installation. An economic study to thickness of the whole penstock stretch. Fine tuning of
determine the penstock size generally requires that the the penstock thickness shall be carried out at later stage.
annual penstock cost plus the value of power lost in In large hydropower project, optimization of penstock
friction be minimal. The annual penstock cost includes thickness as well as its diameters shall be carried out in
amortization of all related construction costs, operation a single process.
and maintenance costs, and replacement reserve. A
precise analytical evaluation, taking all factors into 14.3 Program Briefing and
account, may be neither justified nor practical, since Examples
all variables entering into the problem are subject to
varying degrees of uncertainty. 14.3.1 Features of the Spreadsheets
The diameter of penstock pipe is generally optimized by Based on the technical and economical input parameters,
calculating marginal costs and benefit method. In this net present values (NPV) for different diameters within
method, the incremental benefit of annual energy by the given range of penstock diameters. The net present
increasing the pipe diameters and corresponding increase values are compared and the diameter corresponding to
of costs are plotted. The intersecting point represents the highest NPV is selected as the optimum penstock
the cost of optimum diameter. Alternatively, net present diameter in the presented spreadsheet “Penstock
values of these cash/cost flow can be calculated and the Optimisation”. Since the calculated optimum diameter
net present value (NPV) of marginal benefit from energy may not be practical for various reasons, user preferred
gain should be higher than that of the marginal cost of diameter can be selected for further uses. As presented
that diameter. The graphical plot of the final result is in Figure 14.2, 500mm diameter penstock is selected
shown in figure 14.1.
Figure 14.1: Optimization of Penstock Diameter for the highest NPV
98
although the optimum diameter is 453.191mm. The Total energy (Etotal) = 8760*Ps
designer shall also note that the velocity for the selected
= 8760*285.585/1000000GWh
pipe does not exceed the limiting value.
= 2.502GWh
Based on the generated annual energies and associated Annual Reveue (R) = c*Etotal
costs, net present values are calculated for the given
diameters. The cost of penstock is calculated based on = 4*2.502
the minimum thickness required for the pipe exceeding = Rs. 10.007 Million
the minimum factor of safety. A sample calculation is
presented as an example in the following section: Present value of annual revenue for 15 years of life
= PV (Discount Factor, Life,- Revenue,0,0)
Calculation of NPV for 500mm diameter penstock pipe:
= PV(10%,15,- 10.007,0,0)
Velocity (v) = Q/a = 4*Q/π/d^2
= Rs. 61.464 Million
= 4*0.421/π/0.5^2 = 2.114m/s, ok since it is within
Thickness and factor of safety of the pipe is calculated as
3m/s
in section 15.3.2 and are estimated as
Headloss (hl) = (f*L/D+Σk)*v^2/2/9.81
Maximum thickness tcal, mm = 8mm
= (0.0136*550/0.5+2.807)*2.114^2/2/9.81
Factor of safety for 8mm thick pipe FS = 3.696 which is
= 4.157m more than 2.5, hence ok.
Net head (Hn) = Hg – hl = 161.8 – 4.157 PV of cost
= 157.643m PV = π*(D+J23)/1000*J23/1000*L* Unit cost/1000000*7.85
Installed capacity (Pi) = 9.81*n*Q*Hn = π*(500+8)/1000*8/1000*550*200000/1000000*7.85
= 9.81*0.855*0.421*157.643 = Rs. 11.025 million
= 556.644kW Net Present Value NPV, M Rs.
Sellable Power (Ps) = Pi * PF = PV Income – PV Cost
= 556.644*51.30% = 285.585kW = 61.464 – 11.025 = Rs. 50.439 million
99
Figure 14.2: “Penstock optimization” Spreadsheet
100
15. Penstock and Power Calculations
15.1 General 15.3 Program Briefing and

Example
A penstock pipe conveys water from free flow state (at
a settling basin or a forebay) to pressure flow state to 15.3.1 Program Briefing
the powerhouse and converts the potential energy of the
flow at the settling basin or forebay to kinetic energy at The design procedure of a penstock pipe is similar to that
the turbine. of a headrace pipe. In micro hydropower Pelton turbines,
sudden closure of one jet is considered as the maximum
15.2 General Recommendations surge. However for bigger hydropower projects, sudden
closure never happens and gradual closure shall be used
1 Material: Mild steel (exposed and buried) and HDPE/
even in case of Pelton turbines.
GRP (buried) pipes should be used as penstock
pipes. For mild steel pipes, flanged connections
In this spreadsheet, the penstock is checked for surge /
are recommended for low head (up to 60m) micro-
water hammer head propagated due to various closures
hydropower projects. In other cases, site welding is
of the system.
recommended. A combination of HDPE/GRP and
mild steel can also be used.
Both the installed capacities based on the AEPC
2 For exposed (i.e., above ground) mild steel penstock criteria and actual cumulative efficiency of the electro-
alignment, a minimum clearance of 300 mm between mechanical are presented. The installed capacity based
the pipe and the ground should be provided for ease on the given cumulative efficiency should be used in case
of maintenance and minimising corrosion effects. it is provided by manufacturers.
3 GRP/HDPE pipes should be buried to a minimum
depth of 1 m. Similarly, if mild steel penstock pipes Since a provision of maximum of ten bends is generally
have to be buried, a minimum of 1 m burial depth sufficient for a typical micro and mini hydropower
should be maintained and corrosion protection scheme, head losses due to ten bends are incorporated.
measures such as high quality bituminous/epoxy However, users can add any cumulative values of bend
paints should be applied. Due to higher risks constants (k) if there are more than ten bends and other
of leakage, flange connected penstocks are not losses due to turbulence in the “K others” cell.
recommended to be buried.
A fine trashrack is always recommended upstream of
4 The recommended initial trial internal diameter (D) penstock inlet. Therefore, a trashrack calculation and
can be calculated as: minimum submergence criteria by Gordon and AEPC
D = 41 x Q 0.38 mm criteria are also included. AEPC criterion of 150% of the
velocity head is enough for micro and mini hydropower
Where, Q = Design flow in l/s projects.
5 Total penstock headloss should not be more than
10% of the penstock gross head. User specific factor of safety and ultimate tensile strength
for mild steel penstock are allowed in the spreadsheet in
6 Anchor / Thrust blocks at every horizontal and vertical
order to be able to use nonstandard values.
bend are recommended. For micro hydropower
projects, these blocks are also recommended for
The friction factor calculation is based on the iteration
every 30m of straight pipe stretch.
procedures described in the Layman’s Guidebook on
7 Expansion joints should be placed immediately How to Develop a Small Hydro Site by European Small
downstream of every anchor block for exposed mild Hydropower Association (ESHA).
steel penstock.
8 Instead of providing an expansion joint immediately Design and installation criteria of expansion joints are
upstream of turbine, a mechanical coupling is presented at the end of the spreadsheet.
recommended for ease of maintenance and reduced
force transmitted to the turbine casing.
101
Figure 15.1: Flow diagram of penstock design
15.3.2 Typical example of a penstock k k2

hs = ( + (k + )) * H g
pipe 2 2
where,
Figure 15.1 presents calculation procedures applied in L *V 111.5 * 3.05 2
k= ( )2 =( )
the example presented in Figure 15.2. The presented 9.81* H g * time 9.81*161.8 *10
example is taken from the 5100kW upper Mai C Mini = 0.0004604
Hydropower Project, Ilam. For the given head of 161.80m And hs= 1.75461m
and discharge of 600 l/s, two units of one-nozzle Pelton
turbines are selected. Since trashrack and pipe hydraulics htotal = hgross + hs
are similar to headrace pipe presented earlier, the detailed = 161.8 + 1.75461
calculations are not presented in this section. The steel
pipe thickness, expansion joints and power calculations = 163.555 m
are presented in this section. It is assumed that the valve t effective = t/(welding factor*rolling) – thickness for
closing is of slow type. The minimum factor of safety for corrosion taken as Life span/10
penstock is chosen to be 2.5.
= 6/(1.1*1.2) – 15/10
Pipe thickness: = 3.05mm
Let’s consider 6mm thick 500mm diameter pipe, the
Factor of safety (allowable FS = 3.5)
wave velocity
t effective x S (3.05 1000) x 410 x10 6
1440 1440 FS . = 3
=
a= = = 1051.627 m / s 5 x htotal x 10 x d 5 x 163.55 x 10 3 x 0.500
⎛ 2.1 x10 9 x d ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ 2.1 x10 9 x 0.500 ⎟
⎝ E xt ⎠ 1+ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 200 x10 9 x 6 ⎟ = 3.05 which does not exceed the allowable FS of
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1000 ⎠ 3.5, hence OK. This factor of safety should be
used for thinner penstock
Surge head due to sudden closure of one jet
hsurge = a* V/(g*njet), njet is the number of total jets As presented in Figure 15.2 “Designed Penstock”, Length
(m) as calculated is rounded and noted in the designed
= 1051.627*3.05/(9.81*2)
column starting from 3mm to 6mm so that the total
= 163.479m length is equal to the actual provided lengths. Individual
pipe lengths for the designated diameters are calculated
Since gradual closure of 10 second was chosen, surge
by inputting pipe thickness and diameters at the end of
head for gradual closure time,
the spreadsheet.
102
Figure 15.2: Penstock and power calculations
103
16. Forces on Anchor Blocks
16.1 General Total head,

Static head h gross = forebay water level – pipe center line
An anchor block is a gravity retaining structure placed at
every sharp change along the penstock pipe and is designed = 696.750 – 636.750 = 60m
to retain penstock pipe movement in all directions. htotal = h gross + hsurge
It should be stable against overturning, sliding and
sinking/bearing. Although the design of anchor blocks = 60 m + 48 m = 108 m
and saddles are site and user specific and the rules of Unit weight of pipe and water,
thumb are valid for micro-hydropower schemes, care
Wp =π (d + t) t γsteel
should be taken while using these rules of thumbs even
for micro-hydropower projects. The spreadsheet “Anchor = π x (0.45+0.004) x 0.004 x 77 = 0.448 kN/m
Loads” is useful for calculating static and dynamic forces
Ww =π (d )2/4* γwater
on an anchor block. In case the penstock pipes upstream
and downstream of an anchor block are not on a single π (0.450)2
= × 9.8 = 1.560 kN/m
plane (i.e., 3 dimensional forces), the resultant forces act 4
on three dimensions and the block has to be stable in Total weight per unit length W T=Wp+Ww
all three dimensions. Calculation and design of anchor
= 2.008 kN/m
blocks for three dimensions is a complex process and
beyond the scope of this book and most of micro and Velocity, (v) = Q/A = 4*Q/(π*d2)
mini hydropower projects have penstock in single planes,
= 4*0.45/(π*.452) = 2.829 m/s
therefore, a spreadsheet useful for calculating forces in a
single plane parallel to longitudinal section of the anchor 1. Perpendicular component of weight of pipe and water
block is presented. Moreover, the designers are strongly acting perpendicular to the pipe centre line along the
advised to align penstock in a single plane. anchor faces
F1u = WT L1u cos α
AEPC does not have any mandatory procedures for
designing anchor blocks. Therefore, standard procedures = 2.008 * 2 * cos 13° = 3.913 kN
for calculating forces on anchor blocks are considered in F1d = WT L1d cos β
this spreadsheet. The possible forces acting on anchor
= 2.008 * 2 * cos 25° = 3.640 kN
blocks are presented in the spreadsheet.
The axial components of these forces can be calculated as:
Since the calculation of anchor forces consists of single F1u axial = - WT L1u sin α
line formula calculations without many conditions, the
= 2.008 * 2 * sin 13° = - 0.903 kN
spreadsheet is designed to present simple definitions of
these forces along with sketches, their formulae and the F1d axial = - WT L1d sin β
calculated results. An example of 500kW Jhankre mini- = 2.008 * 2 * sin 25° = - 1.697 kN
hydropower project anchor block presented in “Civil
Works Guidelines for Micro-Hydropower in Nepal” has FEMu = WT L1u2 /8 = 2.008 * 22/8
been taken as an example. Some additional forces are = 2.677 kN-m
added and some of the formulae based on analytical
method are used. FEMd = - WT L1d2 /8 = 2.008 * 22/8
= - 2.677 kN-m
16.2 Program Example 2. Axial frictional force of pipe on saddle supports
transferred to anchor block considering f = 0.25 for
Inputs for the cited example are presented in Figure
steel on steel (greased) saddle top.
16.2. Elevations are used to calculate vertical angles (α
and β) in case these angles are not entered as inputs. As Frictional force per support pier
always, care should be taken to verify inputs in red color. = ± f *WT*L2u cos α
Volume of the block is taken from Section 15.5.1.
= ± 0.25*2.00 * 4 cos 13°= ± 1.95 kN
104
Total frictional force for 8 piers (F2u ) 8. Dynamic pressure at the bend due to the vector
difference of momentum (F8):
= ± 1.95 x 8 = ± 15.653 kN
P8 (kN) = F8 = Q*ρ ∗v= 0.45*1*2.829 = 1.273 kN
Note that F2d is zero since an expansion joint is located
immediately downstream of the anchor block.
⎛ Q 2 ⎞ ⎛ β − α⎞
3. Hydrostatic pressure at bend due to the vector F8=2.5 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ sin ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
⎝d ⎠
difference of static pressure and acting towards IP
(F3) and total force along the pipe (P). Since upstream ⎛ 0.450 2 ⎞ ⎛ 25° − 13° ⎞
and downstream penstock diameter are the same. = 2.5 ⎜⎜ ⎟ sin⎜
2 ⎟
⎟ = 0.261 kN
⎝ 0.450 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
Pu (kN) = π/4*d2*Ht*γ
9. No reducer is provided in this case. Therefore axial
= π/4*.452*108*9.81 = 168.50
force on reduce (F9 = 0). In case there is a reducer, total
F3 = 2*P*sin((β-α)/2) head at the specified reducer location is calculated for
⎛ 25° − 13° ⎞ calculating F9.
= 2x168.50 x sin ⎜ ⎟ =35.227 kN
⎝ 2 ⎠
10. Axial drag of flowing water (friction of flowing
4. Component of weight of pipe along the pipe (L4u =
water) is generally not considered in micro and mini
34/cos α – 4 = 30.894)
hydropower scheme penstock design. Therefore
F4u = WpL4u sin α F10 = 0 is considered in this example.
= 0.448 x 30.894 x sin 13° = 3.112 kN 11. Force due to soil pressure (F11):
F4d = WpL4d sin β 2
γ soil h 1
= 0.448 x 4.0 x sin 25° = 0.757 kN F11= cos i x Ka x w
2
5. Since expansion joints both upstream and For γsoil = 20 kN/m3, φ = 30° and Ka
downstream are provided, F5 = 0. Typical temperature
ranges are presented in the example. Since the cos i − cos 2 i − cos 2 φ
= =0.371
temperatures (dt) are different for expansion and
cos i + cos 2 i − cos 2 φ
contraction, F5 for both the cases are presented.
2 0 × 1.8 2
6. Axial friction within expansion joint seal due to the F11 = cos 13° x 0.371 x 2
2
movement against the circumferential pressure (F6)
= 23.455 kN
can be calculated using either of the formulas:
This force acts at 1/3 of the buried depth at upstream
F6 = ±100 x d or F6 = ±π*D*W*H*γ*μ
face of anchor block, which is (1/3 x 1.8) = 0.6 m.
Since the second formula is based on analytical method,
12. Vertical force due to the weight of the block (F12)
it is recommended to use it. H is the total head at the
(Volume of the block 16.19086m3, γblock =22kN/
considered expansion joint. For a seal width (W) of
m3):
0.16m and a friction factor (m) of 0.25, F6 is
F12 = γblock*Vol of block = 22*16.191
F6u= ±π*0.454*0.16*98.512*9.81*0.25 = 55.666 kN
= 356.199 kN
F6d= ±π*0.454*0.16*109.888*9.81∗0.25 = 60.959 kN
7. Axial hydrostatic pressure on exposed end of pipe in Summary of forces are presented in Figure 16.1. The
expansion joint (F7): forces calculated above are further resolved in mutually
perpendicular directions to get the summary. A typical
F7= π*(d + t)*t*H*g
calculation is presented in Table 16.1. Forces acting at
F7u = π* 0.454*0.004*98.512*9.81= 5.518 kN the bend and the total forces for both the expansion and
F7d = π* 0.454*0.004*109.888*9.81= 6.042 kN contraction are presented in the table. The total forces
will further be utilized in anchor block design.
105
Table 16.1: Summary of forces

Forces (kN) X – component, expansion (kN) →+ Y- component, expansion (kN) ↓+
F1u = 3.913 = - F1u sin α = - 0.880 = F1u cos α = 3.813
F1d = 3.640 = - F1d sin β = - 1.538 = F1d cos β = 3.299
F2u = ± 15.653 = F2u cos α = 15.252 = F2u sin α = 3.521
F3 = 35.227 ⎛ β + α⎞ ⎛ β + α⎞
= F3 sin ⎜ ⎟ = 11.469 = - F3 cos ⎜⎝ ⎟
2 ⎠ = - 33.308
⎝ 2 ⎠
F4u = 3.112 = F4u cos α = 3.033 = F4u sin α = 0.700
F4d = 0.757 = F4u cos β = 0.686 = F4u sin β = 0.320
F5u = 0.000 = F5u cos α = 0.000 = F5u sin α = 0.000
F5d = 0.000 = - F5d cos β = 0.000 = - F5d sin β = 0.000
F6u = 55.666 = F6u cos α = 54.239 = F6u sin α = 12.522
F6d = 60.959 = - F6d cos β = - 55.248 = -F6d sin β = -25.763
F7u = 5.518 = F7u cos α = 5.377 = F7u sin α = 1.241
F7d = 6.042 = - F7d cos β = - 5.476 = - F7d sin β = - 2.553
⎛ β + α⎞ ⎛ β + α⎞
F8 = 0.261 = F8 sin ⎜⎝ ⎟
2 ⎠ = 0.085 = - F8 cos ⎜⎝ ⎟
2 ⎠ = - 0.247
F9u = 0.000 = F9u cos α = 0.000 = F9u sin α = 0.000
F9d = 0.000 = - F9d cos β = 0.000 = - F9d sin β = 0.000
F10u = 0.000 = F10u cos α = 0.000 = F10u sin α = 0.000
F10d = 0.000 = - F10d cos β = 0.000 = - F10d sin β = 0.000
F11 = 23.455 = F11 cos i = 22.853 = F11 sin i = 5.276
F12 = 356.199 0 = F12 = 354.640
SUM ∑H total exp = 49.851 kN ∑V total exp = 323.460 kN

(expansion) ∑H @ bend exp = ∑H total exp - F11H = 26.997 kN ∑V @ bend exp = ∑V total exp - F11V - F12V = -36.454 kN
∑H total c = ∑H @ bend expansion – 2(F2H +F6Hu+ F6Hd) ∑V total c = ∑V @ bend contraction – 2(F2V +F6Vu+ F6Vd)=342.901
SUM = 21.366 kN kN
(contraction)
∑H @ bend c = ∑H total c – F11H = -1.488 kN ∑V @ bend = ∑V @ total c – F11V = -17.015 kN
106
107
Figure 16.1: Output of anchor block force calculation spreadsheet.
108
17. Anchor Block Design
17.1 General Concrete volume (V) = Block volume excluding volume

of the pipe and water if any
A design of one of the anchor blocks of 500kW Jhankre ⎛1 ⎞
= {(2.25 * 3) + ⎜ × 3 × 1. 0 5 ⎟ } * 2 - 1 x π x 0.4582/4 cos
mini-hydropower project presented in “Civil Works ⎝2 ⎠
Guidelines for Micro-Hydropower in Nepal” has been 13° - 2 * π x 0.4582 /4 cos 25° = 16.191 m3
taken as an example for preparing the spreadsheet Unit weight of concrete, (γconcrete)= 22 kN /m3
“Anchor Block”. It is worth noting that the slight
differences in calculated output in the guidelines Weight of block, WB = 16.12 x 22 = 356.199 kN
are mainly due to the rounding off of processed data
for secondary processing. A typical sketch of the Soil
considered anchor block is presented in Figure 17.1. cos i − cos 2 i − cos 2 φ
Ka = =0.3715
Stepwise calculations of the considered example are also cos i + cos 2 i − cos 2 φ
presented in this section. The inputs for the calculations
2
are presented in the input section of the spreadsheet γ soil h 1
presented in Figure 17.3. F11= 2 cos i x Ka x w
2 0 × 1.8 2
= cos 13° x 0.3715 x 2
2
= 23.455 kN
This force acts at 1/3 of the buried depth at upstream face
of anchor block from point O as shown in Figure 17.2,
which is (1/3 x 1.8) = 0.6 m. Perpendicular components
of this forces are:
F11X= F11 *cos i
= 23.455*cos 13° = 22.853 kN
F11Y= F11 *sin i
= 23.455*sin 13° = 5.276 kN
Figure 17.1: Typical Anchor Block
Stability (refer to Figure 17.3)
The spreadsheet is also designed to accommodate forces
Overturning:
due to the dead weight of anchor block and upstream
earth pressure. In case forces at the pipe bend calculated Expansion case
as per section 17.1 are used, dead weight of anchor block Sum of moments about point O with clockwise moments
and upstream earth pressure for a different anchor block as positive:
(not similar to defined in “Anchor Loads”) can be used in
this spreadsheet. ∑M @ O = 30.327 x 2.15 + 22.853 x 0.6 + 356.199 x
1.405 – 16.215 x 1.0 = 563.303 kN-m
17.2 Program Example
⎛∑M ⎞ 563.303
d=⎜ ⎟= = 1.632 m
Concrete Block ⎝ ∑V ⎠ 345.26
Centre of gravity of the block from the upstream face of
the block taking the moment of mass. e = 3 − 1.632 = 0.132 m
2
{(3 x 2.25)3/2 + (1/2 x 3 x 1.05)1/3 x 3} x 2
{(3 x 2.25) + (1 / 2 x 3 x 1.05)} x 2 L base 3
eallowable = = = 0 .5 m
6 6
= 1.405m
∴ the weight of the block WB acts 1.41 m from point O. ∴ e < eallowable OK
109
Contraction case Contraction case:

Sum of moments about point O with clockwise moments
as positive: ∑V ⎛ 6e ⎞
Pbase max = ⎜1 + ⎟
A base ⎜ L ⎟
∑M @ O = -6.19 x 2.15 + 22.85 x 0.6 + 356.199 x 1.405 ⎝ base ⎠
– 41.03 x 1.0 = 473.281 kN –m
320.4 ⎛ 6 × 0.023 ⎞
= ⎜1 + ⎟ = 55.866 N/m2
⎛∑M ⎞ 473.281 3× 2 ⎝ 3 ⎠
d= ⎜ ⎟= = 1.477 m
⎝ ∑V ⎠ 320.4 ⎛ 6e ⎞
∑V
Pbase min = ⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟
3 ⎝ LAbase
base ⎠
e= − 1.477 = 0.023 m
2
320.4 ⎛ 6 × 0.023 ⎞
= 3× 2 ⎜
1− ⎟ = 50.947 N/m2
⎝ 3 ⎠
Recall that eallowable = 0.5
∴ e < eallowable OK. In both cases Pbase < Pallowable = 200 kN/m2.
Since e < eallowable for both cases, the structure is safe ∴ the structure is safe against sinking.
against overturning.
Bearing capacity: Sliding:
Note that for stiff clay allowable bearing pressure is 200 Expansion case
kN/m2. FS*∑ H < μ ∑ V
Expansion case: μ = 0.5 for concrete/masonry on soil
∑V ⎛ 6e ⎞
⎜1 + ⎟ FS= factor of safety (1.5)
A base ⎜ L base ⎟
Pbase max = ⎝ ⎠ 1.5*53.18 kN < 0.5 x 345.26 kN
79.77 kN < 172.63 kN OK.
345.26 ⎛ 6 × 0.132 ⎞
= ⎜1 + ⎟ = 72.681 N/m2 Contraction case
3× 2 ⎝ 3 ⎠
FS*∑ H < μ ∑ V
∑V ⎛ 6e ⎞
⎜⎜1 − ⎟⎟ 1.5*16.66 kN < 0.5 x 320.44 kN
A Lbase
Pbase min = base ⎝ ⎠ 24.99 kN < 160.22 kN OK.
Since FS*∑ H < μ ∑ V in both cases the structure is safe
345.26 ⎛ 6 × 0.132 ⎞ against sliding.
= ⎜1 + ⎟ = 42.406 N/m2
3× 2 ⎝ 3 ⎠ ∴The anchor block is stable.
17.015
1 1 E xpansion
36.454
2 Contraction
1
26.997
1.488 2
2.15m
F 11V 1.00 m
5.276 1.41 m P enstock
centre line
F 11 H
22.853
w b = 356.199
o
0. 6 0 m
Figure 17.2: Anchor Block force diagram
110
Figure 17.3: Anchor Block force diagram
111
18. Turbine Selection
18.1 General • According to the name of the Inventors/originator

(Pelton, Francis, Kaplan)
A turbine converts potential energy of water to rotational • According to direction of flow of water (Tangential
mechanical energy. Cross-flow and Pelton turbines are flow – Pelton; Radial flow –Centrifugal; Axial flow
the most commonly used turbines in Micro hydropower – Kaplan; Mixed (Radial & Axial) – Modern Francis)
plants. The size and type of turbine for a particular site
depends on the net head and the design flow. Pelton • According to disposition of Turbine shaft (Horizontal
turbines are suitable where the ratio of head to flow is shaft; Vertical Shaft)
high and Cross-flow turbines are suitable for high flow • According to specific speed: The specific speed of
and low head schemes. The selection of the turbine type a turbine is the speed of a geometrically similar
based on flow and head conditions are discussed below. turbine that would develop one brake horsepower
It should be noted that for certain head and flow ranges under a head of one meter. Typical turbine types
both Pelton (multi-jet) and Cross-flow turbines may be versus recommended specific speeds are given in
appropriate. In such cases, the designer should consult Table 18.3.
with the manufacturer and make a decision based on
availability, efficiency and costs. On a horizontal shaft
Pelton turbine the maximum number of jets should
be limited to 2 for ease of manufacturing. The number Needle valve
of jets can be higher for vertical shaft Pelton turbines.
However, these require higher precision work in
mounting the generator vertically on the turbine shaft
and furthermore, in case of varying rotational speeds
(RPM of the turbine and the generator), the belt drive Buckets
arrangements (including those for mechanically coupled Deflector
end uses) will be difficult.
18.2 Turbine Type Selection distributor
In the present context, Pelton or Cross-flow or Francis

turbines are used in micro and mini hydropower
runner
projects. Other options shall only be used if they can
demonstrated to be both cost effective and proven in
blades
the Nepalese context. General guidelines for selecting
micro and mini hydropower turbines are presented in
Table 18.1.
water flow
Table 18.1: Turbine Selection Criteria Stay vane
High Head Medium Head Low Head Guide vane
Pelton, Cross-flow, Propeller, Kaplan, Stay vane
Turgo Francis, Multi jet Francis, Cross flow
Pelton, Turgo
Runner
18.2.1 Classification of Turbines
Guide vane
Turbines are classified according to various parameters.
The important ones are: Runner
• According to the action of water on its blades

(a) Plan view (b) Elevation
(Impulse: Pelton and Reaction: Francis; Propeller,
Kaplan). Figure 18.1: Typical mini hydropower turbines
112
18.2.2 Pelton Turbine 18.2.3 Crossflow Turbine
Pelton turbine are the preferred turbine for hydro- The Turbine consisits of a cylindrical runner with
power, when the available water source has relatively a horizontal shaft, composed of numerous blades,
high hydraulic head at low flow rates. Pelton turbine arranged radially and tangentially. The blade’s edges
are made in all sizes. A Pelton turbine has one or more are sharpened to reduce resistance to the flow of water.
nozzles discharging jets of water which hit series of A blade is made in a part-circular cross-section. A
buckets mounted on the periphery of a circular disc. rectangular adaptor directs the jet to the full length of
the runner in this kind of turbine.
Advantages
• High efficiency
Advantages
• Simple structure
• Easy to fabricate
• Easy to shut down with jet deflector
• Easy to maintain
• Good part flow efficiency
Disadvantages Disadvantages
• Nozzle can be clogged • Low rotational speed so needs drive system
• High surge pressure
• Bucket profile difficult to fabricate Sizing of T14 Crossflow Turbines
• Turbine rpm
H net
rpm Cross Flow = 40 × ,
Drunner
Available Drunner = 300 mm
Q max
• Inlet width bomm = ,
Qss × Dssm H netm
where the Specific discharge Qss is 80% of Qmax so

that the highest efficiency is utilized at the designed
flow.
• Inlet width bo shall be provided within the range of
Figure 18.2: Typical Pelton turbines 100mm to twice the diameter. It can also be down to
50mm if 250mm runner are provided.
Sizing of Pelton Turbines
• Jet Velocity v jet = Cd x 2 * g * H net
where Cd = 0.96, Hnet = net head.
• Nozzle diameter
Q 1 *1000,
d jet = 0.54 x 0.25
x
H net N jet
where Q = discharge per unit turbine,
Njet = number of jets in one turbine.
• Pitch Circle Diameter (PCD) mm (Normally available
micro hydropower Pelton diameters are 160 mm,
250 mm and 350 mm) considering the optimum
efficiency of cercumferencial to nozzle velocity of
50%.
1
PCD = 60 * (50% * Cd * 2 * g * Hnet ) x * 1000
(π * rpmt )
where rpmt = turbine rpm, Cd = coeff. of discharge.

• 38 x H *1000 Figure 18.3: Typical Crossflow turbines
Pelton rpm =
DPelton
113
18.2.4 Francis Turbine 0.5

• Runner diameter D = 0.44 × Q
3 0.05
H
A Francis is a type of reaction turbine, in which the • Inlet diameter
working fluid comes to the turbine under immense § 1 ·
pressure and the energy is extracted by the turbine D1 D3 u ¨¨ ¸¸
© 0.460 0.00829nq ¹
blades. A part of the energy is given up by the fluid
because of pressure changes occuring in the blades • Height of runner b= 0.5D3
of the turbine, quantified by the expression of Degree
• Height of runner guide vane (water passage height)
of reaction, while the remaining part of the energy is
extracted by the volute casing of the turbine. § 0.00702 0.00380nq ·
bt D3 u ¨¨ ¸¸
Advantages © 0.460 0.00829nq ¹
• High Efficiency
• Spiral case dimensions:
• High rotational speed so generally no needs drive
system o A = (-0.0813+0.773 D3)*nq0.1
Disadvantages o B = (0.362+1.889 D3)*nq0.1

• Difficult to fabricate. o C = (0.162+2.288 D3)*nq0.1
• Difficult to maintain.
Sizing of Francis Turbines • Draft tube dimensions:
• Ideal turbine rpm n’ o P = 0.428+2.812 D3

0.15
H o Q = 0.273+0.670 D3
rpm Francis = 1145 ×
Q 0.5 o X = -0.568+2.741 D3
18.3.1 Turbine Efficiencies
The recommended net heads for maximum rotational

speed (rpm) and efficiencies for different turbines and
turbine specifications are presented in Table 18.2.
Table 18.2: Turbine specifications (for micro and

mini hydropower turbines)
Max Efficiency
Type Net head (m)
rpm (η)
Pelton More than 10m 1500 75% - 90%
T12 Crossflow up to 50m 900 70 - 72%
T15 Crossflow up to 80m 1500 70 - 78%
Francis Up to 400m 1500 75% - 90%
18.3.2 Transmission System Efficiencies

(belt and coupling systems)
η = 0.9 to 0.95 in case of normal belts
η = 0.95 to 0.98 in case of Habasit flat belt
η = 0.98 to 0.99 in case of Flexible Coupling
18.3.3 Generator Efficiencies

Figure 18.4: Typical Francis Turbine dimensions
η = 0.76 to 0.92 in case of Synchronous generator (0.85
Q 0.5 can be confirmed)
• Synchronous speed nq = n × 0.75
H
114
18.3.4 Specific Speed 18.4 Program Briefing and

Example
For bigger hydropower project, specific speeds are
calculated based on power based equations where as for The “Turbine” spreadsheet is presented in Figure 18.5.
micro hydropower project, flow based equation is widely The specific speeds (ns) is calculated as:
used.
Sp Speed (ns)
The type of turbine can be determined by its specific = Turbine rpm*√(1.4*PkW/Nturbines/jet)/Hn5/4
speed given by the following power based equation:
= 600*√(1.4*640.44/1)/136.009(5/4)
Sp Speed (ns ) = Turbine rpm*√(1.4*PkW/Nturbines)/Hn5/4
= 24.927
Table 18.3: Turbine type vs. Power based Specific
Referring to Table 18.3, one unit of Turgo or Cross
speed ns (metric Hp units) ranges
turbines are suitable. In case we provide two units of
Turbine Min ns Max ns double jet Pelton turbine, the specific speed will be 18
Kaplan 300 1000 which is within the given limit presented in Table 18.3
Francis 65 445 for Pelton turbines.
Pelton 16 20
Turgo 20 70 As presented in Figure 18.5, two sets of Pelton turbines
Crossflow 12 80 with 2 jets per unit at 750 rpm is selected.
Alternatively, the specific speed of the turbine can be A crossflow turbine example is presented in Figure 18.6.
determined by using the following discharged based
equation: Standard values of the specific ranges are considered in
Sp Speed (ns) = 3.65*Turbine rpm*√(Q/Nturbines)/Hn3/4 these examples. User specific (AEPC) ranges of specific
are also possible to use for the selection of turbines
Table 18.4: Turbine type vs. Flow based Specific although it is not generally recommended for use unless
speed ns ranges adeopted by AEPC there are some special reasons for using them.
Turbine Min ns Max ns
Kaplan 270 1000
Francis 60 350
Pelton 8 72
Crossflow 42 200
115
Figure 18.5: A typical Pelton turbine example using Power based standard specific formula.
116
Figure 18.6: A typical Crossflow turbine example.
117
Figure 18.7: A typical Francis turbine example
118
19. Electrical Equipment Selection
19.1 General of the proposed loads and costs and benefits of the
scheme. As stated earlier, a generator type can be either
A generator converts mechanical energy to electrical synchronous or induction of either single or three phase.
energy. There are two types of generators; namely, Some of the main features of all types of generator are
synchronous and asynchronous (induction). outlined in the following sections:
Generally, induction generators are inexpensive and 19.2.1 Single Phase versus Three Phase
appropriate for Nepali pico-hydro schemes up to System
10kW. Both synchronous and asynchronous generators Advantages of a Three - Phase System
are available in single and three phases. Brushless
synchronous generators are recommended for micro and • Considerable saving of conductor and machine
mini hydropower projects. costs.
• Cheaper above 5 kW.
Load controllers are the equipment which maintains
the frequency of a generated electricity. It senses the • Less weight by size ratio.
frequency variation which occur due to the variation in Advantage of a Single – Phase System
the main load. This frequency is maintained by diverting
• Simple wiring.
surplus power to the dump load. Load controllers are
generally used as the governing system in Nepali micro • Cheaper ELC.
hydro schemes. An Electronic Load Controller (ELC)
• No problem due to unbalanced load.
is used for controlling power output of a synchronous
generator. To control power output of an induction
19.2.2 Induction versus Synchronous
generator, an Induction Generator Controller (IGC) is
Generators
used. For bigger hydropower projects other than micro
hydropower projects, brushless synchronous generators Induction Generators
with electronic load controller coupled with flow control Advantages of Induction Generators:
governing systems called Electronic Load Governor • Easily available
(ELG) are used mainly because of economic grounds.
• Cheap, rugged and simple in construction
Electronic Load Controller • Minimum Maintenance
Drawbacks of Induction Generators:
Load • Problem supplying large inductive loads.

Generator Electronic
Consuming
Switch • Capacitor banks are generally not durable.
• Poor voltage regulation compared to synchronous
generators.
Synchronous Generators
Dump Load
Advantages of Synchronous Generators:
Figure 19.1: Load governing system. • High quality electrical output.
• Higher efficiency.
19.2 Selection of Generator Size • Can start larger motors.
and Type Drawbacks of Synchronous Generators:
Selection of generator size mainly depends up on the • The cost is higher than induction generator for small
loads of a proposed site. Selection of generator type sizes.
depends on the size of the selected generator, nature • Higher losses due to unbalanced load.
119
19.3 General Recommendations Where,

f = frequency of the system in Hertz (Hz) (50 Hz in
Based on the major features, general guidelines for Asia and Europe)
selection of phase and type of generator are prepared
and summarized in Table 19.1. p = number of poles of the generator (2, 4, 6, etc.,
in pairs). P for Nepali micro-hydropower schemes
Table 19.1: Selection of Generator Type is generally 4 so that the rotational speed is 1500
Size of scheme Generator Phase RPM.
Up to 10kW Synchronous/Induction Synchronous
More than 10kW Single or Three Phase Three Phase 19.3.2 Sizing and RPM of an Induction
Generator:
Maximum ambient temperature, powerhouse altitude, The steps for selecting the size of an induction generator
electronic load controller correction factor and power are as follows:
factor of the proposed loads are the major factors
1. The size of an induction generator (kW):
affecting the size of a generator. De-rating coefficients to
allow for these factors are presented in the Table 19.2. Installed Capacity in kW
Induction Generator (kW) = 1.3* ----------------------
19.3.1 Sizing and rpm of a AxB
Synchronous Generator: It is worth noting that an induction generator is
basically a motor used as a generator. Similar to motor
The steps for selecting the size of a synchronous
rating, the rating of an induction generator should be in
generator are as follows:
kW. Therefore, ELC factor (C) and the power factor (D)
1 Power factor of 0.8. corrections are not applicable for an induction generator.
Other factors are applied similar to a sychronous
2 The size of synchronous generator (kVA):
generator. Generator voltage and current ratings should
Installed Capacity in kW not exceed 80% of the electrical motor rating.
Generator (kVA) = 1.3*---------------------------------
2. The rotational speed of an induction generator:
AxBxCxD
120 f
Where, A, B, C and D are correction factors from Table
Rotational speed ( Ni) = (1 + s ) rpm
19.2 and 1.3 is the 30% overrating factor (recommended) p
to allow for:
Where,
1 Unexpected higher power from turbine. Ns − Nr
s=
2 Handling of starting current if large motors (> 10% Ns
of generator size) are supplied from the generator.
p and f are the same as for synchronous generator
3. The synchronous rotational speed per minute:
and s is the slip of the generator,
120 f
Rotational speed ( N) = rpm
p
Table 19.2: Generator rating factors

Max. Ambient temperature in oC => 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Temperature Factor (A) 1.10 1.08 1.06 1.03 1.00 0.96 0.92 0.88
1000
1250
1500
0.945 1750
2000
0.915 2250
2500
2750
3000
0.845 3250
3500
0.815 3750
4000
0.785 4250
4500
Altitudes
1.00
0.98
0.96
0.93
0.90
0.88
0.86
0.83
0.77
Altitude Factor (B)

0.8
ELC Correction Factor (C) 0.83
For light bulb loads (inductive) only 1.0

Power Factor (D)
For mixed loads of tube lights and other inductive loads 0.8
120
Where, 19.5 Program Briefing and

Ns is the synchronous speed, i.e. examples
120 f
Ns = rpm 19.5.1 Program Briefing
p
In addition to calculating electrical parameters stated
Nr is the rated rotor speed of the induction motor above, following electrical parameters are added to the
and Ni always exceeds Ns while acting as a generator. presented “Electrical” spreadsheet:
1 Computation of excitation capacitance for an
19.4 Sizing and types of induction generator.
Electronic Load Controllers
2 Sizing of electrical load controller (ELC) or induction
generator controller (IGC) (equal to the installed
19.4.1 Types of Load Controllers
capacity).
Based on the principles of balancing or flow balancing, 3 Sizing of ballast (20% higher than the installed
load controllers can be of following types: capacity). In case the installed capacity exceeds or
equal to 50kW, the ballast capacity of ELC-Extension
1 Electronic Load Controller (ELC used in MHP with
is calculated as:
Synchronous generators)
Ballast capacity of ELC extension (kW)
2 Induction Generator Controller (IGC used in MHP
with Induction generators) = 60% * 1.2 * Pe (electrical power)
3 Electronic Load Governor (ELG used in micro and Fixed load = 40% * Pe (electrical power)
mini hydropower projects)
4 Sizing of MCCB/MCB.
4 Electronic Flow Governor (EFG used in big
5 Sizing of power cables.
hydropower projects)
1. Sizing of excitation capacitance of an Induction
ELG and EFG are not manufactured in Nepal and they Generator
along with other accessories generally come along with Excitation capacitance (C) for Delta connection
electro-mechanical packages, they are not included in
this Design Tools. 1
C= MF
2 * P * f * Xc *H m
19.4.2 Sizing of Electronic Load
Controllers or
Single phase and three phase ELCs are used mainly in 1000 * Pe * sin(cos −1 ( pf )
C= MF
Nepali Micro Hydropower Projects. Generally the ballast 3 * V 2 * pf * 2P * f *H m
rating of ELC is increased by 20 % of installed capacity
of the plant. Where,
Xc = V / Im in Ohm (Ω)
In order to compensate for the losses due to harmonics
generated by working principle of ELC, ELC Extension V = Rated Voltage of the motor in Volt (V) and phase
(ELC-X) is used in projects with capacities exceeding to phase voltage is 380/400/415 V
50kW. In an ELC-X system, loads are controlled by having Im = Magnetizing Current in ampere (A)
60% Thyristor load combined with 40% fixed load.
= Rated full load current (Irated) * sin (cos-1 (pf))
19.4.3 Induction Generator Controllers Irated at full load current
= Rated power (kW) * 1000/(V*pf)
Similar to ELC, an IGC senses operating voltages and
thus controls the voltage by diverting varying amount ηm = rated efficiency of motor at full load
of power to the ballast. They are limited to smaller
For star connected capacitors, the excitation
generating units where the inductive loads are negligible
capacitance is three times that for the Delta
and frequency sensitive loads are not used. AEPC limits
connection.
the use of IGC to 10kW although 1-Phase [1-10 kW] & 3
phase [10kW-30 kW] are available in the market. 2. Sizing of MCCB/MCB = 1.25*Pe* 1000/(V*pf) A
121
Where, Calculated size MCCB/MCB (A)

1.25 = overrating factor = 1.25*Pe* 1000/(√3 * Vrated *pf)
Pe= Installed capacity (kW) = 1.25*60.04*1000/(√3 * 400*0.8)= 135.4 Amp
V = Rated phase to neutral Voltage in Volt (V) and Power cable inside the powerhouse
Vline = √3*V for 3-phase
Rating current (I rated) = 180.43 Amp
pf = power factor if induction generator is used
For this current a 4-core copper armored cable of
3. Sizing of power cable (A) = FS*I ASCR 120mm2 is chosen.
Where,
19.5.3 Typical example of a three
FS = overrating factor (usually 100% or 1) phase induction generator for
I = Current (A) = Generator size/(V *pf if induction 20kW MHP
generator is used)
Figure 19.3 gives electrical equipment sizing of a 20kW
V = Rated phase to neutral Voltage in Volt (V) and a three phase induction generator with a rotor speed
Vline = √3*V for 3-phase of 1450rpm. Since the electrical output is more than
pf = power factor 10kW, a reminder error is flagged in the adjacent cell.
The electrical components presented in Figure 19.3 are
19.5.2 Typical example of a 3-phase computed as:
synchronous generator for 60kW The size of the asynchronous generator:
MHP
Installed Capacity in kW
Electrical component calculations for an example of a Generator kW = 1.3*------------------------------------
three-phase 60kW synchronous generator at an altitude AxB
of 1500m are presented in Figure 19.2. The detailed = 1.3*20/(0.96*0.96) = 28.25 kW
step-by-step calculations are:
The higher size available in the market of three phase
The size of synchronous generator: 30kW is used.
120 f
Installed Capacity in kW Synchronous speed (Ns) =
Generator kVA = 1.3*----------------------------- P
= 120*50/4 = 1500 rpm
AxBxCxD
Rotational speed of a generator = Ns*(1+(Ns-N)/Ns)
= 1.3*60.04/(1.02*0.96*0.83*0.8)
= 1500*(1+(1500-1450)/1500) = 1550 rpm
= 119.73 kVA
Excitation capacitance
The higher size available in the market of 125kVA is used
1000*Pe* sin (cos-1 (pf))
by referring the given table 19.2
C (цF) = ---------------------------------------
120 f
Rotational speed ( N ) = rpm 3*V2*pf*2*π*f*ηm
P
1000*20* sin (cos-1 (0.8))
= 120*50/4 = 1500 rpm C (цF) = ----------------------------------------------------
3*3802*0.8*2*π*50*0.89
Since Pe > 50kW, the ballast capacity of ELC extension
(kW) = 60% * 1.2 * Pe + 40% * Pe = 123.84 μF, three numbers of 42μF capacitor
systems are used.
= 0.6*1.2*60.04 + 0.4*60.04
Size of MCCB/MCB (A) = 1.25*Pe*1000/(√3*380*0.8)
= 67.24 kW, therefore 3*23kW = 69kW selected.
= 47.48 Amp
Incase ELC-X is not used, 60.00kW ELC and 72.00kW
I rated for Cable at Generator side = Generator size*
ballast shall be used.
1000/(√3*Vrated *pf)
Irated for Cable at Generator side
= 30*1000 /(√3*380*0.8) = 56.98 Amp
= Generator size * 1000 / (√3*Vrated )
For this current a 4-core copper armored cable of ACSR
= 125*1000/ (√3*400)
25mm2 is chosen.
= 180.43 Amp
122
Figure 19.2: Electrical components of a 60kW MHP
123
Figure 19.3: Electrical components of a 20kW MHP with induction generator
124
20. Machine Foundation
20.1 General Weight of the three sections W1, W2. W3 as presented in

Figure 10.1 are:
A machine foundation of a hydropower scheme is a gravity W1= 0.4 m × 1.5 m × 2.5 m × 2 kN/m 3
structure designed to transfer hydraulic forces from
penstock, torque from rotating machines and gravity = 33.00 kN
loads from generator, turbines and the foundation itself. W2 = [(0.45 x 1.5 x 2.5)-(0.45 x 1 x 0.5)-(0.45 x 0.5 x 1)]
Similar to an anchor block, the machine foundation x 22
should be stable against overturning, sliding and sinking/
bearing. Standard dimensions can be referred to while = 27.225 kN
dimensioning micro-hydropower machine foundation. W3 = 2.35 x 1.5 x 2.5 x 22
It is strongly recommended to refer to suppliers while
= 193.875 kN
dimensioning mini and small hydropower machine
foundations. Overturning:
Take sum of moments about point B (counter clockwise
A machine foundation of 500kW Jhakre Mini-
moments as positive):
hydropower project cited in “Civil Works Guidelines
for Micro-Hydropower in Nepal” has been taken as an ΣM@B
example in the spreadsheet “Machine Foundation”. =W1 ⎛⎜ 0.4 + 0.45 + 2.35 ⎞⎟ + (W 2 + W T )×
A plan and a section of the considered foundation are ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ 0.45 ⎞ ⎛ 2.35 ⎞
+ 2.35 ⎟ + (W G + W 3 )⎜
presented in Figure 20.1. These figures are part of the
⎜ ⎟ − FH × 1.8
presented spreadsheet and are interactive diagrams. The ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
considered machine foundation is designed to support a = 33.00(3.0) + (27.225+2.94)(2.575) + (3.43+193.875)
directly coupled Pelton turbine and a generator. (1.175) – 70.036 x 1.8
= 282.455 kNm
It is worth noting that the critical plane of a machine
Sum of vertical forces,
foundation depends on turbine axis and coupling types.
A turbine axis (shaft) is perpendicular to the incoming ΣV = W1+W2+W3+WT+WG
flow for Crossflow, Pelton and Spiral case Francis turbines
= 33.00 + 27.225 + 193.875 + 2.94 + 3.43
whereas it is parallel to the incoming flow for open
flume Francis and other axial flow turbines. Coupling = 260.477 kN
type (direct or belt drive) also determine a critical plane Equivalent distance at which ΣV acts from point B:
(XX or YY as presented in the spreadsheet) with respect
to its stability. Stability along both these mutually d= ∑M =
282.455
= 1.084 m
perpendicular axes are analysed in the presented ∑V 260.477
spreadsheet. Stepwise calculations of the considered ⎡ L B a se ⎤
example are presented in the following sections. For eccentricity, e = ⎢ − d⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
input to these stepwise calculations, refer to the input
= ⎡ 3.2 − 1.084⎤ = 0.516 m
section of the spreadsheet is presented in Figure 20.1.
⎢ 2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
20.2 Example
LBase 3.2
eallowable = = = 0.533 m
General Calculations 6 6
htotal = hgross + hsurge Since e is less than eallowable, eccentricity is in the middle
= 51 m + 50 m = 101 m: third.
Force due to htotal, (FH) = (Pipe area) x 101 m x unit weight ∴The structure is safe against overturning.
of water Bearing pressure:
0 .3 2
=
4
m 2 × 101 m × 9.8 kN / m3 = 70.036 kN Pbase max = ∑ V ⎛
⎜1 +
6e ⎞
⎟
A b a se ⎝ L b a se ⎠
125
ΣH = FH = 70.036 kN
260.477 ⎛ 6 × 0.516 ⎞ = 64.038 kN/m2 μ ΣV = 0.5 x 260.5 = 130.2 kN
= ⎜1 + ⎟
3.2 × 2.5 ⎝ 3.2 ⎠
Factor of safety against sliding:
Pbase min = ∑ V ⎛⎜1 − 6e ⎞
⎟⎟
A base ⎜⎝ L base ⎠ µ∑ V 130.238
= = = 1.86 > 1.5 OK
260.477 ⎛ 6 × 0.516 ⎞ = 1.081 kN/m2
∑H 70.036
= ⎜1 − ⎟ ∴ The structure is safe against sliding.
3.2 × 2.5 ⎝ 3.2 ⎠
Since both pressures are within zero and 180 kN/m2
Stability along YY is analyzed in similar manner. It is
(max. allowed for soil) the structure is safe against
worth noting that the machine foundation is not stable
sinking.
(for the stated factor of safety) against overturning and
Sliding: bearing along YY axis and this is the real critical case for
Assume that the friction coefficient between block and the presented example in the guidelines.
soil, μ = 0.5
126
Figure 20.1: Layout of MachineFoundation Spreadsheet
127
21. Transmission Line
21.1 General and 400V and single phase 230V transmission and
distribution lines.
Power generated at a powerhouse is evacuated to load 2. Balanced load is assumed, i.e., neutral conductor
centers or grids with the help of transmission and does not carry any current.
distribution lines. According to the Nepal Standards,
400/230V is the standard minimum voltage. 400/11000V 3. With a power factor of 0.8, the rated current and
system is used in micro-hydropower transmission voltage drop are calculated as:
system where as 11 kV/33 kV is used in mini and small
hydropower transmission system. 11 kV and 33 kV Table 21.2: Rated current and voltage drop
are also considered to be distribution voltage by Nepal calculation
Electricity Authority (NEA). Use of standard voltages in Voltage drop
Phase Current (A)
micro hydropower projects is recommended so that the (dV)
power can be easily synchronized and evacuated to grid 3-phase Pe*1000/(√3*V* pf) √3*I*Z*length
in future. 1-phase Pe*1000/(V*pf) 2*I*Z*length
21.2 General Recommendations 4. Impedance

(Z)= √(Resistance2+Reactance2).
AEPC has formulated following guidelines regarding
5. Voltage at node (Vi)
micro-hydropower transmission and distribution
systems: Phase Voltage at node (Vi)
Single to single phase or 3 to Vprevious - dV
1 Cable configuration and poles: Buried or suspended 3 phase
on wooden or steel or concrete poles.
Three to single phase (400V Vprevious/√3 - dV
2 Permissible Voltage drop: 10% of nominal value at to 230V)
point of use.
6 Spreadsheet protection: Transmission line networks
3 Conductor: Aluminum conductor steel reinforced is project specific and does not match each other.
(ACSR) or Arial Bundled Cable (ABC) Therefore, this spreadsheet is not protected to match
the transmission line networks of the considered
4 The ASCR specifications are presented in Table 21.1.
project.
21.3 Program Briefing and The grid and load presented in Figure 21.2 are used for
Examples the calculations presented in Figure 21.3.
21.3.1 Program Briefing

1. The presented spreadsheet is designed to calculate
transmission parameters for three phase 33kV, 11kV
Table 21.1: ASCR specifications

Current Nominal Inductive
ACSR Code Type of Calculated Resistance at 20º C Sp. Weight
rating max Aluminium Reactance
number ACSR Max Ohm/km (kg/km)
Amps Area mm2 Ohm/km
1 Squirrel 1.368 76 20 0.355 85
2 Gopher 1.0930 85 25 0.349 106
3 Weasel 0.9077 95 30 0.345 128
4 Rabbit 0.5426 135 50 0.335 214
5 Otter 0.3419 185 80 0.328 339
6 Dog 0.2733 205 100 0.315 394
128
Figure 21.1: Flow chart of transmission and distribution line computation.
Transformer # 2 Legends
Node/Load (kW) at nodes
Transformer # 1 Reach length (m)/Phase/Load (kW)
Figure 21.2: Transmission line and load used for the example
Transmission line calculations Reach PH-A

Reach: powerhouse to node A to B By trial and error method to limit voltage drop at the
end of last load center, a dog conductor is found to be
The installed capacity of the considered scheme is 36kW.
suitable. For this cable,
Out of this, a total of 16kW of power is transmitted from
the powerhouse to nodes A, B, C and D. The transmission Z = √(R2 + L2) = √(0.2752 + 0.3152) = 0.418 Ohm /km
line from the powerhouse to node A is 400V three Current, I PH-A = Power*1000/(√3*V* power factor)
phase four wires type. Power from node A to other load
= 16*1000/(√3*400*0.8) = 28.87 A
centers are transmitted using 230V single phase two
wire systems. Lengths and other information of these Voltage drop (dV) = √3* I PH-A *Z (Ω/km)*l(km)
reaches are presented in Figure 21.2. = √3* 28.87 *0.418 *0.300 = 6.3 V
dV% = dV/VPH
129
= 6.3/400 *100 Calculations for other nodes C and D shall be calculated

in similar manner. It is worth noting transmission line
= 1.58%, which is within the limit of 10%. A
from A to C and D are constructed by splitting lines from
relatively lower value is recommended at this
A and therefore the voltage at A for these calculations
point because voltage drop at the end of either B
should also be same (i.e., 227.30 V).
or C or D has to be within 10%.
Voltage @ node A, VA = VPH – dV It should also be noted that standard voltage should be
= 400 – 6.3 = 393.70 V used at the outlet of the transformers. The voltage at the
outlet is standarised using tapping switch adjustment.
Reach A-B
As stated, this is single phase line. By Trial and error to The length of neutral wire depends on the configure of
limit voltage drop at the end of last load centre, an otter the transmission line network and user’s choice of type
is found to be suitable. For this cable, of the neutral wire. Therefore, the length and type of
neutral wire is presented as an input parameter.
Z = √(R2 + L2)
= √(0.5452 + 0.3352) = 0.640 Ohm /km Transmission line calculations for mini and small
hydropower project shall be calculated similar to the
Voltage at A for single phase, VA1 = 393.70/√3
calculations presented in Reach PH-A. Power from
= 227.30 V most of the mini and small hydropower projects in
Nepal are evacuated to load centres or grids. Since the
Current, I A-B = Power*1000/(VA* power factor)
tariff for these projects is fixed on energy basis, energy
= 5*1000/(227.30 *0.8) = 27.50 A losses while transmitting power to the load centres or
Voltage drop (dV) = 2* I A-B *Z(Ω/km)*l (km) grids should also be calculated and considered in the
financial analyses. Power losses is not included in this
= 2* 27.50 *0.640 *0.500 = 17.60 V spreadsheet but included in the Voltage Drop calculation
Voltage at B for single phase, under utility. It is calculated using following equation:
VB = 227.30 - 17.60 = 209.70 V

Ploss = √3*(V1-V2)*I*pf/1000
dV% = dVtotal/VPH
= (230-209.70 /230) *100 = 8.82%, which is within limit
of 10%. Hence OK.
130
Figure 21.3: Typical example of a low voltage transmission line
131
22. Loads and Benefits
22.1 General uses can be defined in five different time slots in the
24-hour load duration curve.
By optimizing the use of available energy by allocating it 2. Probable business load after three years of operation
in different time slots, benefit from a micro hydro scheme can defined based on the AEPC requirements. A
can be maximized. Based on the AEPC guidelines, a certainty percentage is used to calculate the level of
spreadsheet on loads and benefits is presented for assurance of installing and utilizing these business
concerned stakeholders to arrive to the most optimum loads.
pre-construction decision.
3. Annual available energy, annual load, productive end
use load factor and annual total income are calculated
and subsequently used in the financial analyses.
1. Average subscription wattage should not exceed
4. Load duration chart for the first three years of
200W per household.
operation and after three years of operation are
2. Minimum of 10% of total energy output as productive presented at the end of the spreadsheet. The load
end use is mandatory. duration chart till the first three years of operation
3. Multipurpose scheme is preferable. is very helpful in planning and allocating different
loads so that the benefits are maximized.
22.3 Program Briefing and 5. Yearly end use loads, productive end use load factors,
Example total plant load factors and annual total incomes for
the first three years and after three years of operation
22.3.1 Program Briefing are summarized for use in subsequent financial
analyses.
A flow chart of loads and benefits analyses used in the
spreadsheet is presented in Figure 22.1. Based on this Loads and Benefits calculations
flow chart, an example is presented in Figure 22.2. The Loads and benefits calculation in the presented
main features and assumptions are: spreadsheet are divided into two main parts. The first
1. In case the guidelines are similar to that set by part covers existing or committed business loads while
AEPC, this spreadsheet can also be used to all micro the second part covers probable business load after this
hydropower project. For the first three years of period. This spreadsheet is prepared to mimic AEPC
operation, one set of domestic and five different end subsidy calculation format. A 150 kW Gaddigadh MHP,
Start
Project Installed capacity,

Name, present loads & tariff (24 hr, 5 slots)
Location, Future EU load & tariff (1 time slot)
24 hr load Annual energy

Load duration Yearly loads
Graph (decision making) EU factors
Yearly income
End
Figure 22.1: Flow chart of the load and benefits calculation spreadsheet.
132
Doti is used as an example in the spreadsheet. The end use and productive end use load factor are 101,580
stepwise calculations for the first three years of load and kWh and 8.50% respectively. Similarly the total plant
benefit calculations are presented. factor and annual income are 42.16% and Rs 1,074,000
respectively.
Domestic Loads
Annual available energy, Ey = operating days * installed Since the committed end use is less than 10%, this
capacity * 24 project needs to increase its end uses in order to qualify
= 330*150*24 = 1,188,000 kWh for AEPC subsidy.
Load P (kW) =Beneficiary households (HH) *Average The presented load duration chart in Figure 22.2 suggests
HH load /(1-loss)/1000 that the scheme is mainly dominated by domestic load.
= 700 * 85 /(1-0.1)/1000 = 66.111 kW Other end uses can be incorporated even at subsidized
rate during 5:00 to 17:00 and 20:00 to 24:00 hours. The
Yearly load P y = operating days * daily load (D) = 330 loads varies from 20 to 140kW during these periods. In
*((5-0)*100+(8-5)*20+(18-8)*25+(20-18)*140+(24- case the scheme has to share water with other existing
20)*30) water utilities such as irrigation systems, this can be
= 399,300 kWh arranged during the non-operating hours or during
partial load hours. Thus, this load duration curve can
Average daily operating hours = Py/ Do/P
also be used to maximize benefits even at lower tariff
= 399300 /330/66.111 = 18.303 hours/day during such hours.
Load factor = Py / Ey * 100
The second chart shows load duration chart for
= 399300 /1,188,000 *100 = 33.61% the project after three years of operation. The total
Annual Income By =tariff * HH * load*12 productive end use after three years of operation is
36.83%. The certain end loads by factorizing the second
= Rs 1*700*85*12 = Rs 714,000 load by 50% is 17.69%. As presented in the figure, the
Existing/ Committed business loads annual end use and productive end use load factor are
200,180 kWh and 17.69% respectively. Similarly the
Existing or committed business loads are calculated in
total plant factor and annual income are 51.30% and Rs
similar manner. The calculated values are presented
1,778,400 respectively.
in Figure 22.3. As presented in the figure, the annual
Loads till three years of operation

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
160
140
Load 6 Load 5
120 Herbs Processing Saw Mill

Loads (kW)
Bakery Agro-processing
100
Domestic Installed Capacity
80
60
40
20
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time (hrs)
Loads after three years of operation

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
160
140 Load 6 Load 5
Cold Store Dairy Processing

Loads (kW)
120 Photo Studio Metal Workshop
Load till 3 Yr Installed Capacity

100
80
60
40
20
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time (hrs)
Figure 22.2: Load duration charts
133
Figure 22.3: An example of load and benefits calculation
134
23. Costing and Financial Analyses
23.1 General flow chart on which the spreadsheet is based is presented

in Figure 23.1. Annual cash flows for the stated planning
After a project is tested for its technical robustness and horizon is presented and used to calculate different
technical viabilities, it shall be tested for its financial financial parameters.
attractiveness as per the specified norms for the project.
As per the guidelines and standards set aside by AEPC, Present values of costs and benefit streams are calculated
this spreadsheet tests financial viability of a micro and to estimate NPV of the scheme. The total capitalized cost
mini hydro scheme for the subsidy approval. The base of the project includes subsidy based on accessibility of
of the robustness of the project is mainly its financial the project site, loans from banking and other lending
sustainability during its life span of 15 years. Positive agencies, cash and kind equities and other sources such as
Net Present Value (NPV) of project cost (equity) and donations, etc. Investment costs are presented in Figure
benefit streams based on based on 6% of discount rate is 23.2. Costs required for the operation and maintenance
expected for subsidy approval. of the project is calculated. Revenues with and without
probable business loads are calculated (Refer to Chapter
The amount of applicable subsidies for implementing 22 for business loads).
new and upgrading of existing micro-hydropower project
as per Renewable Energy Subsidy Policy, 2069 are listed NPVs of the project on total investment, total cost
in Table 23.1. excluding subsidy and equity only are calculated and
compared. As stated earlier, the minimum criteria for
23.2 Program Briefing and subsidy approval is to have positive NPV for equity only
consideration without probable business loads. Cost
example
per kilowatt to be within the specified limits is another
criteria for the subsidy approval.
23.2.1 Program Briefing
The subsidy policy came into effect because of the fact
The spreadsheet presented requires the total costs
that implementation of micro-hydropower projects in
including financing of the project and annual costs and
Nepal is not financially feasible and sustainable without
benefits as inputs to calculate the financial parameters
subsidies. Moreover, soft loans and relatively lower
such as the net present value and cost per kilowatt. The
Table 23.1: Summary of Subsidy as per AEPC Renewable Energy Subsidy Policy, 2069
Type (New/ Class A (Ka) Class B (Kha) Class C (Ga) Additional
Upgrading)
Subsidy /HH
Subsidy /HH
Subsidy /HH
Subsidy /HH
Subsidy /kW
Subsidy /kW
Subsidy /kW
Ceiling/kW
Ceiling/kW
Ceiling/kW
(HH*kW)
(HH*kW)
(HH*kW)
New
Mini with Grid (101- 20,000 120,000 220,000 18,000 100,000 190,000 16,000 70,000 150,000 2,500
1000kW)
Mini without Grid 15,000 120,000 195,000 15,000 100,000 175,000 15,000 70,000 145,000 2,500
Micro (11-100kW) 25,000 130,000 255,000 25,000 100,000 225,000 25,000 70,000 195,000 2,500
Pico (up to 10kW) 15,000 90,000 165,000 15,000 80,000 155,000 15,000 60,000 135,000 2,500
The maximum subsidy per kW along with households for ‘Ka’ ‘Kha’ and ‘Ga’ (A, B and C) areas are Rest. 255,000; Rest.
225,000; Rest. 195,000 respectively. Taking into mind that the power could use for end uses in future, 1 kW of power
should be used by at least 5 households.
Upgrading (all classes) Subsidy/kW Ceiling/project

Upgrading (structural) 10,000 200,000
Upgrading (equipment/NEA) 50,000 1,000,000
135
discount rate are applied to make them more sustainable. Project costs and benefit related are presented in Figure
It is worth noting that the only loans and cash equity 23.2. The summary of costs and benefits are:
are considered as investments in the financial analyses.
Total project cost including interest during construction
The loans shall be paid back within the stated payback
(IDC) P = Rs 38,752,717.50
periods.
Total capitalized loan L = Rs 3,527,500. Bank loan and
23.2.2 Typical example of costing and other loans will be paid back in 15 years at interest rates
financial analyses of 12% and 6% respectively.
Cash and kind equity = Rs 3,100,217.50
A typical example of costing and financial analyses of
a micro-hydro scheme based on projected cash flow is Operation and maintenance cost = Rs 545,000
presented in Figure 23.2. Since the economic life span of
mini and small hydropower is more than 15 years, use of Annual Revenues of Rs. 1,074,000 and 1,778,400 up
the spreadsheet should be limited to micro-hydropower to three years of operation and after three years of
projects only. However, financial analyses of mini and operation are considered in the financial analyses.
small hydropower projects can be carried out using
the stepwise calculations presented in the subsequent Annual installment of bank loan (annuity) were
section. calculated using an Excel built-in function PMT (interest
rate, payback year, -loan. If the installment mode is
Financial Analyses other than annual (such as monthly and quarterly), it
Subsidy Calculations: is recommended to use Loan Payment module of the
presented Utility spreadsheet.
Total Subsidy = subsidyHH * HH + SubsidykW*kW+ Other
HH*2500
Based on the projected annual cash flows (CFs), NPVs
= 20,000*700 + 120,000*150 + 50*2500 of the project are calculated by using an Excel built-in
function NPV(Discount Factor, Cash Flows)*(1+Discount
=Rs. 32,125,000
Factor). NPV, Internal Rate of Return (IRR) and Benefit
Subsidy ceiling per kW = Rs. 220,000 Cost Ratio (BCR) of total project cost without subsidy
Actual subsidy per kW = 32,125,000/150 for 15 years of project life is:
= 213,333, which is within the ceiling. NPVC-S = NPV(Discount Factor, Cash Flows)*(1+Discount
Factor)
Start
Sources of investment
Project Payback of loan
Name Discount factor
Location, Breakdown of investment cost
Annual operating cost
NPV w & w/o probable business load

Cost per kW
Subsidy per HH
Cash flows
End
Figure 23.1: Flow chart for Project costing and financial analyses
136
= NPV(6%, - 6627718, 1074000, …., 1778400,…) * NPV, IRR and BCR for return on equity and total project
(1+6%) costs are also presented in Figure 23.2. As can be seen
= Rs. 2,563,539 OK since it is positive. in the Figure, the financial parameters for the total costs
IRR C-S= IRR (Cash Flows) are not financially attractive meaning there has to be
= 11.12%, ok since it is more than 6% subsidy component.
BCR C-S= Net Present Benefit/Net Present Costs
= NPV(Discount Factor, Benefit Cash Flows / Since most of the mini and small hydropower projects
NPV(Discount Factor, Cost Cash Flows) last more than 15 years, financial parameters for 30 years
= 1.410 of economic life span are also calculated and presented
in the spreadsheet.
137
Micro/Mini Hydropower Survey and Design Tools (v 2013.08)
138
Figure 23.2: A typical example of project costing and financial analyses
AEPC/NMHDA
24. Utilities
24.1 General calculating uniform depth. VBA for Excel is used for this
iterative process. A typical calculation for a rectangular
Minor and repetitive calculations are presented in the section is presented in Figure 24.1.
spreadsheet “Utility”. These tools are especially helpful
in case quick and handy independent computations are 24.3 Payment of Loan for Different
required. Some of the presented tools are: Periods (monthly, quarterly
and yearly)
24.2 Uniform Depth of a
Rectangular or Trapezoidal The tool presented in Figure 24.2 is useful for calculating
Channel equal installment payback (EMI) for a given loan at a
specific interest rate and terms. Three modes namely
Calculation of uniform depths of an open channel is monthly, quarterly and yearly payments are available in
an iterative process. Manning’s equation is used for this tool.
Figure 24.1: A typical example of uniform depth calculation of a Rectangular section
139
A full payment schedule can also be generated by

clicking Generate Schedule button. A typical schedule is
Figure 24.2: A typical example EMI calculation
Payment Schedule of Upper Mai C Hydroelectric Project with Loan(1311189226) & Interest(10%)
Month Pmt No. Pmt Principal Interest Balance
38718.000 1.000 93352936.596 82426359.712 10926576.883 1228762866.288
38749.000 2.000 93352936.596 83113246.043 10239690.552 1145649620.244
38777.000 3.000 93352936.596 83805856.427 9547080.169 1061843763.817
38808.000 4.000 93352936.596 84504238.564 8848698.032 977339525.254
38838.000 5.000 93352936.596 85208440.552 8144496.044 892131084.702
38869.000 6.000 93352936.596 85918510.890 7434425.706 806212573.812
38899.000 7.000 93352936.596 86634498.481 6718438.115 719578075.331
38930.000 8.000 93352936.596 87356452.635 5996483.961 632221622.697
38961.000 9.000 93352936.596 88084423.073 5268513.522 544137199.624
38991.000 10.000 93352936.596 88818459.932 4534476.664 455318739.691
39022.000 11.000 93352936.596 89558613.765 3794322.831 365760125.927
39052.000 12.000 93352936.596 90304935.546 3048001.049 275455190.380
39083.000 13.000 93352936.596 91057476.676 2295459.920 184397713.704
39114.000 14.000 93352936.596 91816288.981 1536647.614 92581424.723
39142.000 15.000 93352936.596 92581424.723 771511.873 0.000
Figure 24.3: Generated Schedule of EMI calculation
140
24.4 Spillway Sizing 24.5 Pipe Friction Factor and Net

Head Calculation
The spillway sizing tool is useful for calculating spillway
lengths for different spillway shapes with different This tool calculates headloss, percentage head loss and
downstream conditions (downstream obstructed or net head of pipe headrace or penstock pipe system. A
free). As presented in Figure 24.4, this tool calculates typical example is presented in Figure 24.5.
actual spillway length required for critical conditions of
load rejection and off-take flood.
Figure 24.4: Spillway Length Calculation
Figure 24.5: Friction Factor and Net Head Calculation
141
Figure 24.6: Voltage Drop Calculation
24.6 Voltage drops of transmission 24.9 Submergence Head

line
This tool calculates the required minimum submergence
This tool calculates voltage drop, percentage voltage head for a pipe inlet for safe passage of flow without air.
drop and voltage at a lower end of a transmission line
segment for a given power. A typical example is presented 24.10 Pipe friction factor
in Figure 24.6.
Provision of surge shafts may be necessary in even mini
24.7 Pipe Turbulent Coefficient hydropower project. This tool provides minimum and
Factor maximum un-damped surge heights for a simple surge
shaft.
This tool is useful for calculating headrace or penstock
turbulent friction factor due to bends, entrance, exit and 24.11 Trashrack Sizing
other losses. This tool can calculated up to 120 bends
in 10 reaches of pipe length. A sample calculation is Trashrack dimensions are calculated by this tool. The
presented in Figure 24.7. size of the trashrack greatly differs with the mode of
cleaning (manual, automatic or semi-automatic).
24.8 Critical Depth
24.12 Pipe Friction Factor
This tool quickly calculates the critical depth of a
rectangular section. This tool calculate the total headlosses due to turbulent
behavior of the system as well as frictional headloss of
the provided pressurized box culvert.
142
Figure 24.7: Generated Schedule of EMI calculation
Figure 24.8: Critical Depth calculation
143
Figure 24.9: Submergence Head calculation
Figure 24.10: Surge Height calculation
144
Figure 24.11: Trashrack Sizing
Figure 24.12: Headloss in a Pressurized Box Culvert
145
25. References
1. Adam Harvey et.al. (1993), Micro-Hydro Design 14. HMG of Nepal, Ministry of Water Resources, Water
Manual, A guide to small-scale water power and Energy Commission Secretariat, Department
schemes, Intermediate Technology Publications, of Hydrology and Meteorology, Methodologies for
ISBN 1 85339 103 4. estimating hydrologic characteristics of un-gauged
locations in Nepal (1990).
2. Allen R. Inversin (1986), Micro-Hydropower
Sourcebook, A Practical Guide to Design and 15. HMG/N, Medium Irrigation Project, Design
Implementation in Developing Countries, NRECA Manuals, 1982.
International Foundation, 1800 Massachusetts
16. ICIMOD, Manual for Survey and Layout Design of
Avenue N. W., Washington, DC 20036.
Private Micro Hydropower Plants.
3. American Society of Civil Engineer (ASCE),
17. IT Nepal Publications, Management Guidelines For
Sediment Transportation.
Isolated MH Plant In Nepal, 1999.
4. Badri Ram & DN Vishwakarma, Tata McGraw-Hill
18. ITDG, Electrical Guideline For Micro-Hydro Electric
Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi 1995,
Installation.
Power System Protection and Switchgear, 1995.
19. ITDG, IT Nepal Publications, Financial Guidelines
5. BPC Hydroconsult, Intermediate Technology
for Micro-hydro Projects, 1997.
Development Group (ITDG), Kathmandu,
Nepal (2002), Civil Works Guidelines for Micro- 20. ITDG/ESAP, Guidelines relating to quality
Hydropower in Nepal. improvement of MH plants, 1999.
6. Entec AG, Switzerland, 240 kW Dewata Tea State 21. ITECO, DEH/SATA Salleri Chialsa Small Hydel
Mini Hydropower Scheme Feasibility Study, West Project (1983), Technical Report.
Java, Indonesia, 2000. 22. KB Raina & SK Bhattacharya, New Age International
7. Entec AG, Switzerland, 585 kW Jegu Village Mini (P) Ltd (1999), Electrical Design Estimating and
Hydropower Plant Feasibility Study, East Java, Costing.
Indonesia, 2000. 23. MHP Training Programme GTZ Papua New
8. European Small Hydropower Association (1998), Guinea,
Layman's Guidebook on How to Develop a Small 24. Mini-Grid Support Programme, Alternative Energy
Hydro Site. Promotion Centre, Kathmandu, Nepal(2001),
9. GTZ/Department of Energy Development, Energy Technical Details and Cost Estimate.
Division, Papua New Guinea, Micro Hydropower 25. Mini-Grid Support Programme, Alternative Energy
Training Modules (1994), Modules 1-7, 10, 13, 14 Promotion Centre , Kathmandu, Nepal(2003),
& 18B. Guidelines for Detailed Feasibility Study of Micro-
10. Hanoi Construction Company, 3MW Sao Va Hydro Projects.
Hydropower Project Feasibility Report, Nghe An 26. Mini-Grid Support Programme, Alternative Energy
Province, Vietnam, 2005. Promotion Centre, Kathmandu, Nepal (2002),
11. Helmut Lauterjung/Gangolf Schmidt (1989), Peltric Standards.
Planning of Intake Structures, GATE/GTZ, Vieweg. 27. Mini-Grid Support Programme, Alternative Energy
12. High Head Power Plants, Volume IIA/IIB, Emil Promotion Centre, Kathmandu, Nepal (2003),
Mosonyi, Academiai Kiado, Budapest, 1991. Preliminary Feasibility Studies of Prospective
Micro-hydro Projects.
13. His Majesty's Government of Nepal, Ministry
of Water Resources, Department of Irrigation, 28. Norwegian Water Resources and Energy
Planning and Design Strengthening Project Administration, The Norwegian Regulations for
(PDSP), United Nations Development Programme Planning, Construction and Operation of Dams,
(NEP/85/013) / World Bank, Design Manuals for Norwegian University Press, Oslo, Norway, 1994.
Irrigation Projects in Nepal, 1990.
146
29. P.N. Khanna (1996), Indian Practical Civil Engineer's 34. Standards / Manuals / Guidelines for Small
Handbook, 15th Edition, Engineer's Publishers, Hydro Development, Ministry of New and
Post Box 725, New Delhi - 110001. Renewable Energy, Govt. of India, STANDARDS /
MANUALS / GUIDELINES FOR SMALL HYDRO
30. REDP, REDP Publications, Environment
DEVELOPMENT, Alternate Hydro Energy Centre,
Management Guidelines, 1997.
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee.
31. Small Hydro Engineers Consultants P Ltd, Detailed
35. United Nations Industrial Development
Project Report (DPR) of 5MW Soldan Small
Organization (UNIDO), Report on Standardization
Hydropower Project, Himachal Pradesh, India,
of Civil Works for Small Hydropower Plants.
2001.
36. US Army Corps & USBR Manuals
32. Small Hydro Engineers Consultants P Ltd, Detailed
Project Report (DPR) of 4.5MW Sarbari Small 37. Various Consultants, AEPC subsidized Nepali
Hydropower Project, Himachal Pradesh, India, micro-hydropower (up to 100kW) Pre-feasibility
2001. and Feasibility Study Reports (about 400 projects),
2002-2004.
33. Son Vu Energy Development Joint Stock Company,
3.2MW Nhap A Hydropower Project Final Feasibility 38. Various Consultants, SHPP/GTZ assisted Nepali
Report, Hoa Binh, Vietnam, 2005. small hydropower (up to 10MW) study reports at
various levels (about 65 projects), 2001-2006.
147
List of Installer Companies/Firms
AG POWER COMPANY PVT. LTD. ENERGY PRABARDHAN COMPANY PVT. LTD.

Samakhushi, Kathmandu, Nepal Tokha Road, ManoharAawas, Gongabu-7, Kathmandu
Phone: 01- 4032687, Fax: 01-4032683 Phone:01-4353697 Fax: 01-4353697
Email: ag@ntc.net.np Email: info@energyprabardhan.com.np, epc_5@yahoo.
com
APPROPRIATE ENGINEERING
Kalikanagar, Butwal-11, Rupandehi, Nepal GAUTAM ENERGY ENGINEERING PVT. LTD.
Phone: 071- 437748 Fax: 071- 437748 Butwal Industrial Estate, Butwal, Nepal
Email: appeng@nec.com.np Phone: 071-550140, 071-543314 Fax: 071-543314
Email: energy@ntc.net.np
BALAJU YANTRA SHALA PVT. LTD.
Balaju Industrial Estate, Balaju, Kathmandu GREAT NEPAL PVT. LTD.
Phone: 01-4350894 Fax: 01-4350379 Wise Use House Jwagal-10, Kupandole, Lalitpur, Nepal
Email: bys@info.com.np Phone: 01- 5546859 Fax: 01-5011213
Email: great@greatnepal.com
BEACON ENERGY PVT. LTD.
GairiTole, Basundhara, Kathmandu, Nepal GREEN TECH NEPAL PVT. LTD.
Phone: 01-4016791 Fax: 01-4016791 Satungal-6, Kathmandu, Nepal
Email: benergy@gmail.com Phone: 01-5011213Fax: 01-5011213
Email: gtechnepal@gmail.com
CENTRE for RESOURCE CONSERVATION NEPAL PVT.
HIMALI POWER DEVELOPMENT PVT. LTD.
LTD.
Bharatpur Municpality-4, Nagarban, Narayangadh
Amritnagar, Kirtipur 1, Kathmandu, NEPAL
Phone:056-570057
Phone: 01-4288730 Fax: 01-4333312
Email: hipod2009@hotmail.com
Email: crcnepal2009@gmail.com
HIMCHULI MULTIPURPOSE COMPANY PVT. LTD.
CREAM HYDEL PVT. LTD.
Banepa - 5, Kavre, Nepal
Sankarnagar-2, Butwal, Rupandehi, Nepal
Phone: 011-680435
Phone: 071-438671 Fax: 071-438670
Email: himchulicpl@gmail.com
Email: chydel@wlink.com.np
HOUSING & HYDRO SERVICE COMPANY PVT.LTD.
DHAULAGIRI CEM ENGINEERING PVT. LTD. Na Tole, Pulchowk, Lalitpur, Nepal
Baglung Municipality-11, ShreenagrChowk, Baglung Phone: 01-5541864, 01-5547485 Fax: 01-5547485
Phone: 068-520221,522705 Fax: 068-522844 Email: housing@ntc.net.np
Email: dcem@mail.com
HYDRO ENERGY CONCERN PVT. LTD.
DHAULAGIRI HYDRO CONSULT BUTWAL PVT.LTD. Samakhusi, KMC - 29, Kathmandu, NEPAL
Butwal Industrial Estate, Rupandehi, Nepal Phone: 01-4355416 Fax:01-4354186
Phone: 071-540496, 071-546422 Email: hydroconcern@gmail.com
Email: dhaulagiribtl@yahoo.com
KHANAL ENGINEERING & INDUSTRIES
D.L. ENERGY CONCERN PVT. LTD. Butwal Industrial Estate, Butwal-12, Rupandehi
KMC-29, Mitranagar, Kathmandu, Nepal Phone: 071-544492 Fax: 071-547492
Phone: 01-4354398 Email: khanaleng@ntc.net.np
Email: dlecnepal@gmail.com
KATHMANDU METAL INDUSTRY & HYDRO
ENERGY DEVELOPMENT SERVICES PVT. LTD. POWER PVT. LTD.
505 The Comfort Housing, Sitapaila-2,Kathmandu Quadon, Chhetrapati, Kathmandu, Nepal
Phone: 01-4033016 Fax: 01-4033016 Phone: 01-4265539 Fax: 01-4259069
Email: edspl@ntc.net.np Email: kmihp@ntc.net.np
148
K.P. BYABASAYIK SEWA PVT. LTD. NEPAL MACHINE & STEEL STRUCTURE
Birendranagar-6, Buddha Path Line, Surkhet, Nepal Butwal – 6, Rupandehi, Nepal
Phone: 083-521428 Phone: 071- 542522, 541022
Email: krishna_dhakal@ntc.net.np Email: nmass@ntc.net.np
KRISHNA GRILL & ENGINEERING WORKS PVT. NEPAL POWER SOLUTION PVT. LTD.
LTD. Palpasa Road, Hetauda, Makwanpur, Nepal
BhumiprashasanChowk 13, Biratnagar ,Morang, Nepal Phone:057-691955, 057-210833
GPO Box No : 150 Email: npshetauda@gmail.com
Phone: 021-525492, 01-450919 Fax: 021-531162
Email: kgktc_brt@wlink.com.np NEPAL YANTRA SHALA ENERGY
Patan Industrial Estate, Lagankhel, Lalitpur, Nepal
LUMBINI ENGINEERING & HYDROPOWER Phone: 01-5522167, 5527857 Fax: 01-5530600
Swoyambhu, KMC-15, Kathmandu, Nepal Email: nysenergy@wlink.com.np
Phone:01-4287818Fax: 01-2180144
Email:lumbini.hydropower@gmail.com NORTH ENGINEERING COMPANY PVT. LTD.
Kalika Path, Mainanagar, PO Box 54, Butwal, Nepal
MALIKA ENGINEERING & MECHANICAL WORKS Phone: 071-550181 Fax: 071-546622
PVT. LTD. Email: necpl@ntc.net.np, necbutwal@gmail.com
Dhangadhi, Kailali, Nepal Web: www.northengineering.com.np
Phone: 091-522730, 091-525330
Email: malikaengg@ntc.net.np OSHIN POWER SERVICES PVT. LTD
B.T.I. Complex, Butwal, Rupandehi
MANASALU ENERGY PVT. LTD. Phone: 071-545217 Fax: 071-551525
Chabahil, Kathmandu, Nepal Email: oshinpower.ntc.net.np
Phone: 01-4823015, 4823016
Email: manasalu.energy@gmail.com POWER TECH NEPAL PVT. LTD
Patan Industrial Estate, Lagankhel, Lalitpur
MEC CONSULTANCY PVT. LTD. Phone: 01-5522263, 5543067 Fax: 01- 4288886
Dhapasi, Kathmandu, Nepal Email: powertech@info.com.np
Phone: 01-6915612 Fax: 01-4650387
Email: mecc@wlink.com.np PRABIDHI UTTHAN ENGINEERING KENDRA
(Technology Upliftment Engineering Centre)
MOTHERLAND ENERGY GROUP PVT. LTD. Hetauda-11, Makwanpur
Balaju-16, Kathmandu, Nepal Phone: 057-522880
Phone: 01-4350580, 4385585 Fax: 01- 4352495 Email: tuecmp@gmail.com
Email: meg061@ntc.net.np
RURAL & ALTERNATIVE ENERGY PVT. LTD.
MULTI POWER CONSTRUCTION PVT. LTD. Main Road, DamauliChowk, Tanhun
Alok Nagar, NayaBaneshwor, Kathmandu, Nepal Phone: 065-560573, 01-4388604 Fax: 065-560899
Phone: 01-4106650, 4106651 Email: resurja@ntc.net.np
Email: jyotiad2011@gmail.com
SEIMENS HYDRO ENGINEERING & ENERGY
MULTI SERVICE LINK NEPAL PVT. LTD. PRODUCTS
Banasthali-15, Kathmandu, Nepal Purano Cinema Road, Rupandehi, Nepal
Phone: 01-6208789, 01-4890593 Phone: 071-520822 Fax: 086-520822
Email: md@mhedgroup.com.np Email: siemenshydro@ntc.net.np
NEPAL ENERGY DEVELOPMENT COMPANY PVT. STRUCTO NEPAL PVT.LTD.

LTD. Patan Industrial Estate, Lalitpur Nepal
Ekantakuna, Lalitpur, Nepal Phone: 01-5521192, 5526161 Fax: 01-5542118
Phone: 01-5000748 Fax: 01-5000748 Email: structo@wlink.com.np
Email: nedco@ntc.net.np
149
TRISHNA HYDRO ENGINEERING & BUSINESS TEJ ENERGY SOLUTION NEPAL PVT. LTD
COMPANY PVT. LTD. NamunaMarg, Pepsicola-35, Kathmandu
Birendra Nagar-3, Kalagaun, Surkhet, Nepal Phone:01- 4992942 Fax: 01- 4992942
Phone: 083-521230, 521953 Fax: 083-520424 Email: tejes.nepal@gmail.com
Email: energyskt@ntc.net.np, Web: www.tejesnepal.com.np
trishnahydroengineering@yahoo.com
THAPA ENGINEERING INDUSTRY PVT.LTD.
TECHNICAL DESIGN ENGINEERING Butwal Industrial Estate, Rupandehi, Nepal
CONSULTANCY & CONSTRUCTION Pvt. Ltd. Phone: 071- 543658, 551560 Fax: 071-551559
Mayalbari, Teku, Kathmandu, Nepal Email: tei@ntc.net.np
Phone: 01-4230013
Email: tedecc@yahoo.com UNIVERSAL CONSULTANCY SERVICE PVT. LTD.
Balaju-16, Kathmandu, Nepal
TECHNO VILLAGE PVT. LTD Phone: 01-4350580, 4385585 Fax: 01-4352495
Banasthali, Kathmandu, Nepal Email: ucs@ntc.net.np
Phone: 01-4390229, 9851092494
GPO Box No: 8975 EPC 1522 UNIVERSAL EQUIPMENT INDUSTRIES PVT.LTD.
Email: technovillage.co@gmail.com Butwal Industrial Estate, Rupandehi, Nepal
Phone: 071-540074 Fax: 071-540271
Email: unibtl@yahoo.com
150
Alternative Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC) is a Government institution established on
November 3, 1996 under the then Ministry of Science and Technology with the objective of
developing and promoting renewable/alternative energy technologies in Nepal. Currently, it is

under Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology. It functions independently, and has a
eleven member board with representatives from government sector, industry sector and non-
governmental organizations. National Rural & Renewable Energy Programme (NRREP) of AEPC
is promoting Nepali hydropower schemes up to 1000kW.

Nepal Micro Hydropower Development Association (NMHDA) was established in 1992, by
nine privately run micro hydropower development firms/companies to set as an umbrella
organization of those dedicated to serve the nation with micro hydropower technology, skill
and expertise.
Since then this organization has been providing technical and logistic services to micro
hydropower stakeholders within Nepal. The Association also has been active in supporting to
formulate policies, plans and programs to the implementing partners including AEPC.
It has 57 privately run companies/firms as members involved in installing micro and mini
hydropower projects in Nepal. Some members are also involved in promoting micro hydropower
projects abroad.

Commencing his hydropower professional career as a site engineer in 12.5MW

Jhimruk Hydropower Project in 1990 and as a design engineer in 60MW Khimti Hydropower
Project in 1992, Mr. Pushpa Chitrakar has been providing his professional services to micro,
mini, small and bigger hydropower project implementation phases from policy formulation to
implementation and operation phases in Nepal and abroad.
His professional career includes the services of one decade in Butwal Power Company, half a
decade in Small Hydropower Promotion Project (SHPP/GTZ), four years in the United Nations
(UNHABITAT) in Afghanistan, two years in JICA/Afghanistan, three years in Hydro Solutions P Ltd
and one year in Beni Hydropower Project P Ltd.
He had graduated his Bachelors’ Degree in Civil Engineering from the Institute of
Engineering Pulchowk Campus (1990), his Masters’ Degree in Hydropower Development from
the Institute of Science and Technology (NTNU) Norway (1999) and his Masters’ Degree in
Business Administration from Tribhuban University (1999).
Mr. Chitrakar is differently known as the specialist equipped with technical, financial and
managerial skills and knowledge of ground reality in hydropower as well as other water
resources sectors.
Mini Hydropower Survey and Design Tools is the first of its own kind shareware for designing
micro and mini hydropower projects in Nepal and abroad. His other famous works include
“Micro Hydropower Design Aids”(2006, SHPP/GTZ Nepal),“Engineering Surveying and Discharge
Measurement Tools” (2008, UNHABITAT Afghanistan), “Gravity Water Supply Design Tools” (2009,
UNHABITAT Afghanistan), etc.
He is currently serving as the Board Member and CEO of the under construction 18MW
Upper Solu Hydropower Project, the CEO of Angel Engineering Consultancy P. Ltd., the GM
of Hydro Solutions Engineering Consultancy P. Ltd. and part time international consultant for
JICA/Tokyo and GiZ/Germany.

Kathmandu, Nepal
January 2014
9 789937 275446

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Alternative Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC)

Alternative Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC) is a Government institution established on

Nepal Micro Hydropower Development Association (NMHDA)

Mr. Pushpa Chitrakar

Alternative Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC)

T he earlier version of these hydropower Design

Prof. Dr. Govind Raj Pokharel

T he Updated Micro/Mini Hydropower Design

How these design tools are organized Part II: Spreadsheets

I entered the micro hydropower sector after I had

Foreword .......................................... iii 3. Discharge Measurement ................29

7.1.9 Advanced Set up of a GPS 50 11. Design of Gravity Weir ..............81

8. Levelling ...................................55 12. Headrace/Tailrace Canals &

18.2.1 Classiﬁcation of Turbines 112 21. Transmission Line ...................128

19. Electrical Equipment 23. Costing and Financial

LIST OF MICRO-HYDROPOWER DRAWINGS IN AEPC FORMAT

LIST OF 100kW MIDIM MINI-HYDROPOWER DRAWINGS

LIST OF 1500 kW LIPIN SMALL-HYDROPOWER DRAWINGS

Table 1.1: Summary of Micro Hydropower Drawings

Table 1.2: Summary of 100kW Midim Mini Hydropower Drawings

Table 1.3: Summary of Small Hydropower Drawings

Figure 1.1: A typical Micro Hydro Settling Basin Drawing

Figure 1.2: A typical Small Hydro Settling Basin Drawing

Table 1.4: Summary of Spreadsheets

Some parameters such as canal freeboards, width of a

1.6.9 Cell notes

Cell notes are comments attached to cells. They are useful

For example, a cell note with a cell formula for calculating

Black cells: The black cells represent information and or

Figure 1.7: A cell for Manning’s n for diﬀerent surfaces

Tyrolean X section; Upper Mai C Hydroelectric Project

NWL = 2356.37 4.207

Figure 1.11: Typical interactive diagram of Bottom

functionality of these tools. In case it is installed 1.9 Project Information and

Figure 1.12: Design Tools Menu and Toolbar

1.10 Salient Features

Headworks and Intake Structure

Crest Length (m) 35

Power and Energy

Return on Project Cost Without Subsidy of 32229498

Return on Total Project Cost

PART ONE: TECHNICAL DATA COLLECTION

2.1 General WECS/DHM 1990 Study (Hydest)” are incorporated in

Hydrological data of most of the major rivers have

Figure 2.2: MIP Regions

Table 2.1: MIP regional monthly coeﬃcients

Figure 2.3: MIP model

Interpolation of April 1, 15 and 30 data

Figure 2.4: Need of interpolation for calculating mean monthly coeﬃcient

E rro rs G e n e rate d b y u sin g mid mo n th ly flo w s

Figure 2.5: Eﬀect of interpolation on mean monthly ﬂows

Figure 2.6: Monsoon Wetness Index Isolines of Nepal

Table 2.2: Mean monsoon precipitation computation at Intake

Area above 500m

Area between 3000m and 5000m

Figure 2.7: Catchment Areas and Isohydel lines

Flood peak discharge, QF , for any other return periods

2. Flood ﬂows: The catchment area below 3000 m QF = e (lnQ2 + S. σlnQF )

Table 2.4: Standard normal variants for ﬂoods

Figure 2.8: Hydest Model

MIP mean ﬂows:

Corrected coeﬃcient and midmonth discharges (Kc March) for Region 3:

Kc March = K March+ (K April -K March)*(Date -15)/30 = 1.38 + (1.00-1.38)*(23-15)/30 = 1.2787

Kc March = K March+ (K April -K March)(Date -15)/30 = 1.38 + (1.00-1.38)(23-15)/30 = 1.2787

Q March = Q measured K March /Kc March = 80 1.38/1.2787 = 86.34 l/s

Q May = Q April K May = 62.57 1.88 = 117.62 l/s

lnQ5% = - 3.4978 + 0.9814ln(10+1) + 0.2670ln(1600) = 0.82536

Qrelease = Qmin MIP %release = 62.57 0.05 = 3.128 l/s