PRESENTED BY:

AARON P. DELA CRUZ

SUSANA D. SAOI
Time Management. You can carry out your
job asacollegestudent either efficiently or
inefficiently, dependingon your habit patterns
of usingor wastingtime. Thebest techniquefor
developingefficient habitsof timeuseisto
prepareatimelist that combineslong-rangeand
short-rangeplanning: (1) along-termschedule
for an entiresemester , (2) an intermediate
scheduleper wek, and (30amorespecificshort
scheduleper day (“TimeScheduling”).
Long-term Schedule –alist of fixedcommitment you
arerequiredtomeet every week duringthe
semester,e.g., classes, jobhours, organization meetings
church, etc.
Intermediate Schedule (oneper week) –ashort list of
major eventsandamount of work tobecompletedin
each subject, includingnonstudy activities. Preparea
newlist for each week every Sunday night. List day
first. Post thelist on awall in your bedroom.
Short-term Schedule (oneper day) –alist of specific
thingstobedone
Writeyour schedulefor thenext day beforesleeping.
Carry theschedulewith you, andcrossout each itemas
you accomplish it.
Study Area. A goodstudy areais
any quiet placewith adequate
lightingwhereyou can study without
anyonebotheringyou. Haveastudy
desk with achair that supportsyour
back. Never try tostudy on your bed,
becausethat invitesyou tolongue
and eventually fall to sleep.
Reading. Theway you readwhile
studyingIsnot likereadingfor pleasure.
You can makeyour study readingmore
effectiveby usingthePSQ5R method
(“Study Skills”). Standsfor Purpose,
Survey, Question, Readselectively,
Recite, “Rite”, Reflect, andReview.
Purpose: Beforestartingtoread, determine
your intention for readingthematerial. Are
you lookingof general conceptsor specific
information?What doesyour instructor
want you todo?
Survey; Haveaquick scan of thewhole
material, takingnoteof chapter headings,
topics, andsubtopics. Thisvaluableway to
savetime, asyou can focuson theportions
relevant to what you needtostudy.
Question. Decideon thequestions
that you havetoanswer. Thisallows
you toactively search for answersto
particular problemsandration your
timeper problemwhilereading.
The 5 Rs: After thefollowingthe
aboveadviceon PSQ, you arenow
ready toreadselectively with the
purposeandquestionsin mind”
mentally recitewhat you learn to
ascertain that you remember it; write
down what you learn fromyour
readingin Outlineor point form;
then reflect or think about what you
havereadand decidewhether or
not your questionshavebeen
answered; andfinally, reviewyour
noteswithin 24hourstoensurethat
you remember what you have
learned.
Writing. Effectivewritingisquality writing. To
achievethis, analyzeyour writingfor two
characteristics: content and form. In other words,
what you say and howyou say it. Writingwithout
formislikeahuman body without skeleton;
writingwithout content islikeaskeleton with no
flesh. Thewritingprocessconsistsof the
followingstepsprewriting, organizing, and
writing, revising, editing, and writingthefinal
draft after several revisions.
Prewriting isbrainstorming. Itspurposeis
to createasmany ideasrelatedto thesubject
aspossible, andasquickly aspossible.
Examplesof brainstormingarelisting, fast
writing, spidering, andmapping.
Organizing isselectingan opinion about the
subject, choosingenough of theright typeof
detail fromtheprewriteandaddingwhen
needed, andcreatingan order for those
detailsandfittingthemintotheform.
Writing issimply followingtheshapingof the
formand puttingthefragmentsof ideasinto
completesentences, and addingwhen needed.
Revisingisaddingand deletinginformation,
changingtheorder of thedetailsand theform, and
lookingfor major mechanical errors.
Editingischeckingthewritingfor basicwriting
errorslikespelling, punctuation, and grammar.
After several revision you arefinally satisfied with
what you havewritten, writeyour final draft.
Note Taking. Totakegoodnotes, think of
notetakingasan activelisteningprocess
andbeselectivein what your writedown.
Beforethelecture, readtheassigned
material or skimit for fivetoten minutesso
that you can identify themost relevant
information fromthelecture.
Duringthelecture, watch for cuesfromthe
instructor asto what information ismost relevant.
Organizethematerial with headings. If thereare
gapsin your notes, don’ t hesitateto stop instructor
and ask questions. Don’ t writedown every word
theinstructor says, but you should copy any
information heputson theblackboard or
overheads. Develop oneset of abbreviationsfor
usein notetakingand oneway of identifyingkey
conceptsand ideas.
Concentration. Likeany other student, you
may not beabletoconcentratewhile
studyingnor remember thematerial that you
studied. Toimproveyour concentration and
memory, try thesetechniques.
Arrangewhat you aregoingto study in
order of relation importance.
Break your study timeintomanageable
periodsof time. Schedulearegular break.
Deal with your anxiestiesby using
relaxation techniqueslikeshoulder shrug
and shoulder rotation, includingsomething
that normally calmsyou.
Avoid distractionsby choosingastudy spot that
doesnot strain your eyesor body, whereall the
suppliesyou need arewithin easy reach, and
which iswhereyou will only study, not to do
anythingelse.
Try sometechniquesto improveyour ability to
memorizesuch asorganizingand summarizing
your notesinto essential ideas, usingacronymsto
remember adifficult set of conceptsand
constantly recitingand reviewingwhat you
studied.
Test Taking. You can do well in examsif you
knowwhat do you before, during, and after the
test
Beforethetest
Attend all classes
Completeall required reading.
Organizeyour study timeby planning, daily.
weekly, and major reviewsessions.
Formastudy group with fiveor six other
conscientiousstudentsto undertakereview
activitiesthat includemakingup practicetests
and comparingnotes.
Createstudy toolslikeannotatedand
reviewnotes. Predict test questions. Test
yourself, andreciteinformation aloud. Ask
instructor for specificinformation about the
test.
Reducetest anxiety by maintaininga
balancedscheduleincludingexerciseand
relaxation techniques, ahealthy diet, and
adequaterest.
During the Test
Useyour timewisely.
Readthedirectionsand questionscarefully.
Knowtherulesin thetest, such astime
limitsandpenaltiesfor guessing.
Answer all questionsunlessthereare
penaltiesfor guessing.
Look for cluesfromother test questions.
After the Test
Which part of theexamwastheeasiest?Why?
Which part of theexamwasthehardest?Why?
Which of theactivitiesyou completed prior to the
examwasthemost helpful?
Did you feel prepared when you walked into the
exam?Why or why not?
Howmight you study differently for thenext
examfor better results?
Do not bediscouraged if you cannot answer a
question. Leaveit and go on. You may find the
answer or cluesto theanswer in subsequent
questions.
Bewareof thequestionswith “no,”and “none.”
Thesewordseasily changethemeaningof
questions.
If you haveto guess:
Reject answersthat usespecificdeterminessuch
as: everyone, always, never, etc.
Look for grammatical inconsistencieswhich may
help eliminatewronganswers.
Choosethelongest, most preciseanswer.
Choosetheanswer that isin themiddle.
Choosetheanswer which usesqualifying
termssuch as: often, most, etc.
Choosetheanswer that first caught your
eye.
Makeasimpleoutlineof what you will write
about.
Besuretokeeptrack of time. Spend more
timeon questionsthat areworth morepoints.
Try towriteasneatly aspossibleandleave
somespacefor addedideasor corrections.
Beforeturningyour test in, readyour
answersafinal timetocheck for
grammatical errorsandmisspellings.
Compare. Examinetwo or morethings. Identify similarities
and differences.
Illustrate. Giveconcreteexamples. Explain clearly by using
comparison or examples.
Contrast. Showdifferences. Set in opposition.
Interpret. Comment upon, giveexamples, and describe
relationships. Explain themeaning. Describe, then evaluate.
Criticize. Makejudgments. Evaluatecomparativeworth.
Criticismoften involvesanalysis.
Outline. Describemain ideas, characteristics, or events.
Define. Givethemeaning, usually ameaningspecificto the
courseor subject. Determinethepreciselimitsof thetermto
bedefined. Explain theexact meaning. Definitionsare
usually short.
Prove. Support with facts(especially facts
presented in classor in thetest.)
Describe. Giveadetailed account. Makeapicture
with words. List characteristics, qualities, and
parts.
Relate. Showtheconnectionsbetween ideasor
events. Providealarger context.
Discuss. Consider thedebateor arguethepros
and consof an issue. Writeabout similarities, and
conflict. Compareand contrast.
State. Explain precisely.
Summarize. Giveabrief, condensed
account. Includeconclusions. Avoid
unnecessary details.
Enumerate. Giveyour opinion or citethe
opinion of an expert. Includeevidenceto
support theevaluation.
Influencing Teachers. Howyou
communicatewith andrelatetoyour
instructor affect howwell you doin acourse.
Thebest way toimpressour instructor and
get on hisgoodsideistoshowgenuine
interest in thecoursematerial andask good
questions. Thefollowingstrategies
demonstrateyour interest andcuriosity
Don’ t criticize, condemn, or complain to the
teacher about hisperformance; rater, focuson the
discussion of thematerial and your understanding
of thismaterial.
Let theteacher knowwhat you appreciateabout
thecourse.
Smile.
Knowand usetheteacher’ sname.
Listen to what theteacher hasto say about
himself.
Talk in termsof what theteacher isinterested in.
Let theteacher knowthat you think heis
important.
Avoid arguing, and try honestly to seethe
teacher’spoint of view.
If you arewrong, admit it quickly and
emphatically.
Ask questionsrather than giveorders.
Let theteacher knowthat you sincerely want to
do well in thecourse.
Alwayshavethecoursetextbook in your hand
whenever you seetheinstructor.
Hand in all assignmentson timethroughout the
semester.
RECALL: After studyingthematerial, stop
andrecitein your own wor4dsall that you
havelearned.
DIGEST: Goback towhat you didnot
understandandreconsider theinformation.
Contact external expert sources.
EXPAND: Ask threekindsof questionsconcerning
thestudied material.
If I can speak to theauthor, what questionswill I
ask or what criticismwould I offer?
Howcan I apply thismaterial to what I am
interested in?
Howcan I makethisinformation interestingand
understandableto other students?
REVIEW: Go over thematerial you’ vecovered.
Reviewwhat strategieshelped you understand and/
or retain information in thepast and apply theseto
your current studies.
 Thinking Skills
In today’ sinformation age, weall need thinking
skillsto copewith arapidly changingworld.
SpecificKnowledgeisnot asimportant asthe
ability to learn and makesenseof newinformation.
Thinkingskillsrefer to theset of basicand
advanced skillsand sub skillsthat govern a
person’ smental processes. Theseskillscomprise
knowledge, disposition, and cognitiveand
metacognitiveoperations.
Theprominent educator Benjamin Bloom
developed an instructional model popularly known
as“BloomsTaxonomy”. Themodel categorizes
thinkingskillsformtheconcreteto theabstract –
knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis,
synthesis, evaluation. Thelast threeareconsidered
higher –order skills.
BloomsTaxonomy, which isshown in thetable
below, presentsthefollowing: Six levelsof
thinking, skillsdemonstrated for each level, and
question cuesthat elicit responsesfor each level.
Competence (Thinking Level) Skills Demonstrated Question Cues
Knowledge • Observation and List, define, tell, describe,
recall of identify, show, label, collect,
information examine, tabulate, quote,
• Knowledge of name, who when, where
dates, events,
places
• Mastery of Subject
matter
Comprehension • Understanding Summarize, describe, interpret,
information contrast, predict, associate,
• Grasping meaning distinguish, estimate,
• Translation differentiate, discuss, extend
knowledge into
new context
• Interpreting facts,
comparing,
contrasting
• Ordering,
grouping, inferring
causes
• Predicting
consequences
Application • Using information Apply, demonstrate, calculate,
• Using methods, complete, illustrate, show, solve,
concept, theories examine, modify, relate, change,
in new situations classify, experiment, discover
• Solving problems
using required
skills or
knowledge
Analysis • Seeing patternsa Analyze, separate, order, explain,
• Organization of connect, classify, arrange, divide,
parts compare, select, infer
• Recognition of
hidden meanings
• Identification of
components
Synthesis • Using old ideas to Combine, integrate, modify,
create new ones rearrange, substitute, plan, create,
• Generalizing from design, invent, compose, formulate,
given facts prepare, generalize, rewrite
• Relating
knowledge from
several areas
• Predicting
Evaluation • Comparing and Asses, decide, rank,
discriminating grade, test,
between ideas measure,
• Assessing value recommend,
of theories, convince, select,
presentations judge, explain
• Making choices discriminate,
based on support, conclude,
reasoned compare,
argument summarize
• Verifying value
of evidence
• Recognizing
subjectivity
Unity through theUseof theTopicSentence
Thetopic sentence states thecentral ideato be
developed. It may beexpressed or implied. If it is
expressed, it isfound at thebeginningof the
paragraph, at theend of theparagraph, or anywhere
between thefirst and thelast sentences. When
placed at theend of theparagraph, it servesasthe
concludingor clinchingsentence. If thetopic
sentenceisimplied, astheconcludingor clinching
sentence.
Another featureof thetopicsentenceisthe
controllingidea, which consistsof the
keyword/sin thetopicsentence. The
keyword/smay beapart/ partsof thetopic
sentenceor it may bethewholesentence. The
controllingidealimitsthescopeof thetopic
and helpsthewriter tofocuson thetopic
sentenceof theparagraph
Sample paragraph
Touch is our most intimate and powerful
means of communication. A doctor makes
themother feel her baby togiveher
satisfaction after her birth labor. Themother
caressesthenewborn togivethebaby a
feelingof loveandsecurity that will bethe
foundation of theself. A father tapsthe
shoulder of hisson toboost thelatter’ s
saggingmoraleafter hisdefeat in aschool
contest.
A son holdsthehandsof hisdyingfather in afinal
goodbye. A friend embracesanother friend to drive
away thelatter’ sloneliness. Thesetactile
stimulationsoftentimesspell adifference.
Topic sentence: Touch isour most intimateand
powerful meansof communication.
Controllingidea(Wordsthat control or limit the
discussion of thetopic“touch”) –intimate,
powerful means of communication
 Unity through the Use of Supporting Details
Supportingdetailsarethesentencesthat help
develop or expand themain ideain thetopic
sentence. Thesedetailsthat help expand thetopic
sentencemay bein theformof adescription, an
example, acomparison or contrast, aclassification,
etc.
Sample Paragraph
Touch is our most intimate and powerful
means of communication. 1. A doctor makesthe
mother feel her baby to giveher satisfaction after
her birth labor. 2. Themother caressesthe
newborn to givethebaby afeelingof loveand
security that will bethefoundation of theself.3.
A father tapstheshoulder of hisson to boost the
latter’
ssaggingmoraleafter hisdefeat in aschool
contest.
4. A son holdsthehandsof hisdyingfather in a
final goodbe.5. A friend embracesanother friend
to driveaway thelatter’sloneliness. Thesetactile
stimulationsoftentimesspell adifference.
Topic Sentence: Touch isour most intimateand
powerful meansof communication
Supporting details: Examplesor instanceswhen
touch communicatesintimateand powerful
messages. Supportingdetailsarethesentencenos.
1-5.
In acoherent paragraph, thereader easily grasps
themeaningof what hereadsbecauseheseesthe
orderly sequenceof ideasand their relationship to
oneanother. Thereareno gapsin thought. But
sometimes, theideasareexpressed in ajumbled
fashion or arenot clearly linked so that thereader
failsto followtheflowof though in theparagraph.
Such aparagraph needscoherence.
Coherence isachieved by followingadefinite
order of ideas, also referred to aslogical bridges,
and by usingverbal bridgesor structural devices.
To add ideas, useand, moreover, further,
furthermore, also, likewise, similarly, too, in like
manner, again, besides.
To introducestatementsopposingthepreceding
statements, usebut, nevertheless, otherwise, on
theother hand , conversely, on thecontrary,
however, still, yet.
To showtimesequence, usethen, nowafter that ,
later, eventually, at thesametime, meanwhile, in
afewminutes, within an hour.
To indicateorder, usenext , in thesecond place, to
begin with, first, second, finally, in conclusion.
To showspacerelation, useto theright, in the
distance, straight ahead, up above.
To indicateaconsequenceor aconclusion, use
hence, consequently, thus, so, for thisreason,
therefore, asaresult.
To indicaterepetition of oneidea, usebriefly, that
isto say, in fact, indeed, in other words.
To compare, useso, similarly, likewise, in the
sameway.
 
Parallel clausestructures
Each of uslikesto belongto somegroupsof tightly
knit people
Where we are known and accepted
Where we are committed to each other
Parallel sentencestructures
Givemeland.
Land to own.
Land to unbeholden to any tyrant.
Land that will befree.
Givemeland for I amstarving
Givemeland that my children may not die
Notetheascendingorder of importance:
TheKingsof theearth
Thegreat men of theearth
Theearth
Thesea
Any narrative, whether rit issimpleor complex, hasfour
basicelements: setting, character, plot andpoint of view.
Thesetting denotesthetimeandplaceof thestory.
Character referstothepersonswhotakepart in the
narrative. Themain character iscalledthe“protagonist’ ”
whilethevillain whocreatestheproblemsin thelifeof the
main character iscalledthe‘ antagonist.”
Theplot, theseriesof eventsof thestory itself, moves
towardtheclimax or highest pint of interest, andthen
descendstothedenouement (resolution) andtheendingof
thestory.
Theso-called point of view in a story isthe
perspectivethewriter takesin tellinghisstory such
as:
First person point of view- thewriter tellsof his
own story.
First person-observer point of view- thecharacter
tellsin thefirst person astory or event hehasseen.
Thiscan also besecond person point of view.
Author-observer point of view- thewriter tellsvery
objectively about theeventsasthey happened to
another individual. Thiscan bereferred to asthird
person point of view.
Thenarrative, furthermore, makesuseof signal
wordsor phrases, onetypeof verbal bridges.
 
Example: Sixteen isaprideful agewhen ayoung
man needsrespect, not charity. Oned day, I found
myself in theGeneral storemakingpurchaseson
credit for my father. I washesitant becauseI had
seen friendsask for credit and then stand heads
bowed, asthestoreowner questioned whether they
were“good for it.”Mr. David, thestoreowner, was
standingbehind thecash register, talkingto a
middle-aged farmer. When I brought my purchases
to thecounter.
O saidsheepishly, “I needtoput themon
credit, Mr. David.”Thefarmer threwmean
amusedcynical look. But Mr. David’sface
didn’t changeabit. “Sure,”hesaidwith a
firmnodof hishead. “Your daddy has
alwaysbeen goodfor it, hecontinuedtothe
farmer. “Thisisoneof Mr. Sotero Garcia’
s
sons,”headded. I wasfilledwith pride.
SoteroGarcia’ sson! Thosewordsopenedto
an adult’srespect andtrust.
Plot:
Theteenager wasasked to purchasegoodson
credit.
Heapproached thestoreowner to makethe
purchaseon credit.
Thestoreowner agreed to hisrequest.
Hewasintroduced to thefarmer asSotero Garcia’ s
son.
Hefelt proud beinghisfather’ sson.
Point of view- First person point of view. The
teenager narrated hisown story
Verbal bridges- signal wordsoneday , when, but,
because, asthe, and
Inferring – areadingskill that isdoneby making
an oinion based on given facts. Inferencesare
conclusionsdrawn from“readingbetween the
lines”in order to get theideasuggested y the
author.
Ex. “I need to put thison credit, Mr. David.”While
I waswaitingfor theanswer, thefarmer raised an
eyebrow, then threwmean amused cynical look.
But Mr. David’ sfacedidn’ t changeaabit. “Sure,”
hesaid afirmnod. “Heisoneof Sotero “Garcia’ s
sons,”hetold thefarmer.
 Inference: Sotero
Garcia’snamewasas
goodascash tothe
storeowner. Therefore,
hemust havebeen a
very gooddebtor in that
store.
 
 
 
 Discussing the Characteristics of the Paragraph
(Character Sketch)
A character sketch isaformof exposition. It
seekstoexplain or portray thecharacteristic/sof an
individual or agroupby narratingan incident/sthat
reveal thedistinctivequality/qualitiesof theindividual
or thegroup. Thisdiscourseisalsoan anecdote, except
that thepoint of emphasisisthecharacter trait/s
exemplifiedby theincident, not any funny or
interestingevent. In thesampleparagraph, thefocusis
on Herman Steur’ skindnessandandgenerosity
Thesubject of acharacter sketch may bean individual
or agroup. Theindividual character sketch isspecific
andconcrete; whereasthetypeor profilecharacter
sketch isgeneral becauseit presentsatrait/stypical of
thegroup. In sketchinghissubject’ soutstanding
characteristics, thewriter will findhelful including
feautesthat disclosethesetrait; for instance, hisnatural
environment. Wheredoesheliveor work?Istheplace
clutteredor neat andwell kept?Also, theway the
subject movesmay reveal hisqualities. Doeshemove
slowly but surely?Spritely but erratically?Furthermore,
hislikesanddislikes, hobbies , choiceof clothes,
motives- all thesewill givecluestohischaracter traits.
Sample Paragraph
The Remarkable Mission of Herman Steur
Herman Steur, awealthy Dutch businessman, wassleeping
soundly in hisbeachfront mansion in PamunugamaSri Lanka,
when hisbutler joltedhimawaketoannouncehehadvisitors–a
distraught woman andher four children dressedin raggedclothes.
Her husband, apoor fisherman, haddiedandshehadneither
coffin nor blanket towraphimupfor th burial. Profoundly
touchedby thetormentedwidow, Steur orderedhisbutler togive
her all thebedsheetsthaty sheneededandpressedin to her hand
1000rupees(S20). “Don’ t worry about thefuneral expenses,”he
assuredher, “I will takecareof that for you.”ThisisHerman
Steur, whomovedby hisencounter with thishaplesswoman, has
given generously tocountlesscharitiesthroughout hislife.
Analyzing the Structure of the Sample Paragraph (Character
Sketch)```
Setting–Herman Steur’ sbeachfront mansion
Characters–Herman Steur, thebutler, thewoman andher four
children
Person Characterized–Herman Steur, therich Dutch businessman
Character traitsportrayed–Kindness, generosity, compassion
Incident that portrayedthesetraits–When thepoor woman askd
for bedsheetstowrapher husband’ sbody for burial, Steur, ddeply
touched, gladly helped, andpromisedtoextendsomemoreaid.
Typeof Character –individual; only oneperson ischaracterized
Point of view–Thirdperson point of view; an observer tellsthe
story.
ReadingComprehension isenhancedby
one’ sability toidentify thetimesequence
re3lationshipof ideasasindicatedby such
wordsaswhen, until, while, before, after,
andas. Readingability may beimprovedby
understandingconditional sentenceswith
wordslikeif, unless, provided, otherwise.
 
Discussing the Characteristics of the Paragraph by
Process
Theparagraph by processisconcernedwith “how’
topicssuch as“howgarbageisturnedintocompost,”“how
ready-madedressesaremade.”It may involvethegiving
andreceivingof instructionson acertain task or operation;
or it may entail an explanation of aprocesstoointricateor
complicatedfor theordinary reader toperformandbring
completion. Tocitean examplefor each typeof process
writing: aparagraph on “howtooperateacalculator’will
includeinstructionsreader isexpectedtofollow; however,
aparagraph on “howtooperate”laser”will simply aimto
informtheordinary theordinary reader about theprocess
andnot expect himtocarry it out.
Thesample paragraph on ‘ greeningtheRedplanet”isan
exampleof thelatter type. Processwritingmay beused
alsotoexplain ascientificprocedure, like“howfood is
digested,”or howthefetusdevelopsin amother’ swomb.
Or it may traceahistorical chain of events, asin “howthe
Philippinesgoitsindependence.”
Sinceprocess, accordingtoWebster, isasystematic
seriesof actionsdirectedtoan end,”processwriting
requiresalogical presentation of ideasandenough
information tomaketheparagraph clear and
understandable. Theinstructionsshouldbespecific,
complete, andproperly sequenced. Verbal bridgesreferring
tosignal wordstodenotetimesequencehelpconsiderably
toachievecoherencein theparagraph.
 Amongthesignal wordstodenotetime
sequenceare: first, secondthirdetc., then,
later, while, tobegin, to start, at theend,
afterwards, subsequently, lastly, finally, etc.
Greening the Red Planet
Terraformation –thegreeningof thered planet –wouldbe
themost ambitiousengineeringproject in human history.
Thisfeat may beaccomplishedin several stages. The
challengeistowarmmars, first by raisingthetemperature
from-60degreesto-40degrees. Oneway tobegin thisis
tobuildchemical factories, power themwith small nuclear
reactorsthat wouldpumpout green housegasestocover
theplanet, andprevent theescapeof heat. Then asthe
temperaturerises, theatmospherewill becomethicker but
not thick enough. Hencean ozonesubstitutewill be
manufacturedsupplement theatmosphere. When the
temperaturereaches-25degrees, tundravegetation will
survive.
Later, astheplanet warmsto-15degrees, carbon dioxide,
nitrogen andwater will seepfromthecrust. The
atmospherewill continuetothicken andwater will pool in
canyons. Soon, Marswill haveabreathableatmosphere
when microorganismswill createsoil tosustain plants, and
plantswill convert theatmosphericcarbon dioxideto
oxygen. When thetemperaturereaches-5degrees, theice
will melt. Bodiesof water will beformedandrain will fall
regularly. Treeswill beplanted, changingthedry red
planet intoamoist green globe. Terrafromartion, oneof
our prodigiousdreams, may founder. But supposeit could
bedone, shouldit bedone?
Analyzing the Sample Paragraph
Unity
Topic Sentence – Thisfeat (terraformation)
may beaccomplishedin several stages
Controlling idea - several stages
Supporting details – Marswill bewar5med
first thetemperaturefrom-60to-40degrees.
Chemical factorswill bebuilt, poweredby
small nuclear reactors.
Greenhousegasespumped out by thesefactorieswill
cover theplanet and prevent theescapeof heat.
Then asthetemperaturerises, theatmospherewill
thicken.
Theatmospherewill not bethick enough.
An ozonesubstitutewill bemanufactured to
supplement theatmosphere.
When thetemperaturereaches-25degrees, tundra
vegetation will survive.sd
Astheplanet warmsto -15degrees, carbon dioxide,
nitrogen, andwater will seep formthecrust.
Theatmospherewill continuetothicken.
Water will pool in canyons.
Microorganismswill createsoil to sustain plants.
Plantswill convert theatmosphere’ scarbon dioxide
to oxygen.
Marswill haveabreathableatmosphere.
When thetemperaturereaches-5degrees, icewill
melt.
Bodiesof water will form
Rain will fall regularly. Treeswill beplanted,
changingthedry red planet into amoist green
globe.
 
Clinching Sentence – But supposeit could be
done, should it bedone?
Coherence
Logical bridge( paragraph order) - Chronological or timeorder
Verbal bridge(structural order) - Signal wordsdenotingtime: First,
then, when, as.
Besidesimile, metaphor, and hyperbole, someof theother figuresof
speech commonly usedarepersonification, metonymy, synecdoche,
and irony
Personification- Endowinginanimateobjectsor abstract ideaswith
human qualities. Ex. Truth speaks.
Metonymy –usingawordassociatedwith an object torepresent it.
Ex. Areyou familiar with Virgil?
Synecdoche–Substitutingpart of an object/ideafor thewhole
object or ideaex. Respect gray hairs.
Irony –Expressingan ideaoppositetowhat ismeant. Ex. Tohis
studentswithout homework, theteacher remarked, “ What diligent
students you are!”
 
  
Paragraph by Description
Description appealsto thefivesenses: senseof
sight , smell hearing, touch, and taste. Likewise, it
callson thewriter’ simagination to recreated the
imagespresented. So, to beableto describethe
subject clearly and accurately, and arousethe
reader’ sspecial feelingsor reactions, thewriter
must possesstheskill to usefresh and specificor
concretewords. Stock phrasesand genericterms
like”nice”and “good”makeup quantity but do not
lend effectivenessto theparagraph.
Thetwotypesof description, accordingtopurposeareobjective
andsubjective. Objectivedescription, sometimescalled
informativescientificor technical, aimstoinformor toidentify;
hence, it isfactual. It isfocusedon thephysical aspect andappeals
totheintellect. Thistypeof description aboundsin textbooks, guide
books, lo-and-foundlogbooks, andpolicerecords.
Furthermore, sincetheobjectivetypeusually dealswith the
description of objects, persons, or space, it usesthespaceorder. The
writer determinesthestartingfocal pint andthen proceedssmoothly
andcontinuously without interruption for regression totheright, or
viceversa; fromnear tofar or viceversa; fromthetoptothe
bottom, or viceversa; fromtheoutsidetotheinside, etc. In effect,
thesequenceof thedescription imitatesthemovement of theeyeof
thevideocamera.
Theother type, subjectivedescription, also
referredtoasartisticaimstogivepleasureor
to elicit special feelingsor reaction; hence, it
issuggestiveandevocativein language. This
typeof description isoften employedin
narratives, poetry, andat timesin expository
discourses. However, most paragraphsutilize
both thesubjectiveandtheobjectivetypesas
shown in thesampleparagraph.
Sample paragraph
Once Upon a Time in Peggy’s Cove
Peggy’ sCoveliesalongwhat isknown asLighthouseRouteon Nova
Scotia’ssouthern coast. Imagesof thistiny fishingvillagecometomy
mindthecharmof Peggy’ sCoveisin thevillageitself. Perchedon
graniterocksthat wereleft behindby therecedingglaciersten
thousandyearsago, it lookspicturesque. Therockshavesincebeen
smoothenedby theconstant lashingof thewavesfromtheAtlantic
Ocean. Thestark whitenessof therocksmakesastrikingcontrast to
thecolor of thequaint cottageswith roof paintedin bright redof
varyingshades. Belowtherocks, fishingboatsthat arenolessbrightly
colored, ply thewaters. A littleupleft, theAtlanticocean comesin full
view. Thewater issoplacidthat it might aswell benamePacific. Its
hueof brilliant blueseemsmysteriously hypnotic. It beckonsthe
beholder tocomecloser totheedgeandbeengulfe3din itsmajestic
beauty. ThisisPeggy’ sCove.
Analyzing the Structure of the Sample
Paragraph
Unity
Topic Sentence –thecharmof Peggy’ sCovein the
villageitself
Controlling idea – charmvillage
Supporting Details- description of thevillage–
liesalongLighthouseRoutetiny fishingvillage,
picturesque; perched on graniterocks, stark
whitenessof rocks, acontrast to red. Roofed
cottages, brightly painted boatsply theserene
water, ocean hueof brillian blue, very hypnotic.
 
Coherence
Logical bridge – spaceorder –villageitself,
perchedon rocks-cottages-boats- Atlantic
Ocean focal point –the villageitself.
Verbal bridge – signal wordsdenoting
locationsor direction on, around, below,
further, up left
 Type of Description
Objective description – afishingvillage, perched
on graniterocks, rockslashed by waves, white
rocks, red roofed cottages, serenewaters.
Subjective description – tiny –connotesfamiliarity,
picturesque- suggestsno ordinary beauty, stark-
hintsof total completequality, quaint- conjures
feelingsof nostalgia, alongingfor thepleasant past
placid, pacific- conveysserenity, peace, hypnotic-
arousesmystery, fear of theunknown.
 Giving Titles
Titles – adistinguishingnameof abook, poem,
selection, picture, etc. oftentimes, thetitlespells
thedifferencebetween awell-read and alessread
material. A catchy, striking, or attractivetitle
enticesyo to read on. Therefore, it paysto havea
titlethat isnot only relevant and suggestiveof the
content, but also attractive.
Paragraph by Example
Sample Paragraph
What a Piece of Work is Man!
Noman haspaintedmoredeep-dyedvillain than has
Shakespeare, but at somehour in thelivesof thesemost wickedof
characters, you seetheir soulsquiveringunder theeyesof God. Macbeth
hasmurderedtheking; in themidst of festivity heseestheghost, the
shadowof hisconscience! Thekingin Hamlet hasmurderedhisbrother;
at thehour of midnight, heisaman alonewith theEternal God. He
trembleslikeacoward; themurderer wantstopray. A seaof bloodrolls
between hisguilty soul andthemerciful eyesof God. SeeRichardthe
Thirdwhosailedhiscraft of stateon aseaof blooduptotheEnglish
throne. Alonein histent, hecriesout in hissleepthenatureof murdered
dead. Theseexamplesillustratethat at somehour in each sinner’slife, he
standstherein theValley of sin andyearnsfor God’ sforgiveness.
Analyzing the Structure of the Sample Paragraph
Unity
Topic Sentence - … but at somehour in thelivesof themost
wickedof characters, you seetheir soulsquiveringunder theeyes
of God.
Controlling idea - wicked charactersquiveringunder theeyesof
God
Supporting details – Examplesof deep-dyed villainswho quiver
beforeGod:
Macbeth hasmurderedtheking; seestheghost-shadowof his
conscience;
Thekingin hamlet hasmurdered hisbrother; at midnight he
trembleslikeacoward;
RichardtheThirdhasmurdered thekingof England; alonein his
ten, hecriesout thenameof themurdered dead.
Coherence
Logical Bridge (paragraph order) – (deductive):
fromgeneral (topicsentence) to particular
(examplesof deep-dyed villainswho quiver before
God.)
Verbal Bridge(Structural Device) - Repetition of
key words- Deep-dyed villains, most wicked
characters, murderer
 
Forming Opinion
Opinion isabelief that restson groundsinsufficient to
producecertainty, yet it issharedby many. Opinion may takethe
formof asentiment, an impression, or apoint of view–
somethingthat cannot bemeasured objectively. To say that one
isbeautiful issubjective, and, therefore, may bean opinion’but
to say that onehasawideforehead isobjectiveand cannot pass
for an opinion becausethewidth of theforehead can be
measured.
Otherspeopleopinionsmay concur with or differ from
your, but all opinionsarecorrect asfar astheonewhoexpresses
it isconcerned. However, although all opinionsarewell taken,
responsiblepeopledonot formopinionsindiscriminately; rather,
they weigh thefactscarefully beforecomingup with awell
though-of opinion.
Paragraph by
Classification
A paragraph by classification divides people,
places, or things into groups. The
classification is normally made according to
a criterion or several criteria (standards or
principles on which judgment is based). In
the sample paragraph, the chemical
hazards, its forms, and its preventive
measures are the criteria or bases of
classification.
 Some signal words (a type of verbal
bridge) used for classification are:
basis/bases
divide into/subdivide
criterion/criteria several
classify/sub-classify classes/subclasses
characteristics a number of
main type
features arrange suborder
two of the …
groups/subgroups
categorize/subcategorize
category/subcategory
Developing Reading Skills
Outlining
Outlining is a reading
skill used in taking down notes
from a reading material. It
enables one to differentiate
general information from one
which is specific. In an outline,
any section which is
subdivided must have at least
two subdivisions.
 Kinds of Outline

•Sentence outline – is one in which the main sections

and subsections are expressed in sentence form.

•Topic outline – contains headings which may be

words, phrases, or clauses. The grammatical
structures for all the headings to be used must be
parallel.
•
•Paragraph outline – is a special kind of sentence
outline which is like the summary or the précis of a
reading material. It is a numbered list of sentences,
each of which contains the topic or main idea of each
paragraph
Logical subordination. Items in the outline should
be logically subordinated. Sub-points listed under
larger headings should be subordinate in meaning,
and should not be of equal importance to them or
even greater. Any sub-point should be related to the
major point under which it is listed.
Parallel structure. All members of the division of
equal rank should have similar grammatical
structure. If you start with a noun phrase for the first
of the main headings, the 2nd, 3rd, 3tc. must also be
expressed as noun phrases. Unnecessary shifts from
active to passive voice or from statement to question
should be avoided.

Mechanics. The first words of an outline

are always capitalized. For a topical outline, no end
punctuation is used.
 Opposing or Block Pattern
1. Subject A:
• First characteristic of A
• Second characteristic of A
• Third characteristic of A,
etc.
• Subject B
• First characteristic of B
• Second characteristic of B
• Third characteristic of B,
etc.
Alternating Pattern
1. First characteristic:
• of Subject A
• of Subject of B
• Second characteristic
• of Subject A
• of Subject B
• Third characteristic
• of Subject A
• of Subject B
In the opposing or block pattern, all the
characteristics of Subject A are explained fully
or completely before the characteristics
of Subject B. are discussed.

In the alternating pattern, the

characteristics of Subjects A and B are elucidated
alternately; that is; the first characteristic of
Subject A is discussed fully, followed by the
elaboration of the first characteristic of Subject B.
Then the second characteristic of subject B is
also taken up fully, and so on.
Some signal words (type of verbal bridge) used for
comparison and contrast are:

For comparison For contrasting

like whereas
in the same in contrast
manner on the contrary
equally yet
so instead
also to differentiate
too however
Likewise but
both on the other hand
similarly
Developing Reading Skills
 Skimming and Scanning

Skimming and scanning are two reading skills

most needed when we have to read to learn,
and when we have to search for information
from volumes of reading materials.
Skimming is used in looking for general ideas.
We skim pages, chapters, tables of contents, and
even dictionaries, to find out if the reading
material contains the information we need.
Scanning on the other hand, is done to find
specific information in answer to specific
questions.
When skimming:
•Study the title of the chapter, section, or
article. The title tells a lot about the
content.
•Find the main idea.

When scanning:
•Study the topic sentence to determine if
the information you need to answer a
specific question is discussed in the
paragraph.
•Have in mind what you are looking for;
look for the keywords.
Paragraph by Analogy
 A paragraph by analogy compares two different
things on the basis of their similarities in certain
respects. It is used most effectively in explaining difficult
or unknown concepts. This kind or paragraph
development premises its explanation on the familiar or
known, so that the logical order (from the familiar to the
unfamiliar) is presumed to be the best paragraph order.
Analogy differs from comparison and
contrast as a method of paragraph development
because analogy compares two things belonging to
different classes 9in the sample paragraph, learning
and growing a garden), while comparison and contrast
compares two things of the same kind (e.g., two
persons, two places).
Read the following paragraphs and notice how two different ideas or
things are compared through analogy.
Sample
There is an old story that says you can’t kill a frog by putting
him in boiling water. He reacts so quickly to the sudden heat that he
jumps before he is burned. But if you put him in cold water and
then warm it up gradually, he never decides to jump until it is too
late. By then, he is cooked. Men are just foolish. Take way their
freedom overnight and you have a violent revolution. But steal it
from them gradually in the guise of security, peace, and progress and
you can paralyze an entire nation.

Adapted, Lunberg, in Manalo 133

Paragraph by Cause and Effects
 •Discussing the Characteristics of
the Paragraph Developed by
Cause and Effect

In a paragraph developed by cause and

effect, the writer points out the relationship
between certain events or situations
and their consequences.
Kernelizing

Kernelizing is the process of breaking

down into simple sentences long sentences
having many ideas. This reading skill
is an aid for better comprehension.
A definition makes clear the meaning of a word or
an idea in simple and understandable terms. It
includes the term to be defined, the class or
species to which the term or idea belongs and
the distinguishing characteristic/s that make the
term or idea different from the other members
belonging to the same class or species. There are
three types of definition: the synonym, the
intensive definition, and the extensive definition.
A synonym is a word that is similar or
almost similar in meaning to the word or idea
being defined.
Examples pretty and beautiful adept and skillful

An intensive definition is a one-sentence definition that includes the term to be

defined, the class to which the term belongs, and the characteristic/s
that make it different from others in the same class or species.

Example intensive definition: emotional intelligence (term) is abilities(class)

involving emotional discipline and control (characteristics
differentiating EQ from other abilities)

The extensive definition is an expansion of the intensive definition (or one-sentence

definition) into a paragraph. The intensive definition is amplified into a
paragraph through the use of one or more methods of paragraph development;
such as: example, classification, analogy, description, comparison, contrast,
cause and effect, etc.
Identifying the Main Ideas

The main idea is the most important

thought the author aims to develop. The
main idea of a paragraph is located in the
topic sentence which may ne stated or
implied.
 Discussing the Structure of the
Paragraph Interpreting Graphic

Linear bars,graphs, pricture or pie graphs, tables, and charts are graphic
or non-prose-reading materials. They contain summarized information or
Presented in a systematic and logically organized form using symbos and
Numbers.These graphic materials are very good sources of data or infor-
Mation for research.

The analysis and interpetatin of these non-prose materials usually makes

Use of the inductive method. In effect, the sequence is:

10.Begin with and introduction of what the graphic material presents; ex.The
table presents the dollar remittances of overseas workers.
2. Give a general statement that contains the main idea; for example “The US
Dollar remittances iof the OFW’s tolated to US S7.9B. This serves as the
Topic sentence.
3. Present the details to support the topic sentence. These are the
Quarterly remittances.
4.Close the presentation of supporting details with a clinching
Sentence in the form of a summary of findings;for example,
“Remittances for the 1st and 3rd quarters were low, while those for the 2nd
and 4th quarters were high.
5.State the generalization which is your conclusion based on the findings, as:
“The high remittances for the 2nd quarters may be due to the opening of
Classes in June and the advent of Christmas in December. Both seasons
Entail extra expenses.”

Presenting data from graphs/tables requires of the writer:

14.The ability to present the facts/information objectively, avoiding conjectures

or opinions;
2. A keen sense or ability to see the significance of the relationship between
the parts (details0 and the topic to the whole paragraph; and
3. The ability to interpret facts and to form a generalization based on the details
Presented.`
A composition is an exercise of putting together words, sentences, and
Paragraphs that are combined into a whole. A short composition may have
Five to eight paragraphs or may be two to five pages in length. It has a
Central purpose or objective that controls the whole composition. The purpose
Is expressed in a sentence called thesis statement, usually found in the beginning
Paragraph of the composition.

•Title – the title is often a fragment. The first and the last words and all the
Important words are capitalized. Prepositions, articles, and short conjuctions
Not capitalized unless they are the first or the last words fo the title.

Points to consider in writing a title:

•Indicate what the composition is about
•Created reader’s interest to read the compostion
•Be brief as possible

Attention - getting titles capture the reader’s attention and draw him into writing.
Several strategies could be used to create this type of heading.
• Aliteration – repetition of the initial sounds ex. Lasers, Light, and love
•Allusion – reference to a famous play, book, song, slogan, etc.
Ex. A Separate Peace in Bangladesh
• Pun/Humor – a play on words using sound or meaning ex. American
Presidents: An Acid Reign
• Startling Question – Example: Is Homework Deadly?

2. Introduction – this is the first major part of the composition. It includes

The thesis statement which gives the plan for the compostion, Its purpose is to
Prepare the reader for the suject, to engage his interest in it and to lead him to
Discussion.

Consider the ff. points in organizing your Introduction:

o.Write an opening sentence or two to attract the reader’s attention and to

Focus is his interest on the thesis or topic of the composition.
b. Write a sentence or two either before the thesis statement or after it, to give
The background of the subject, to set the limits of the discussion or to clarify
The meaning of the keywords in the thesis statement.
c. Write the thesis statement. This has a main idea or a subject followed
Followed by two or three parts or supports. The supports are often introduced by
Because, as, due to, or by a punctuation mark, usually the colon. For style or for
Emphasis, the supports precede the main idea. The parts supports of the thesis
Statement determine the content, the order and the aproximate wording of the
Topic sentences that begin the paragraphs in the main text or discussion. In turn,
The topic sentences dictate the organization of the paragraphs.
4. Hook your reader. To get your reader’s interest in your subject matter, and to
Keep him reading, you may choose any one of the six different strategies you feel
Is best to get your idea across to your reader and to suit your purpose.

Suggested Techniques for Writing the Introductory Paragraph

m.Dramatize or present part of an anecdote. Present a brief dramatic scene or part

of an interesting or humorous story. Highlight someone or an incident that you will
Discuss or characterize later in your discussion.

q.Begin with a quotation. Quotations which sum up an idea are found in plays, short
Stories, novels, poems, songs, newspapers., magazines, and textbooks. Set the
Quotation marks, then follow it up with you own words.
c. Surprise with an expected point of view. Catch the reader off guard, startle
Him by beginning the introduction with a point of view he doesn’t expect.
Contradict what you think he believes as true or right.

d. Begin with a question. Asking a question involves the reader’s participation

He thinks actively about the question asked, before he is led to the writer’s answer
In the thesis statement.

e. Build Background. Present a background information in a series of statements that

Will build and strengthen the thesis. This develops the reader’s interest until the
Climactic presentation of the thesis at the end of the introductory paragraph.

f. Combine these techniques or simplify them. An anecdote can include a

Quotation. A question may precede a surprise point of view. A dramatic scene can be
Simplified by summing it up in one statement. Background information can be
Shortened.
3.Body/Main Text/ Discussion

This is the second major part of the composition. It is determined by

The supports in the thesis statement.

f.Getting the correct order. The orderly sequencing of ideas in a composition

Is one way of obtaining coherence in a composition. The choice of proper order
Will depend on the purpose of the composition.

b. Choosing an effective methods of paragraph development. The appropriate

Method hinges again upon the thesis statement which may be amplified through
Examples, narrations, giving causes and effects, descriptions, comparisons,etc.

c. Keeping a balance. This depends too, on the purpose of the composition as stated
In the thesis statement of the introduction.

d. Providing signals (Verbal Bridges). Signals should be provided for important points
In the composition particularly the major turning points.
d. Paving the way. Pave the way for the reader. Word choice, sentence
structure, and organization of the paragraphs should be smooth and readable.
The composition should be a pleasure to read.

4. Concluding Paragraph
The concluding paragraph is the third major part of the composition.
It is the most powerful part of writing. It should provoke the reader and stimulate
him to think about the topic

Essential functions of a good conclusion:

•Restates the thesis statement – this reasserts the idea in the thesis statement
•Summarizes the main points – a summary draws together and reinforces the main
a composition.
•Offers solutions to a problem
•Presents opinion
•Use final question – A final question often prompts the reader to think further on the
topic. If your composition persuades, the concluding question may pave the way
for a reasonable person to emphasize your point of view.
•Provide a captivating quotation. A quotation can capture the essence of your
thought end the composition with authority.
• Sustain the reader’s interest by an ironic twist or surprising observation. This
technique sustains the reader’s interest and prompts him to think further about
The topic discussed.
•Emphasize through a clever or lighthearted ending. The writer ends by exagge-
rating the fault or the idea criticized.
• Challenge the reader. A challenge often engages the reader to take action.
•Express hope or a recommendation. Both hope and recommendation may restate
points mentioned in the composition or suggest actions to take in order to arrive at
a solution.