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CH 16 PDF
CH 16 PDF
1. Lean manufacturing is an approach de- needed; (3) Inventories of goods awaiting fur-
signed to eliminate waste and maximize ther processing or consumption; (4) Unneces-
customer value. It is characterized by deli- sary processing; (5) Unnecessary movement
vering the right product, in the right quantity, of people; (6) Unnecessary transport of goods;
with the right quality (zero-defect) at the ex- (7) Waiting; and, (8) The design of goods and
act time the customer needs it and at the services that do not meet the needs of the cus-
lowest possible cost. tomer.
2. The five principles of lean thinking are: (1) 8. A focused value stream is dedicated to one
Precisely specify value by each particular product. It includes all the activities and
product; (2) Identify the "value stream" for steps necessary to produce, deliver, and
each product; (3) Make value flow without service the product after it is sold. The re-
interruption; (4) Let the customer pull value sources, people, and equipment to accom-
from the producer; and (5) Pursue perfec- plish this are all exclusive to the value
tion. stream, making all the costs directly tracea-
ble to the product produced by the value
3. Two types of value streams are the order
stream.
fulfillment value stream and the new product
value stream. The order fulfillment value 9. Facility costs are assigned using a fixed cost
stream focuses on providing current prod- per square foot( (total cost/total square feet).
ucts to current customers. The new product If a value stream uses less square feet, it
value stream focuses on developing new receives less cost. Thus, the purpose of this
products for new customers. assignment is to motivate value stream
mangers to find ways to occupy less space.
4. A value stream may be created for every As space is made available, it can be used
product; however, it is more common to for new product lines or to accommodate in-
group products that use common processes
creased sales
into the same value stream. One way to
identify the value streams is to use a simple 10. Units shipped are used to discourage the
two-dimensional matrix, where the activi- production of excess inventories. It also en-
ties/processes are listed on one dimension courages the reduction and elimination of
and the products on a second dimension. existing finished goods inventories. The unit
5. The key factors in being able to produce low cost increases if more units are produced
volume products with great variety are lower than sold. The unit cost decreases if are
setup times and cellular manufacturing. Re- shipped than units produced.
ducing setup times and using manufacturing 11. If the products in the value stream are quite
cells eliminates considerable wait and move similar, then the average cost will approx-
time so that cycle time is dramatically re-
imate the actual unit product cost. If the
duced.
product mix is relatively stable over time,
6. Demand-pull means producing only the then the average unit cost can be a good
products when needed and in the quantities signal of overall changes in efficiency within
needed. Demand-pull systems re- the value stream.
duce/eliminate WIP and finished goods in-
ventories. Inventories are the most signifi- 12. Value streams often have excess capacity.
cant source of waste in a manufacturing In certain decisions, such as make or buy or
firm. accept or reject special orders, the change
in profitability is the key factor in assessing
7. Eight sources of waste are: (1) Defective which way to go. In these cases, knowledge
products; (2) Overproduction of goods not
547
of individual product cost is not needed and, needed for the process, customer, and fi-
in fact, may be misleading. nancial objectives.
13. The lean control system uses a Box Score- 18. Lag measures reflect what has happened.
card that compares operational, capacity, Lead measures reflect what may happen.
and financial metrics with prior week perfor-
19. A testable strategy is a set of linked objec-
mances and with a future desired state.
tives aimed at an overall goal that can be
Trends over time coupled with the expecta-
restated into a sequence of cause-and-effect
tion of achieving some desired state in the
hypotheses.
near future is the means used to motivate
constant performance improvement. Thus, 20. Double-loop feedback is information that
the lean control approach uses a mixture of deals with both the effectiveness of strategy
financial and nonfinancial measures for the implementation and the validity of the as-
value steam. The future desired state re- sumptions underlying the strategy.
flects targets for the various measures. Op-
21. The three strategic themes of the financial
erational, nonfinancial measures are also
perspective are revenue growth, cost reduc-
used at the cell level.
tion, and asset utilization.
14. Life-cycle costing is measuring the costs
22. The five core objectives of the customer
associated with a product for its entire life
perspective are market share, customer re-
cycle. Life-cycle management is managing
tention, customer acquisition, customer sa-
the activities during the development stage
tisfaction, and customer profitability.
to ensure the lowest total life-cycle cost.
Budgeting life-cycle costs can help managers 23. The long-wave of value creation means
adjust the activities during the development anticipating the emerging and potential
stage; furthermore, comparing actual life- needs of customers and creating new prod-
cycle costs with budgeted costs should ena- ucts and processes to satisfy those needs.
ble managers to improve life-cycle cost The short-wave of value creation is produc-
management in the future using the feed- ing and delivering existing products to cus-
back from actual results. tomers.
15. Target costing is a cost management me- 24. Cycle time is the length of time required to
thod that is used to reduce costs to a level produce one product; velocity is the number
that reflects a product’s functions and mar- of units that can be produced in a given pe-
ket demands and management’s return re- riod of time.
quirements. Costs are reduced to target by
product and process redesign activities. 25. Manufacturing cycle efficiency is a ratio
Product redesign is aided by reverse engi- computed by dividing the processing time by
neering and value analysis. the sum of processing time, move time, in-
spection time, and waiting time. The ideal is
16. The Balanced Scorecard translates an or- to increase efficiency by reducing the nonva-
ganization’s vision and strategy into opera- lue-added times of moving, inspection, and
tional objectives and measures for four waiting.
perspectives: financial, customer, process,
and learning and growth. 26. Three objectives of the learning and growth
perspective are increase employee capabili-
17. A strategy is the process of choosing the ties; increase motivation, empowerment,
market and customer segments, identifying and alignment; and increase information
the critical internal processes, and selecting systems capabilities.
the individual and organizational capabilities
548
EXERCISES
16–1
1. e 8. a
2. d
3. b
4. e
5. b
6. c
7. e
16–2
Value Streams:
16–3
1. Departmental times:
2. Cellular times:
If the cell is continuously producing then the time is 100 minutes (10 × 10)
549
16–3 Continued
3. Time saved = 353 – 120 = 233 minutes (253 minutes for the continuous case)
= 233/10 = 23.3 minutes per unit (25.3 for continuous)
16–4
1. 60 minutes/10 = 6 units per hour is the current production rate (10 minutes is
the bottleneck time—for the first department.
3. The minimum unit production time for any process within the cell must be 6
minutes. Thus, ways must be found to reduce the processing time for Mixing,
Heating, and Tableting to 6 minutes. Process redesign and product redesign
are possible ways to reduce the times.
16–5
3. The most likely option to be exercised is to cross-train Mary so that she can
function in quality control, eliminating the need for the quality engineer to
share time with more than one value stream. It also allows productive use of
available capacity and will not increase the cost of the MP3 value stream, and
in fact, may decrease the cost when the partial services of the value engineer
are eliminated.
550
4. Unit cost = $1,890,000/20,000 units = $94.50 per unit. This cost is very accurate
because virtually all of the costs are assigned using direct tracing. Causal
tracing is used for facility costs and quality engineering. Thus, this cost is a
good efficiency measure for the MP3 value stream and tracking it over time
will provide a measure of changes in efficiency.
16–6
Model A Model B
Cell:
$4 × 600 $ 2,400.00
$4 × 1,800 $ 7,200.00
Engineering:
$42.50 × 15 637.50
$42.50 × 65 2,762.50
Testing:
$37.50 × 25 937.50
$37.50 × 55 2,062.50
Total $3,975.00 $12,025.00
Units 50 150
Unit cost (cost/units) $79.50 80.17
2. Average cost = $16,000/200 = $80. The average cost approximates the ABC
costs with very little error, suggesting that the two value stream products are
quite similar.
551
16–7
1.
Week 1
Sales (90 @ $40) $3,600
Cost of goods sold (90 @$20) (1,800)
Gross profit $1,800
Week 2
Sales (100 @ $40) $4,000
Cost of goods sold (100 @$20) (2,000)
Gross profit $2,000
Week 3
Sales (90 @ $40) $3,600
Cost of goods sold (90 @$20) (1,800)
Gross profit $1,800
2.
The average cost decreased with a drop in inventories and increased with an in-
crease in inventories. The signal is consistent with the objective of reducing in-
ventories.
3.
Week1:
Week 2:
552
Sales (100 @ $40) $4,000
Materials (450)
Conversion cost (1,350)
Value stream profit $2,200
Change in inventory (200)
Gross profit $2,000
Week 3:
The value stream profit is highest in week 2 and lowest in week 3. The profit va-
riability is directly tied to the ability of the stream to produce on demand. In
weeks 1 and 2, inventories are stable or decreasing. In week 3, the stream slipped
and produced more than demanded and so profits decreased. The change in in-
ventory adjustment brings the value stream to the traditional measurement. When
the value stream achieves the ability to produce on demand, the two incomes will
be the same and any changes income will be from reductions in waste other than
inventories.
16–8
553
value-stream capacity. As waste is reduced, resources become available
for other productive uses.
5. As quality, time, and efficiency increase, we would eventually expect all of
this to convert into financial gains. Typically, what happens is that elimina-
tion of waste is first expressed as available capacity. Financial gains are
realized when the available capacity is either reduced by reducing re-
sources needed or they are used elsewhere for other productive purposes.
16–9
554
16–10
1. If (a) employees are trained to improve their soldering capabilities, (b) the
manufacturing process is redesigned, and (c) the right suppliers are selected,
then the number of defective units produced will decrease; if the number of
defective units produced decreases, then customer satisfaction will increase;
if customer satisfaction increases, then market share will increase; if market
share increases then sales will increase; if sales increase, then profits will in-
crease.
2.
Profits Revenues
FINANCIAL
Increase Increase
Customer Market
CUSTOMER Satisfaction Share
Increases Increases
Soldering
INFRASTRUCTURE Training
555
16–10 Concluded
556
16–11
557
16–12
3. An incentive exists to reduce product cost by reducing cycle time. For exam-
ple, current cycle time is 20 minutes per unit. If cycle time could be reduced
to 15 minutes per unit, conversion costs would be reduced from $90 per unit
to $67.50 per unit, reducing the unit product cost by $22.50. Reducing cycle
time increases the ability to meet deliveries on time as well as increasing the
ability of the firm to respond quickly to customer demands.
16–13
558
PROBLEMS
16–14
Pizza ($10 × 9) $ 90
Root beer ($3 × 18) 54
Salad ($2 × 30) 60
Total cost $204
Group B:
Pizza: (7 × 30) = 210 slices/10 slices per pizza = 21 pizzas
Root beer: (2 × 30) = 60 glasses/5 glasses = 12 pitchers
Salads: (1 × 30) = 30 bowls.
559
16-14 Concluded
Calculating cost per lunch customer is analogous to calculating a cost per unit of
product produced.
16-15
1.
Pizza ($10 × 8) $ 80
Root beer ($3 × 15) 45
Salad ($2 × 30) 60
Total cost $185
560
16-15 Concluded
Using the ABC costs as a benchmark, the Group B value stream is a better si-
milarity grouping than Group A. The groups are analogous to value streams
and the assignment of pizza, root beer, and salads to each group is analogous
to the assignment and dedication of people, equipment, and resources to val-
ue streams. The costing analogies are obvious.
16–16
561
1. The operational performance measures that improved for the first six months
all have to do with improving time-based performance. On-time delivery and
dock-to-dock days showed dramatic improvements, reflecting the increased
ability of the firm to produce on demand. From the capacity measures, we see
that the ability to produce on demand has created additional available capacity
in the value stream. For the second six months, the focus has been on improv-
ing quality. FTT improved form 60% to 90 %, a dramatic increase in quality. For
example, eliminating scrap may explain why the materials cost dropped, giv-
ing the increase in ROS that did occur. The improvements have eliminated
waste and increased the amount of available capacity. The implications are
profound. The company can produce higher quality products more much more
rapidly. This will enable the company to produce the kind of products de-
manded by customers, in the quantities needed, and delivered when they need
them. This should begin to translate into increased sales and improved finan-
cial performance. The stage is now set.
2. The constant sales per person coupled with constant total sales, suggest that
the head count has not been reduced. More resources are available for use by
the value stream as reflected by the increase in available capacity. The fact
that financial performance has not improved dramatically is likely attributable
to the fact the company is maintaining the same level of resources in the value
stream. Eliminating these resources is one way to improve financial perfor-
mance. However, a more preferable approach is to find ways to use them pro-
ductively. New products and expanded production (which may occur because
of increased quality and improved cycle time) are much better ways of improv-
ing financial performance.
562
16–17
1. 2007 2008
a. 192,000/80,000 = 2.4/hour (velocity) 2.4/hour
60/2.4 = 25 minutes (cycle time) 25 minutes
b. 152,000/80,000 = 1.9/hour (velocity) 176,000/80,000 = 2.2/hour
60/1.9 = 32 minutes* (cycle time) 60/2.2 = 27 minutes*
c. N/A ($20 – $10)/$20 = 50%
d. 152,000/80,000 = 1.9 176,000/80,000 = 2.2
e. 20,000/200,000 = 10% 16,000/200,000 = 8%
f. N/A ($200 – $250)/$250 = (20%)
g. N/A (6 – 3)/6 = (50%)
h. 9,000/152,000 = 5.9%* 4,000/176,000 = 2.3%*
i. 4,000/152,000 = 0.026/unit* 16,000/176,000 = 0.091/unit*
j. 200 hours 800 hours
k. $300 $280
l. 2 × 40 = 80 6 × 40 = 240
m. ($300 × 4,000)/($300 × 152,000) ($280 × 16,000)/($280 × 176,000)
= 2.63%* = 9.1%*
n. 20% 176,000/780,000 = 22.6%**
o. N/A [($280 × 176,000) – ($300 ×
152,000)]/($300 × 152,000) = 8.1%*
*Rounded
**152,000 ÷ 20% = 760,000 + 20,000 = 780,000
563
16–17 Continued
Financial:
Reduce unit cost Unit cost
Develop new customers New customers per unit sold
Increase total revenues Percentage change in revenues
Customer:
Reduce customer Price/Unit
sacrifice Postpurchase costs
Increase customer Number of new customers
acquisition
Increase market share Percentage of market
Process:
Decrease process time Cycle time/Velocity
Decrease defective units Number of defects
Number of scrapped units
Decrease inventory Days of inventory
All measures have shown improvement over the two-year period. This pro-
vides evidence of the strategy’s viability, assuming that the measures are tied
to the strategy as they appear to be. What is lacking are the targets for the
various measures. Knowing the targets for the two-year period would signifi-
cantly enhance the value of the feedback. It is important to emphasize that
comparing targets to actuals allows for an assessment both of implementa-
tion success and strategy viability (double-loop feedback).
564
16–17 Concluded
3. It is important to understand that one cause can have more than one effect
and that an effect can have more than one cause. Because of this, a strategy
can have several cause-and-effect branches. Based on the available informa-
tion, we can express the strategy as follows:
If training is increased, then employee productivity and participation will in-
crease; if employee productivity and participation increase, then product
quality and process time will improve; if process time decreases and if the
product quality improves, then inventory will decrease and costs will de-
crease (including postpurchase costs); if inventory decreases, then costs will
decrease; if costs decrease, then customer sacrifice decreases (selling prices
and postpurchase costs lowered); if selling prices and postpurchase costs
are lowered, then the number of customers can be increased; if the number of
customers increases, then market share will increase; if market share in-
creases, then revenues will increase.
The measures reveal a lot about the strategy; in fact, if the measures are
properly specified, they should tell the whole story of the strategy. The meas-
ures allow us to infer the strategic objectives and the underlying relationships
of these objectives.
Market share is an example of a measure that acts as both a lead and a lag
measure. It acts as an outcome variable because it is a consequence of other
performance drivers such as selling prices and postpurchase costs, but it is
also a lead measure for revenues. Hours of training is a lead measure only
(for this example), and revenues is a lag measure only.
565
16–18
1. Setup $125,000
Materials handling 180,000
Inspection 122,000
Customer complaints 100,000
Warranties 170,000
Storing 80,000
Expediting 75,000
Total $852,000
Units produced and sold ÷120,000*
Potential unit cost reduction $ 7.10
*$1,920,000/$16 (total cost divided by unit cost)
The consultant’s estimate of cost reduction was on target. Per-unit costs can
be reduced by at least $7, and further reductions may be possible if improve-
ments in value-added activities are possible.
4. Current:
Sales $ 2,160,000 ($18 × 120,000 units)
Costs (1,920,000)
Income $ 240,000
566
16–18 Concluded
16–19
2. Nonvalue-added costs:
Materials (400,000 – 380,000)$21 $ 420,000
Labor (96,000 – 91,200)$12.50 60,000
Setups (6,400 – 0)$75 480,000
Materials handling (16,000 – 0)$70 1,120,000
Warranties (16,000 – 0)$100 1,600,000
Total $3,680,000
Units produced and sold ÷ 20,000
Unit nonvalue-added cost $ 184
Current cost less nonvalue-added cost:
$640 – $184 = $456
This is much less than the target cost of $544 Thus, achieving target cost is
possible. How quickly the cost reductions can be achieved is another matter.
As CEO, I would attempt to reduce the nonvalue-added costs quickly by im-
plementing lean manufacturing methodologies. I would also lower the price to
567
$624 by year end and seek to take advantage of the increased market share—
even if it meant a short-term reduction in profits.
16–20
568
16–20 Concluded
569
16–21
570
16–22
571
16–23
572
16–23 Continued
573
16–23 Concluded
3. Strategic-based accounting derives its measures from the mission and strat-
egy of the organization. Thus, the set of measures is strategically linked. The
set of measures expands to cover customer and learning and growth pers-
pectives. The measures are also balanced with particular emphasis on includ-
ing both lead and lag measures. Lead measures are performance drivers and
are the factors that enable improvement of outcome measures. Additional
measures would include such things as customer satisfaction, customer re-
tention, market share, customer acquisition, customer profitability, employee sa-
tisfaction, employee productivity, and availability of real-time information.
574
16–24
16–25
Customer:
Increase customer acquisition New customers —
Increase customer satisfaction Survey ratings —
Increase market share Market share —
Increase product quality Returns —
Improve product image
and reputation — Survey ratings
575
16–25 Continued
576
16–25 Continued
CUSTOMER
Product Product
Quality Image
Process Component
PROCESS
Quality Quality
577
16–25 Concluded
5. Using 6 percent, the targeted goal for rework costs was $1,560,000. Since the
actual costs were $1,500,000, the target was met.
6. All but supplier evaluation and training are nonvalue-added activities (inspec-
tion, rework, scrapping units, warranty, sales returns, and customer com-
plaints). The potential savings are $3,410,000 (the total minus the costs of
evaluation and training).
578
MANAGERIAL DECISION CASE
16–26
579
RESEARCH ASSIGNMENT
10–27
580