Academic Writing Module PDF

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ACADEMIC WRITING
MODULE
By Kwesi Atta Sakyi
B.A. Hons (Econ) Ghana, Group Diploma Bus Admin (Distinction) Jersey, 4 Yr Trs Cert A
(Ghana), MPA (Distinction) UNISA
Academic Writing Module Page 1

© Copyright
This document is the exclusive preserve of the Zambia Centre for Accountancy Studies, and the
copyright resides in the author. Under no condition should the material herein be reproduced in
any form for commercial purposes, be it electronic, hardcopy or in any other mode, without the
permission of the author who is aware of the intellectual property and human capital rights residing
in this piece of creative work. The author is also aware of the issues of plagiarism, regarding non-
acknowledgement of works of scholarship residing in published works of individuals and
institutions.
Acknowledgement
The Zambia Centre for Accountancy Studies (ZCAS) is indeed greatly indebted to many of its staff
for helping to come up with this module, Introduction to English. First and foremost, ZCAS will like
to thank the lecturer, Mr Kwesi Atta Sakyi, for his invaluable contribution in writing this module. He
showed a high sense of commitment and assiduity. Secondly, ZCAS will also like to thank the
support staff who worked tirelessly to make sure this module is produced both as a softcopy and a
hardcopy. It is indeed impossible to identify, name and thank all those behind the scenes who
contributed in one way or the other to this tedious and gargantuan enterprise, to ensure it comes
to fruition. To all those anonymous helpers and contributors, we say a very big thank you to you
all.
Introduction
You are most welcome to the Module on Introduction to English, Module 6.1.1, which will require
you to pay attention to the way you write, speak the Queen‟s language, carry out presentations,
and write reports. Report writing will ensure that by the time you finish this module, you will have
several skills such as communication skills, self-editing skills, correct referencing skills, emotional
and social intelligence skills in handling interpersonal relationships, use of the computer in word-
processing documents, among many other skills.
Do not worry if you do not own a computer. Hopefully, every one of you will at one time or the
other, have experience in using the computer. Introduction to English is organised in such a way
that you acquire several work-related and academic skills such as how to take notes, how to make
public presentations, how to achieve clarity and effectiveness in what you write or communicate to
other people, how to successfully organise and run meetings, seminars, conferences, among
others.
It is going to be fun going through this module, and I assure you that I am going to walk you
through it. It is wrong to think that because you got a distinction in English at the school certificate
level, there is nothing new to learn in English. That is a watershed in your life and a point of
departure because the real journey begins here. English is a dynamic language that moves with
the times. You should always keep your eyes peeled, ears cocked, and your mind open and
receptive to new ideas. Read widely to learn new styles of writing and also to increase your
knowledge base and vocabulary.
This introductory course in English is meant to bridge the gap between what you were supposed
to have known whilst doing your high school education on the one hand, and what the university
expects its prospective students to know before embarking on their programmes, on the other
hand. By the time you complete this module, you will have been opened up a lot to see your
weaknesses and strong areas.
It does not matter whether you are a science student or liberal arts-inclined student. We all need to
excel in English because it is the vehicle for communicating our thoughts and presenting our
academic work in some prescribed format. Reading novels, newspapers, journals, magazines and
textbooks will stand you in good stead in your academic and professional career. Please stick to
reading from quality sources because some local newspapers have a lot of grammatical and
spelling errors, which shows that the writers and editors are not painstaking in their research and
search for true knowledge. The search for knowledge never ends because it is life-long, and only a
fool gets satisfied with the little he or she knows. Quality magazines which I read include Readers‟
Digest, Harvard Business Review, The Economist Magazine, New African Magazine, Times
Magazine, Newsweek Magazine, New York Times, Washington Post, The Financial Times, The
Guardian, and the Huffington Post. My favourite Radio Station is BBC and my favourite TV station
is VOA.
The more we know, the more we realise that we know less or a miniscule or infinitesimal fraction
or factotum of knowledge. What you claim to know is at all times, and to all intents and purposes,
a tip of the iceberg! Only a polymath can claim to know it all, or only a polyglot can claim to be

adept and at home with the classics and modern languages. By the way, the classics deal with
knowledge of Greek, Latin, Ancient History, and Literature in English, among others. I have tried
hard in this compilation to be as encyclopaedic and compendious as possible.
Be ready to take on new challenges such as writing and submitting assignments on time. Help is
always near. Look for people with like minds to work with, and to motivate you. Manage your time
properly and do not engage in procrastination or postponing to tomorrow what needs to be done
today. For, time is the most valuable and priceless asset that God gave man, yet we tend to
abuse it, under-utilise it and neglect its importance. Be proactive or plan in advance. It is said that
the way to the stars is steep, so you should not sleep, but rather work flat out to get to them. You
should not be discouraged because what others have achieved, perhaps you can achieve better.
They say, slow and steady wins the race. I will leave you with the words of the American poet,
Henry Longfellow:
„The heights by great men reached and kept
Were not attained by sudden flights,
But they, while their companions slept,
Were toiling upwards all the night‟
……………………………
„Lives of great men all remind us
We can make our lives sublime,
And departing,
Leave behind us footprints on the sands of time.‟
COURSE AIM
This course aims to equip students with skills in effective and efficient use of the English language,
basic research and the use of information and communication technology (ICT).
OBJECTIVES
By the end of the course, students should be able to:

1. write in descriptive and narrative form;
2. demonstrate a clear understanding of the English language;
3. demonstrate the core skills needed to operate a personal computer in the business
environment;
4. perform a literature search in a database; and
5. cite academic material correctly.
INDICATIVE CONTENT
PART A Note- taking
1. Note-taking in lectures
2. Note-taking from books
3. Note-taking from internet
PART B Oral communications
1. Effective questioning
2. Public presentation and speaking skills
3. Preparing for meetings, seminars , conferences and interviews
PART C Written communications
1. Essay writing
2. Descriptive writing
3. Narrative writing
4. Report writing
5. Emails
PART D Literature search
1. Academic databases including Google Scholar
2. Simple search
3. Advanced search
PART E Citing and referencing methods
1. Harvard Referencing System
2. APA system
3. Other referencing systems
PART F Information technology skills
1. Common types of software and hardware used in organisations
2. Basic computer skills
3. Microsoft Office applications including word processing, spread sheets and e-mail.
PART G Information system quality and security
1. Importance of data quality and security
2. Common threats to data quality and security
3. Types of controls used to counter the threats to data quality and security
ASSESSMENT
Continuous assessment 40%

1 Test 30%
1 Assignment 10%
Final examination 60%
Total 100%
PRESCRIBED READING
1) Cody, S. (2010) The Art of Writing and Speaking English Language, word-study and
Composition and Rhetoric. Amazon Publishers.
RECOMMENDED READING
2) Black, E. L. and Wood, E. R. (1963) Fifth Year English. London: Blackie and Sons
Limited.
3) Bovee, C. L., Thill, J. V. and Schatzman, B. E. (2002) Business Communication
Today.
4) Claire, M. B. and Gordon, M. S. (1991) Effective Writing: A Handbook for

Accountants.
5) Ehrenhaft, G. (2012) English Language and Composition. Amazon Publishers
6) Evans, D.W. 2000 (2nd ed.). People, Communication and Organisations London:
Longman

TIMEFRAME
You will need not less than 2 hours a day or 180 hours per semester to do all your assignments
and to catch up on the reading material which has been provided you in this module. Ensure you
prepare your own personal study timetable in order to stay focused. Remember to achieve a work-
life balance so that you successfully achieve all your life goals timely, effectively and efficiently.
Remember to develop good working habits such as switching off your radio, TV, earphones, cell
phones, doing away with all forms of distraction when carrying out your academic assignments,
because academic discipline requires you to concentrate hard on your work to gain maximum
marks. Have work planners such as calendars, diaries and daily journals to remind you of pending
deadlines. Avoid last-minute fire-fighting and panicky situations, for you are in control of your life.
NEED HELP?
As a distance learner, you will need to know how to network with peers and how to have contact
with your lecturers and your institution. You will most times depend on yourself, as some of you
may find yourselves in some outlandish or isolated places in this country. However, in this age and
time in the 21st century, no place is too far away and inaccessible. You can contact us through
email, using the internet café nearest to you, or through your cell phone, snail mail or ordinary
posted letter, and by any other multi-media channel available to you. Your lecturers will like to be
hearing from you from time to time through some of these media: telephone, email, a letter or snail
mail, face to face meeting when you are in Lusaka.
My email: kkayombo@zcas.edu.zm
My contact cell phone numbers:
+ 260 978886879
ZCAS DETAILS
Zambia Centre for Accountancy Studies
Dedan Kimathi Road, P.O. Box 35243, Lusaka, Zambia,
Tel: + 260 211 232093/5, Fax: + 260 211 222542,

Email: zcas@zamnet.zm, information@zcas.edu.zm
Website: www.zcas.ac.zm
ROADMAP OF UNITS:
UNIT 1 Note-taking
UNIT 2 Oral communications
UNIT 3 Written communication
UNIT 4 Report writing
UNIT 5 Syntax-tenses, sentences, parts of speech
UNIT 6 Syntax- idioms, paradoxes, figures of speech, poetry
UNIT 7 Comprehension and summary writing
UNIT 8 Referencing methods - APA (American Psychological Association), Harvard Style,

Chicago Style, MLA
UNIT 1 SECTION 1 NOTE-TAKING (LECTURE)
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Welcome to the first Unit on Note-taking. You will learn how to take down notes at a lecture, from
your own readings and research, and from the internet, if you have computer access. Taking down
notes requires some skill which will help you immensely in your studies because we cannot
remember all the salient points we garner from books or hear from people. Confucius, an old
Chinese philosopher, once said, „What I hear, I may forget, what I see, I may not remember, but
what I do, I will not forget, as I master it.‟ This applies a lot to taking down notes.
1.2 AIM

This Unit should equip you to be well-informed on how to undertake rigorous research towards
academic excellence and scholarship.
1.3 OBJECTIVES
1. You should be able to take down key points at a lecture

2. You should be able to compile your own notes in an organised manner
3. You should be able to gain deeper understanding in identifying and
selecting relevant points from a media source, and processing it into an
enduring understanding
4. You should be able to develop good listening skills, understand body
language and handle it effectively
Supplementary Reading
1 Cottrell, S. (2008) The study skills handbook. (3rd ed.) Basingstoke:

Palgrave Macmillan Ltd
2. Evans, D.W. 2000 (2nd ed.). People, Communication and Organisations London: Longman
3 Kaul, A. (2003) Business Communication New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India
4 Stanton, N.M. (1996) Mastering Communication (3rd ed)
Time required: 180 hours
1.4 Why do you have to take notes? When is it necessary to take notes? How should you take
effective notes? Where should you keep your notes? When will you need your notes? Who will be
interested in your notes?
These questions may be going on in your mind, and it is now my duty to point out to you the need
and importance of note-taking. You will experience a lecture mode of teaching when you come for
your residential part of your programme, or whenever any of your lecturers visits you at your
provincial hub.
1.5 How to take notes during lectures
A lecture is a formal presentation done in a regular classroom or lecture theatre in a school or

university setting. Before the lecture, you may have been given a course outline or reading list or
some hand-outs. Read them beforehand or better still, research on the topic to be covered so that

you become conversant with the theme of the lecture. Carry your notepad and pens and pencils
along. Some students even carry recording equipment along such as cell phones.
However, it is recommended for you to be an active listener and participant at a lecture. Arrive at
the lecture venue on time, ahead of the lecturer to secure a comfortable place closer to the front.
During the lecture, listen to the introduction and note down the title given by the lecturer. Record
the date, name of the lecturer and course code. Lecture notes can be written in three ways,
namely diagrammatic, linear, and patterned (NCC Education, 2002). For diagrammatic, you use a
diagram to compile the notes.
A linear format requires sub-headings such as introduction, main points, examples, observations,
conclusions, among others. A patterned approach is the one usually found with science students
who follow rigid and prescribed methods of writing notes. During the lecture, maintain eye contact
with the lecturer and avoid being distracted by other things. Concentrate on the key points and
summarise them in your own words as briefly as possible. Do not record everything verbatim or
word for word. Listen attentively and follow the trend of what is said, and record it in your own
words in your notebook, in a paraphrased and summarised manner.
You should record only key ideas and concepts and avoid examples. Devise your own
shorthand. You may use mind maps, icons and diagrams to capture ideas. Ask questions or seek
clarification if you are unclear about any point. In summarising in your own words, be precise, brief
and legible in your handwriting. You should leave blank spaces to fill in later with new points
unearthed during research.
You should ensure that your notes are well-organised and accurate in detail. You should take note
of details of reference sources mentioned by your lecturer as regards name of author, title of book
or article, date of publication, among other details. Above all, you should note always that taking
good notes requires you to develop good listening skills, which involves being an active participant
in the lesson. You should avoid your mind wandering about, among others. If you are a slow
writer, sit near someone you can refer to, but ensure you do not disturb him or her very much.
1.6 Activity 1
1. Assume you are the lecturer. What advice would you give to a distance
learner like yourself, concerning how to take notes at a lecture?

2. Give 6 reasons why it is important to take down notes at a lecture.
3. What colour of ink should you use in recording notes and doing your
assignments? Is it right to use a pencil to take down notes or to write
with a pen which gives a faint replica of blue or black? The deeper the
colour, the better it is for you and me. Better stick with black pens. Red
pens are for teachers to grade students‟ work; green is for accountants
and auditors, among other colour codes. Students should confine
themselves to writing with deep blue and black pens. Nothing more,
nothing less. Your teacher or examiner may have eyesight problems,
and you are likely to fail your coursework or final exams for writing with
pens which render your work illegible or unreadable to your esteemed
teachers, lecturers and examiners.
1.7 Self-evaluation
Write a SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats) of yourself in terms of things

which interest and hold your attention, and the things which put you off (things you do best and
things you do badly), opportunities open to you now as an undergraduate doing distance
education, and the threats to your progress on the academic ladder.
STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES OPPORTUNITIES THREATS

 How should you conduct yourself overall in order to achieve your tertiary education goals?
 Who is your role model or mentor?
1.8 Self-Reflection:
Why do some students find it hard to follow what is being delivered at a lecture?

In the past, did you come across any lecturer who made you hate his or her delivery style?
How did you cope at that time?
Have you learnt anything new in this section? List down 10 things you have learnt.
1.9 UNIT 1 SECTION 2 NOTE-TAKING (BOOKS)
You should be aware that as a distance-learner, you need to be resourceful and to conduct a lot of
research on your own from different books and journals. You can borrow books from libraries,
friends and well-wishers. You can even make notes from this Introduction to English Module, and
from the prescribed and recommended books for this module.
You should develop good habits of getting the best from all the books at your disposal, because
you may not have the books for keeps or they may be bulky to read when examinations are close
by, and you are hard up on time. So knowing how to make notes is crucial to your passing your
exams with flying colours. Your notes are much easier to read as they are written in your own
handwriting. Besides, they are highly condensed notes for easy digestion.

Some of the best ways to know how to make notes from books are: to understand the
configuration and structure of books; know which books are ideal for a particular assignment;
know how to fish for relevant information expeditiously; how to select the relevant pages to read;
how to skim or rapidly glance and glean through a book; how to signpost or bookmark a relevant
part of a book, among others. Books are highly organised sources of information and knowledge.
First, know what you want and where to find what you want in a book. Know the title of the book,
read the excerpts of the book or its summary in the blurb at the back of the book. Read the
preface of the book to know some authorities who have endorsed it.
Read the abstract, table of contents and the forward to gain an idea of the audience or target
group of the book. If you want something specific, use the index at the back showing key terms
and words or check the glossary of terms.
Chapter headings and sub-sections and sub-headers can give you a clue of the information you
are looking for. Highlight main points or use a pencil to make notes on the margins of paragraphs,
or to underline key points. However, do not deface books because they are valuable resources
which your children and others may inherit and use. Beware of copying whole sections of books
word for word without acknowledging their sources or authors.
If you do that, you may commit what is popularly known as plagiarism or intellectual theft. You
should first read a page or pages and note the key points in annotated form or sketchy form,
before you flesh them out in your notes in a well organised manner. Reflect deeply on what you
read, and critically evaluate what you read. Get the understanding first before you form your notes.
Pay attention to diagrams and tables which often summarise particular points of discussion. When
reading a book, always have a jotter or rough notepad to jot down new words, new ideas, sources
of reference, among other things.
Finally, try to reconcile your notes gathered from books with the information which you have
received from your modules, by comparing and contrasting them. Do not depend on only one
author. Check for current editions of books published because the more current the edition, the
better it is. We want to see the breadth, depth and scope of your research from the variety of
authors you consult, and the currency or how recent those published editions are
1.10 Activity 2.
a. List 4 ways which help you locate information in books

b. How can we extend the lifespan of books?
c. Which of these items in the list below are not needed for referencing a book?
Year of publication
Author‟s name
Publisher‟s name
City of publication
Colour of the book
Table of figures in the book
Blurb
1.11 UNIT 1 SECTION 3 NOTE-TAKING (INTERNET)
Some of you may have internet connectivity where you are, while others may be in
remote areas where the internet service is absent. Notwithstanding the absence of
internet service in your area, we assume that one day, the service will be extended
to your area, or that from time to time, you may have the chance to travel out to
areas which have internet cafes or internet which you can access on your laptop or
cell phone or the other appliances such as tablets and e-books.
The internet is a vast electronic resource with millions of computers connected

worldwide to many e-libraries in the world. However, not all data or resource online is
trustworthy. Therefore, when researching on the internet, be very selective of the
sites you visit or browse. You may surf on many sites, some of which have things
popping up on the screen or monitor to distract your attention.
There could be hyperlinks superimposed on the site you are viewing, and clicking on
them can lead you further and further away from your target or initial goal. You need
discipline and high levels of focus to stay on course. You should have your storage

devise available to download and save some material which you can signpost or
bookmark or send to your email address for future retrieval.
Be very careful because the internet is addictive and a huge maze and nest of
trouble if you do not know how to utilise it properly. If you get to a secure site, such
as some of the online journals, you may be asked to pay with your visa card before
you view some information. This is called pay-per-view (PPV). You should ignore
such sites because there are billions or trillions of alternative sites which are free.
We have open courseware libraries where you are free to download and store as
much information as possible. All you need to do is to carry a storage medium such
as a flash drive or CD to store the data you want. Make sure to scan your flash drive
for computer viruses or you have to format it or a new CD before you use them. I
need not belabour you with ICT issues since you will be taught some skills in it in
other modules.
Taking notes from electronic or internet sources is the same as taking notes from
books, except that here, you have to note the URL or the universal resource locater,
which you can see by checking the space for typing in your search names. Also, you
should include date of access of the data in your referencing or in-text citation. You
can also bookmark some sites so that in future you can return to them. Another
alternative is to go to file and save those pages either in your documents or desktop
or library.
1.12 Activity 3
a. How do you think your lecturer managed to draw the two charts below this page?
b. How much information can we access on the computer?
c. What precautions should you take when researching for information on the internet?
d. Name some computer input, output, storage and peripheral devices
e. How can you trust a site you visit on the computer?
f. Is it true that those who depend on the internet sources for research do far much
better in examinations?
g. Why is the computer good and bad at the same time for learners like you?
h. What are the merits and demerits of using ICT at your workplace?
i. How should we safeguard or protect sensitive information pertaining to our clients or
customers?
j. Who is a database administrator and what are his functions?
k. What is meant by hardware and software?

l. What are computer peripherals, or input and output devices?
Figure 1
Pie Chart showing sectors of a market
Sales
1st Qtr
2nd Qtr
3rd Qtr
4th Qtr
Figure 2
Percentages of sales of car series in 4 companies

100%
90%
80%
70%
60% Series 3
50% Series 2
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4
1.13 UNIT1 SUMMARY
In this unit, I am sure you have learnt something useful towards improving your study and
psycho-social skills. What I have shared with you in UNIT 1 on how to take notes is over-
arching, or has relevance to all the courses you will be taking in this undergraduate
programme. It is a life-long skill which will come in handy even when you are working and you
attend meetings or conduct interviews for potential employees.
Note-taking requires good listening skills of focusing and being ready with your pen and jotter
to note down important points. Your notes should be well organised, sign-posted and suitably
labelled with headings and sub-headings. Be selective of what you write, and do not copy ditto
ditto or word for word or else you fall into the trap of plagiarism. First look for a right source and
read it several times to summarise in your own words the key or salient points.
Be precise when you paraphrase in your own words. Acknowledge sources where you get your
information by noting name of author, year of publication, title of book or article, name of
publisher, and city of publication. You may use mind-maps or diagrams to capture salient
points made at a lecture, or pay attention to diagrams and tables of figures which summarise
key issues discussed in a book or article. These must also be acknowledged.
You can use linear, diagrammatic, and patterned methods of note-taking. After a lecture, read
a variety of books or sources on the topic for you to fill in the knowledge gaps. If possible,

consult current editions of books where information has been updated and refined through
further research. Books are invaluable or priceless assets so do not deface them or make them
unusable for other users. Use pencil to underscore or underline key facts in a book. When
using the internet, do not get distracted by pop-ups and hyperlinks, some of which can get you
lost in cyber-space.
In conclusion, note that English is our second language, so we may not understand all the
words, phrases and figures of speech used in a book. Therefore, you should always have a
good dictionary handy to refer to any time you encounter a new word or expression. I
personally recommend the Advanced Learners‟ Oxford English Dictionary or Merriam-
Webster‟s 21st Century Millennium Dictionary. Any other advanced dictionary will also do.
In UNIT 2, we shall explore the wide topic area of business communication in terms of Oral
communication, Body language, Symbols, Audio or Aural, Visual, Para-linguistics, and Sign
language. These are all interconnected and intertwined. Enjoy the ride.
UNIT 2 ORAL COMMUNICATION
2.1 INTRODUCTION
What is oral communication? What form does it take? Is oral communication the same as other
forms of communication? Has it got some merits and demerits? When is it appropriate to
engage in oral communication? What is involved in oral communication? Can oral
communication stand alone? Between men and women, who are better at it?
Oral communication includes face-to-face encounters at meetings, having informal chats,

delivering a speech, conducting interviews, offering counselling sessions, engaging in dialogue
in negotiations, and conflict resolution, among others. It also includes talking on the telephone
or cell phone, during a video conference, or being involved in a panel or focal group
discussion, or during a public presentation, using power-point slides, flip charts, among others.
The way we talk is quite different from the way we engage in formal writing. In oral
communication, we adopt colloquialism and a chatty manner, which is friendly and very
informal. We may use a lot of slang or jargon, informal forms such as contractions, among
others. We may use spoken forms such as it‟s for it is, we‟ve, I‟ll, wouldn‟t, shan‟t, etc. Mind
you, these forms must be written out in full in formal writing, except in reported speech, novels
and other works of art such as drama or poetry.
Oral means spoken, while the word aural or auditory means hearing or listening to something.
The two go hand in hand because the speaker must have an audience. Oral communication is
fast and direct, as it gives instant feedback. We reinforce and supplement oral communication
with body language such as kinesics, proxemics, chronemics, gestures, facial expressions,
para-linguistics, gesticulations, body posture, and eye contact. In fact, oral, aural, visual and
body communications go together. This is because as we speak, we see each other, hear each
other, and feel each other through body language. Oral communication is very effective

because you express your feelings and emotions, and above all, employ your inter-personal
skills of handling relationships. Women are generally better than men in oral communication,
as they can use their charm, vivacity, and personality to persuade people to accept their point
of view.
2.2 AIM
The aim of this unit is to make you aware of the importance of oral communication, and how to
make it effective.
2.3 OBJECTIVES
1. To demonstrate how oral communication can be made effective in

solving inter-personal and inter-group problems
2. To demonstrate how oral communication can be combined with other
forms of communication to reinforce overall communication
3. To impart skills of efficiency in oral communication as a tool of
persuasion
4. To identify and discuss effective methods of questioning
5. To understand the principles of effective communication and
appreciate barriers to communication
6. To explain how to hold meetings, conferences and interviews
2.4 Effective Questioning
Lawyers, teachers, journalists, counsellors, doctors, pharmacists, policemen, auditors,

caterers, business people, planners, and other professionals do a lot of questioning in their day-to-
day work. It is imperative for every academician to develop critical thinking skills, and to know how
to frame questions correctly, when to put the questions, how to handle the questioning process
without sounding offensive or intrusive, how to direct questions to catch people off guard, how to
be diplomatic, courteous, psychological, and witty in questioning people, how to use questions to
probe deeper into an issue so as to unearth the truth and excavate new knowledge, among others.
When we ask questions, we get answers. The famous Greek philosopher, Socrates, taught his
tutees and mentors by questioning them vigorously and persistently, thereby helping them to
develop their own critical thinking faculties, and answering their own questions. We gain
knowledge through logical reasoning and the process of self-doubt, introspection or self-
examination. Self-knowledge is important as it leads us to explore the outer world to confirm or
revise our knowledge which may rest on false premises, assumptions and presumptions. We gain
knowledge through intuition, deduction, induction, experimenting, experience, through our five
senses, critical observation, negation or playing the role of the devil‟s advocate, prophecy, divine
revelation, sharing, interactivity or exchange, or academic intercourse through the cross
fertilisation of ideas at seminars and workshops, where we brainstorm and critique ideas put
forward by others.
However, we should ask intelligent questions in order not to sound dull or to embarrass ourselves
in public. To ask the right questions, we must develop good listening skills when someone is
talking, so that we do not misquote them or paraphrase their ideas wrongly, or judge them
wrongly. We should ask questions in order to quench our thirst for knowledge. We should always
think deep before we ask questions. We can use the words WHAT, WHICH, WHY, WHERE,
WHEN, WHO, HOW and WHOM to form questions. Here, we can research on Edward de Bono‟s
idea of wearing six hats or lateral thinking, which enjoins us to approach issues from many
perspectives and not in a linear fashion.
To sound polite, we should use words and phrases like, „Would you please enlighten me on the
concept? Could you please go over that point again? „If you wouldn‟t mind, could I ask you to
repeat that point? If I‟m not mistaken, did you mean that water finds its own level? Have you by
any chance come across my friend anywhere? If it wouldn‟t inconvenience you, could you please
spare me a moment to talk to you? What would you say is the most crucial part of the operation? If
you saw a house on fire, what would be your first reaction? If you hadn‟t gone there, what would
you have done at home? (a hypothetical question) You cut the tree down, didn‟t you? You cut the
tree down, did you?‟(Sarcasm) We must learn the right question tags to use at every situation. e.g.
„You saw him crossing the road, didn‟t you? (Past continuous tense) „You saw him cross the road,
did you? (Sarcasm and Past perfect tense)
Some questions are rhetorically asked in church or in public by the preacher man, or by the
politician at rallies, and they are not meant to be answered. For example, „Which of you seated
here ( or sitting here) today can confess he or she has never told a lie? Or, „It was to be, was it?
„When the going was rough and tough, and men were men, where were some of you in the
political foray, when we fought street battles with police, in what Super Ken dubbed, „cha cha
cha‟?‟
Points on how to ask effective questions:
 Let your question be straightforward to the point

 Do not confuse yourself or the interviewee with long and winding questions
 Do not ask a question within a question
 Show confidence in yourself and maintain eye contact with the interviewee/speaker
 Do not look intimidating in the way you question
 Ask one question at a time
 Do not sound rude or impetuous
 Do not precede your question with long statements
 Avoid showing off or showboating by using high-falutin or bombastic words
 Better still, you can write down your question and read it, ensuring your voice is well
projected to be heard distinctly and clearly
 Speak coherently and loud enough to be heard
 Pay attention to answers given to other questions by the speaker
 Give chance to others to ask questions, as we are in a democracy
 Avoid leading questions which have obvious answers
 Vary your approach to questioning, so that you do not sound boring
 If a question is not very clearly put, perhaps you could rephrase it in another way for
it to be more meaningful
 If the speaker does not answer your question to your satisfaction, seek more
clarification there and then, or wait to conduct research later on, on your own.
 Time yourself properly to know when to ask a question during a speech, without
interrupting the speaker‟s train of thought, pace or flow of delivery.
2.5 Activity
1. Form a question each, which you think each of the following

professionals will put to their clients or audiences: lawyers,
teachers, journalists, counsellors, doctors, pharmacists, policemen,
auditors, caterers, business people, planners
2. Formulate questions using: WHAT, WHICH, WHY, WHERE,
WHEN, WHO, HOW and WHOM
3. What are rhetoric questions?
4. List the sources of knowledge mentioned earlier on by the author in
the above passage.
5. Who was Socrates? Which other person do you know of in history
who taught by asking questions?
6. How should we approach the way we ask questions without
sounding intrusive, offensive, boring and embarrassing?
7. Who was Edward de Bono? What is the difference between lateral
and linear thinking?
8. What does it take to be a critical thinker?
9. What is the scientific method in the theory of knowledge?
10. See what you can find online by googling the following people
connected with the scientific method: Lakatos, Karl Popper,
Thomas Kuhn, John Locke, Francis Bacon
11. Why are people like Copernicus, Galiliel Galileo, and Johan Kepler
important to us today?
12. What is rote learning? Does it add any value in the extension of the
frontiers of knowledge? When is it useful or in what subject areas
can we employ rote learning?
13. What were the contributions of Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein to
mathematics and physics?

14. Why do you think the Americans Thomas Edison, Henry Ford and
Benjamin Franklin are held in high esteem today?
Who was the Italian, Guglielmo Marconi?
15. Gauss, Pascal, Euler, Archimedes, Euclid, von Neuman, Leibniz,
and Rene Descartes, among others, were famous for what?
2.6 Self Evaluation
What have you learnt in this section? Are you sure from now on, you can feel confident to ask
questions in public? Are you timid, shy and withdrawn? Learn to be assertive, outgoing, open-
minded and inquisitive. Also be creative and imaginative in order to develop your critical thinking
faculties.
2.7 Self Reflection
Complete the following sentences with appropriate question tags.
1. Weren‟t you aware that you were to wear the school jersey to school
today? No, ……….. Yes,………….
2. Ought you to give to charity, if you have nothing to give?
Yes,………… Of course, ……….
3. If wishes were horses, would beggars ride? Yes, …….. No,
they………….
4. If you hadn‟t provoked the girl, she wouldn‟t have insulted you?
Would………….
5. Have you had your fill of the sumptuous meal? No,……… Of
course,…………
6. Does it take a whole hour to fry an omelette? No,………….
Yes,………..
7. Today is Friday, is………….?
8. You boys ought to give the bright idea a thought, ought…….
…………?
9. Shakespeare wrote, „To err is human, to forgive is divine.‟
Did…………?
10. Many years ago, Galiliel Galileo proved that the sun is the centre of
our universe, did ………….?
Supplementary reading:
Allen, W.S., (1974). Living English Structure London: Longman
Best, W. D., (1956).The Student’s Companion London: Longman
Eckersley, C.E. (1960). Comprehensive English Grammar Boston: Addison Wesley
Evans, D.W. 2000 (2nd ed.). People, Communication and Organisations London: Longman
Fitikides, T.J., (2002). Common Mistakes in English London: Pearson Education Ltd
Gowers, E. (2012). The Complete Plain Words
Lamb, G.F., and Fitz-Hugh, (1960). Precis and Comprehension for General Certificate (Ordinary
Level) London: George G. Harrap and Co. Ltd.
McIver, A., (2004). The New First Aid in English (2nd Edition) ISBN: 9780881326277
Ogundipe, P.A. and Tregido , P.S. (1965 ) Practical English Book 5 -English for the Certificate
London: Longmans
2.7 Public presentations and speaking skills
A public presentation is either a prepared speech or lecture given in public on a theme, using
power-point slides or flip charts, or speaking extempore or off the cuff, without prior preparation
(impromptu speech). It is a form of public sharing and engagement, whereby a speaker sells and
shares a seminal or original idea, or speaks on a topic of which he or she is an authority or expert.
Some people who are timid develop stage-fright and cold feet when asked to speak in front of an
audience or crowd. Speaking in public to a large gathering requires an art and it is a craft. Most
accomplished public speakers know a lot about mob psychology, and how to manage and
manipulate crowds by using mob psychology, and working on them to win them to your point of
view. You should know your audience, what their backgrounds are, their values and expectations,
their leanings, their gender, average age, social class, average levels of educational attainment,
among others. You should know how to deliver your speech in a flawless manner, showing a lot of
self-control, self-confidence, gusto, and competence over the subject. In short, know your onions,
be savvy, au fait and articulate.

Show your grasp of the topic by giving personal anecdotes, be humorous, draw on analogies and
personal encounters, draw on some powerful quotes of famous writers, and above all, pace your
speech delivery within the allotted time, neither so slowly nor very fast-paced. Involve the
audience and maintain eye contact with everyone. Build rapport with the audience through active
engagement such as asking rhetorical questions. Intensely engage your audience and never let
them have a dull moment.
Study their body language and respond by using your own body language to reinforce your points
of view. Project your voice to carry far, but do not scream. Speak clearly and in an animated and
modulated voice. Pay attention to enunciation, pronunciation, and elocution. Use your observatory
faculties to know when to pause to allow for feedback or questions from the audience. Use
repetition to emphasise some important points but do not overdo it. Structure your delivery in parts
so that the speech flows sequentially, naturally, and logically. Before the presentation, do thorough
research on the topic by reading current scholarship on the topic, and read widely on the topic to
gain depth, breadth and deep insight. Keep the topic in focus all the time. At the end of your
delivery, summarise the key points for emphasis and recapitulation. Do not speak above or below
the level of your target audience.
Before the lecture or speech, talk to knowledgeable people on the topic. You could have guiding
notes to refer to during the lecture, but do not read too much from your prepared notes, unless you
are delivering a technical paper to an academic audience which requires masses of figures, facts
and references. Use different modes of intonation to make your delivery interesting. Use a lot of
gestures, gesticulations, voice inflexion, pregnant pauses, loud silences, and other devices to
drive home your message, and to make an indelible impact on your audience. Some theatrics
could do, but avoid playing too much to the gallery, as that may mark you out as a cheap populist
or pamphleteer.
Do not pace to and fro in front of your audience to distract their attention. Neither should you stand
before them with your hands in your pocket, nor stand akimbo. Mind the ethics of dealing with
people, and respect their privacy, confidentiality, their gender, their rights of conscience, and
respect your audience, as respect begets respect. If you criticise, be balanced by not taking sides.
Sometimes, leave your audience in suspense and let them draw their own conclusions by not
sailing too close to the wind or into the eye of the storm. Be sincere and honest to admit that you
do not know certain things when you are questioned later by the audience.
Show your humanity, humility and humour, as well as academic honesty. Be civil. Mind your
dressing to suit the occasion. Before the lecture, visit the venue of the lecture to test the public
address (PA) system and your power-point presentation to ensure that there are no technical
glitches during your presentation. You could make some back-up arrangements on power supply
or alternate presentation mode. You could make some extra copies of your speech, in case some
journalists ask you to give them copies or your host asks you to give them copies.
Remember always that in front of an audience, you are in control, and if people heckle or boo
you, you should take the flak within your stride and carry on. Above all, be generous to your
audience and flatter them for their cooperation and how privileged you are for them to honour you
with their presence, despite their heavy schedules. Thank them profusely at the end of your
presentation. Remember also to thank the hosts and event organisers, as well as those backroom

people who assisted you in one way or another. Always create room for feedback, so you may
gauge how attentively the audience listened, and learn one or two lessons from them for your
future improvement.
2.8 Activity.
1. What preparation should you do before a public presentation?
2. How should you behave during your presentation?
3. In what way should you engage your audience during the presentation?
4. Should you carry with you copiously prepared notes to read from?
5. Why do you think some people dread public presentations?
6. What do you think are the attributes of a good public speaker?
7. What is meant by mob psychology? What is the Abilene paradox?
8. Why are some speakers booed, jeered, heckled and called names?
9. What is mirror speech practice? What is narcissism?
10. What are these? Monologue, dialogue, ventriloquism, glossolalia, soliloquy,

obloquy, sedition, libel, treason, oration, erudition, guillotine, filibuster, calumny, insinuation,
homily, seminal idea, debut speech, valedictory speech, acceptance speech, eulogy,
parliamentary language, Robert‟s Rules of Meetings
2.9 Preparing for meetings, seminars, conferences and interviews
2.9.1 Preparing for Meetings
A meeting can be scheduled or unscheduled. Unscheduled meetings are impromptu or ad hoc,

and may be occasioned by some pressing emergencies. A meeting is a forum for planning,
exchanging ideas, resolving issues, and engaging in discussions. All meetings are to be carried
out expeditiously in a professional and business-like manner. Meetings should be controlled to
achieve their objectives. Therefore, they need a chairperson who is fair, firm, impartial, and
knowledgeable about how to conduct successful meetings. Meetings are to be orderly, peaceful
and productive. Long meetings are to be avoided as they may be unproductive and time wasting.

If a meeting is properly planned, it should not take too long a time. The chairperson should ensure
strict adherence to agenda items.
He or she should use his tact and diplomacy to steer the meeting by using their power of guillotine
to curtail long drawn out debates and should ensure equity and democracy. However, his or her
sense of proper judgement and discretion should be exercised to control the meeting. The by-laws
and constitution should be the guiding principles for holding meetings with regard to what
constitutes a proper and legally binding meeting, which is properly convened by notice circulated
to all members in good standing, minimum number of attendees required to form a quorum,
recording of minutes and manner of endorsement and adoption through a proposer and seconder,
among other things.
The manual, Robert’s Rules of Order (1876), is a standard manual which can be found online.
Attendees must always address the chair and they should have his or her permission to address
the house by taking the floor. While a member is on the floor, others must observe decorum of
orderly meetings by not heckling, booing, jeering or disturbing the speaker. However, if the
speaker is out of order, a point of order or interjection can be raised. The speaker should not
engage in tortile and annulus homilies or speeches as it is always better to go straight to the point
rather than beating about the bush.
A speaker who is boring, insulting and out of topic may be filibustered or pressurised by
honourable members to stand down or exit the floor. It is said that respect begets respect, so
members should exude respect and they should carry themselves and conduct themselves with
dignity. They should at all times, use refined, urbane and civilised parliamentary language which
will not inflame passions and lead to chaos, pandemonium and kerfuffle. Whatever is said must be
said in a tactful, diplomatic, factual and less inflammatory tone. Speakers should avoid playing to
the gallery and also they should not waste honourable members‟ time with unnecessary
wisecracks and jokes because meetings are serious business events. This is because time is
money, and the opportunity cost concept equally applies here.
During meetings, elections may be held to ballot for new office bearers. All offices will be declared
vacant and prior to the meeting, the incumbent office bearers will have vacated their posts,
allowing prospective new office aspirants and candidates to hold their campaigns at rallies, selling
their manifestoes which outline their plan of action and beliefs. Incumbents may re-contest their
posts if they so wish, but in the interest of fair play and observing the tenets of good governance,
no third term in office is allowed. With political parties, they hold internal elections called primaries
to choose their presidential candidates or flag bearers. Campaigns cease a few days before
elections and on the day of elections, no party insignia or cadres should be found near polling
booths and stations because these can intimidate voters.
Political parties station their designated and accredited observers at polling stations to monitor the
conduct of elections alongside independent observers from non-partisan organisations. The
electoral laws and code should be observed by all the players as flouting them could constitute
breach of the law.
The electoral commission and its officers oversee arrangements for fair, free and peaceful
elections by arranging the safe printing and custody of ballot papers, logistics arrangements for
their distribution countrywide, among others. They are also entrusted with the whole conduct of
elections from the recruitment and training of returning officers to the counting of ballots and
declaring results in consonance with the statutes which establish and govern their office. They
may also provide evidence for nullifying election results if and when foul play is insinuated and
proved beyond any shadow of doubt.
Election malpractices to be guarded against include treating (bribery and corruption),

gerrymandering (manipulation of electoral boundaries to create duplication of voters), rigging
(stuffing ballot boxes with extra votes to favour a particular party, or doctoring and cooking the
election results), ghost voters, impersonation, horse trading, log-rolling, among others.
The records of meetings need to be carefully minuted and stored for future reference, such as
being tended in court to support the legality of actions taken. Decisions may be arrived at by open
ballot such as a show of hands or by voice vote by ayes (yesses) and nays (nos). Secret ballots
may be held by casting votes in ballot boxes. If a tie arises, the chairperson may decide the
deadlock or impasse or stalemate by a casting vote.
Election results may be decided on the basis of simple majority or first-past-the-post system
(British system in vogue in Zambia), or by overwhelming majority vote of 50% of votes cast plus
one. Where in the first round no candidate obtains this majority, the two leading contenders may
go for a re-run or second ballot. It is here that some deals may be struck with minority parties
whose members have floating votes. This may lead to the formation of alliances and coalitions.
References
Robert, H.M. (1876) Robert’s Rules of Order 1st Edition De Capo online
www.rulesonline.com/rror-10.htm
Robert, H.M. (2011) Robert’s Rule of Order 11th Edition (Revised) USA
2.9.2 Preparing for seminars
A seminar is a forum for people to interact and share ideas. Here, people with seminal ideas or
brain child give birth to their seminal ideas before experts, and through criticism and probing, they
gain more insights to refine their ideas. It is a place to sow and germinate ideas.
Before a seminar, you prepare the venue by planning ahead with the seating arrangement. You
may choose a horseshoe formation or have clusters of round tables for group working. Some
seminars are just a series of presentations by experts and specialists on a thematic issue such as,
„Gender-Based Violence-Causes, effects and methods of abating it‟.

The presenters will approach the theme from different angles, and the seminar can be held in a
hotel, lodge, holiday resort or any cosy location to combine leisure, pleasure and work at the same
time for workers who normally have tight and stressful work schedules, such as those who work in
financial institutions, auditing and accounting firms, banks, International Governmental Institutions,
Universities, media houses, printing and publishing companies, hospitality industries, health care,
manufacturing, logistics, security services, legislature, judiciary, administration and policy
planning, emergency services, among others.
Facilitators of seminars have to know in advance the number of participants or attendees for their
planning purposes in terms of stationery to provide, accommodation, boarding and lodging,
presentation equipment to provide such as whiteboards, flipcharts, markers, power-point
projectors, laptops, pointers, among others. Seminars could be structured to have two
presentations in the morning with mid-morning coffee/tea breaks. Question- and- answer sessions
could follow each presentation. Group discussions and assignments could also follow, with the
presenters going round as facilitators. A seminar could run from one day to a few days. During
seminars, the key point is to have maximum engagement of participants through activities,
questions, exercises and interactive group activities.
2.9.3 Preparing for conferences
Conferences can be local or international. Before a conference, preparations of intense and

meticulous nature have to be carried out by committees who should have clear functions assigned
to them. There should be a coordinator to monitor their progress and also to update them to avoid
duplication of functions and waste of resources. These committees should not leave any stone
unturned. Delegates and delegations have to be registered and accredited by obtaining all the visa
and health requirements for travel. The organisers of the conference have to obtain clearance
certificates and permits from the local council, police and foreign affairs ministry.
Delegates from abroad have to make arrangements to obtain their travelling documents such as
passports, visas, health certificates and letters of invitation. Their inoculation has to be done from
WHO accredited centres, or the health centres in their countries, and their foreign exchange needs
should be sorted out with their bankers or bureaux de change. They need to research on the
country they are going to, to know their culture, legal requirements, nuances and idiosyncrasies.
The conference organisers have to arrange reception parties to receive conference delegates at
the airports and escort them to their hotels. They need to arrange transport, tour guides, and
provide lists of expected delegates to the immigration and customs authorities. These guides
ought to be trained in courtesy, etiquette, and ways of being supportive and cordial.
Security arrangements have to be made with the security wings of government or private security
wings to give the delegates cover. Also name tags have to be made for each delegate to wear
throughout the conference, showing their names and countries. Help desks and enquiry or
information desks should be set up at vantage points at the conference centre to assist conferees
who need assistance and guidance. In certain situations, high ranking government officials may be
received by their counterparts of the host government.
Here, protocol and order of hierarchy or seniority has to be followed. The conference venue has to
be prepared with decorations and banners befitting and depicting the conferees and their national

colours and identities. Some attendees could be speaking different languages, so arrangements
have to be made to have interpreters and translators, with appropriate intercom equipment such
as microphones, giant TV screens, and power point projectors installed. It is important to pay
attention to sanitary conditions such as providing litter bins at vantage positions. Some
conferences could hold thousands of delegates in public places such as national stadia. Here,
mobile toilets could be set up.
The public address systems should be set up at the conference hall, where décor and ambience
should be up to standard. Speakers should have been selectively identified and informed in
advance to prepare their speeches, which should capture the theme of the conference. They
should carry out thorough research with current data depicted from a broad spectrum of sources.
Their speeches should be tailor-made to suit their audiences. This means that they should have
an idea of the background of attendees, and the specific thematic areas to address in their
presentations.
They should send advance copies of their speeches to the organisers so as to circulate to the
media houses and also to vet to avoid any embarrassment to any visiting dignitary. The first day of
the conference will be for registration and plenary session of welcoming delegates. Thereafter,
delegates could be sent into working in sub-committees or working groups. On the final day, they
again assemble as a full house to hear conference deliberations, resolutions and communiqué
issued to the media as upshot or outcome of the conference.
Speakers at conferences have to be diplomatic, circumspect, and politically correct, and they
should avoid offending the sensibilities and sensitivities of some delegations, which if it does
happen, could flare up into diplomatic rows. Conferences often make arrangements for local
entertainment groups and ensemble to entertain guests. Sight-seeing tours could also be
arranged into the bargain, to give conferees from abroad a taste of the local heritage and natural
endowments. At the end of the conference, a sample of attendees could be interviewed for their
reflections and impressions of proceedings for the purpose of improving future conference plans.
2.9.4 Preparing for interviews
An interview is a process of assessment and selection of candidates to fill job positions, or it could
be a means of hearing from aggrieved parties who have complaints, or a means of gathering data
for a research. Some interviews are held to know the views of people on certain issues.
Employers, security agents, educational institutions, counsellors, service providers, journalists,

investigators, lawyers, scientists and researchers, among others, hold interviews for their potential
employees, victims, clients, students, customers, patients and all those who are competing for
limited availability of goods, services and opportunities. A lot of communication skills are employed
at interviews, including listening, body language, audio, visual and para-linguistics. One needs a
great deal of interpersonal skills and personal charm in successfully handling interviews.
An interview is a serious business which should be held in serene and noiseless environments.
The venue, time and what to bring along should be communicated in good time to shortlisted
interviewees. The interviewers or interrogators should be proactive and prepare in advance which
questions to put to interviewees. If it is a panel interview made up of say five or six people, they
should share among themselves which areas they will focus on in interviewing candidates. If the

panel is a job recruitment panel, it may probably be made up of the Human Resource Manager,
the Line Manager where the potential recruit is likely to work, the Finance Director, an independent
consultant from an assessment centre (a psychologist), the Company Solicitor or Lawyer, among
others.
They should plan ahead how long they will roughly spend on each candidate and also agree
beforehand the criteria they will be using to score candidates. This is to ensure uniformity and to
avoid bias or subjectivity. Interviews could also be conducted in a series, whereby candidates
have one-on-one with different interviewers at different times. We also have practical hands-on
interviews, whereby candidates have to perform actual practical work such as typing documents or
doing in-basket assignments such as resolving outstanding problems waiting to be resolved in in-
trays.
Prospective football signees of a club may be put through their paces by being made to play actual
games and being assessed on their strengths and weaknesses. Interviews could also be group
interviews whereby interviewees are made to take part in group activities to observe their
leadership abilities, emotional and social intelligence, among others.
The interviewers should put the candidate at ease and not to intimidate them. Of course, it will
depend on the situation and the sort of issue at stake. Psychology has to be applied to let
candidates tell the truth, and they should have documents to back their claims, such as
testimonials, certificates, references, job histories, medical reports and CVs. The interviewers
should have folders containing details of the candidates, and they should be au fait or familiar with
each case history so that they can probe interviewees properly by grilling them to fathom and
plumb the depths of the truth.
The candidates should look well prepared and neat. Before the interview, they should have also
done their homework by researching on their prospective employer. A day or two before the
interview, they should have made a trip to see where the venue is. On the interview day, they
should make sure they arrive at the venue at least an hour before the scheduled time so that they
can settle down well.
They should maintain their composure by not panicking or being too tense. They should be polite
and maintain eye contact with the interviewer. They should listen carefully before they answer a
question put to them. They should answer questions precisely and truthfully. They should not feel
shy, timid or intimidated. They should speak distinctly and coherently with a lot of self -confidence.
They should be assertive, bold and courteous.
Interviewers are looking for intelligent and honest candidates to employ. At the end of the
interview, thank the panel or interviewer and if given the chance to ask questions, ask a few
simple questions that will not put off the interrogators. Those interrogating could be making mental
notes and later they could score candidates on some pre-determined criteria. Avoid bad
mannerisms of scratching your head or biting your fingernails or putting your hands in your pocket
or standing akimbo or picking your nose. Be your natural self at interviews by being composed and
relaxed.
Make sure you put up your best performance to impress the interviewers.

2.9.5 Activity
1. Think of 10 reasons why a meeting will be called at a workplace.
2. What does the book, Robert‟s Rules of Order, state about meetings?
3. Who qualifies to attend a meeting?
4. What are the roles of the following at meetings?
Chairperson, Treasurer, Secretary, Marshall, Usher, Publicity Secretary
3. Take time off one day and attend a meeting of any organisation of your choice to observe
how meetings are conducted. It could be an AGM of a church or a local NGO.
4. Plan a trip to pay a visit to the National Assembly to observe how parliamentary debates
are conducted.
5. What are verbal cues?
6. What should the planners of a conference bear in mind when planning for an international
conference?
7. Describe how seminars are organised.
8. Imagine you are appearing for a job interview tomorrow, write down 10 questions which
you think the interviewers will put to you.
9. How should you dress when appearing for an interview?
2.9.6 Self Evaluation
1. After reading this unit, how confident are you now when asked to do a power-point
presentation at a seminar or workshop?
2. How do you think you can develop your critical thinking skills?
3. How should you treat your audience or engage them?
4. How many hours a week should you devote to the study of English?
5. How often do you read a novel or magazine?
6. During group interactive discussions, how should you handle yourself and others?

2.9.7 Self Reflection
1. What bad manners do you think you have to do away with when engaged in oral
communication on the telephone or cell phone, or when listening to a speaker?
2. How should you pace yourself when delivering a speech?
3. What are the cardinal things you should pay attention to when delivering a speech?
4. Should a verbal presentation be done alone, or alongside audio-visual aids?
5. How will you hold the attention of your audience?
6. Oral communication goes with good listening skills. What are good listening skills?
8. How can improving your oral communication skills advance your career and make you better
interact with your colleagues and superiors at work?
9. What role does oral communication skills play in group discussions?
10. What are these? Enunciation, elocution, voice projection, mirror practice, diction, voice
modulation and inflexion, tactile communication, ventriloquism, soliloquy, dialogue, monologue,
diatribe, infra dig, argot, patois, jargon, formal and informal communication, parliamentary
language, received pronunciation, language interference, accent, diphthongs, vowels, consonants,
phonetics, phonology, reticence, garrulous, loquacious, verbosity, ambiguity, ambivalence,
colloquialism, word register, collocation
2.9.8 SUMMARY
This unit has exposed you to the situations when oral communication is used and the way to
handle oral communication. At meetings, conferences, lectures, speaking on the phone, among
other situations, we are presented with opportunities to use our oral communication skills. Oral
communication goes along with audio, visual and body language communication. When
communicating orally, learn how to utilise gestures, voice projection, and voice modulation, among
others. The tone of your voice should be regulated to convey moods, and to prevent monotony.
Oral communication is important for social bonding at work, resolving conflicts, and developing
personal relationships. When taking notes, avoid distractions and listen carefully, jotting down key
points, and asking questions for clarification. When giving a public presentation, get to know your
audience, prepare in advance by researching well on your topic, and ensure your equipment is
tested beforehand. Always show confidence when you are before your audience. Ensure your
delivery is smooth, well-paced and not dull. Add some humour, and engage your audience. Note
that the way you talk is different from the way you write, because we can be more informal whilst
talking than when writing. Choose your words carefully, and do not use words above the heads of
your audience. Finally, you should also realise that we use oral communication during counselling
sessions, interviews, and in negotiations. Here, you need to be assertive, and to develop good
listening skills.
References
Davies, J.W., 2001.Communication Skills - A Guide for Engineering and Applied Science
Students. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited (see pp. 117-135)
Kaul, A., 2003. Business Communication New Delhi: Prentice Hall (see pp. 35-122)
Lesikar, R.V., Flatley, M.E., and Rentz, K. 2008. Business Communications - Making Connections
in a digital world. New York: McGraw Hill
Rutherfoord, A.J., 2001. Basic Communication Skills for Technology New Delhi:Pearson
Education
Taylor, S. 2005. Communication for Business- A practical approach New Delhi: Pearson
Education Limited (see pp 27-44, pp. 224-245 and pp. 308-388)
Woolcott and Unwin. 1983. Mastering Business Communication London: Macmillan (see pp. 90-
147)
Williams, D. Communication for Business
UNIT 3 WRITTEN COMMUNICATION - CONTINUOUS WRITING, ESSAY OR COMPOSITION
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Continuous writing or essay or composition requires a lot of care and planning. First, you need to
understand the topic, pay attention to the key words in the topic set, and pay attention to the
rubrics or instructions attached to the question by the examiner, such as word limit, font size,
paragraphing, page numbering and numbering of sections of the essay, date of submission, style

of the font to be used such as Arial, Times New Roman, Calibri, and double spacing, among
others. Some universities have their own in-house rules and localised styles, so you must be well
versed and acquainted with the particular peculiarities, idiosyncrasies and nuances of your own
university, though there are universal constants in all these matters of style and presentation.
Essay writing is meant to test many facets of the student in terms of how widely read they are, and
how they can apply the knowledge they have acquired to varied situations, to show their versatility,
resilience and their ability to solve problems. Besides, your personality can be gauged from what
you write or what you profess to know, no wonder American universities subject their prospective
university students to a series of essays to fathom or assay their worth as golden prospects.
Essays require some amount of imagination, originality and some personal style. Therefore, it is
very preposterous and artificial to teach someone how to write excellent essays.
However, with our experience and guidance, we can point you along the golden path to success,
but the style and approach will always remain a personal endeavour of the student. Our aim is to
teach you how to fish, so to say, and not to give you a fish ad infinitum, ad nausea. There comes a
time when you will be adept in these things, and you will be untrammelled or will not be hemmed
in by rules and rigour. Until then, you must submit to being refined to remove the crudities of your
mind to avoid a recrudescence or recurrence of your old bad habits in English.
The format or organisation of the essay also matters. Format refers to design and structure or form
of the essay in terms of how it appears by way of organisation and aesthetic appeal. So art, form,
logical reasoning, beauty, and harmony cannot be left out of any work of composition. Combined
with these must be strength of arguments or factual content, which must be substantive and
convincing. Attention should particularly be paid to the contents or factual information adduced
therein as a matter of structural strength, in terms of references to factual information, figures and
charts put forward to substantiate your arguments, among others.
The essay should be well organised into an excellent piece of prose which is well sign-posted with
sections such as Introduction, Background, Definitions of key concepts, Main Body or Findings
and Analysis, Summary, and Conclusions. The essay must be written with greater attention to
detail, such as attention paid to correct spelling, correct use of words or choice of apt diction,
proper punctuation, variation in sentence patterns, with short simple sentences combined with
long compound and complex sentences, proper tenses, proper use of capital letters for proper
nouns, avoidance of repetition of trite facts, among others.
When you write an essay, you should aim at achieving some objectives such as sharing
knowledge, sharing some deep insights and displaying some passion, being humorous,
conveying ideas in new and imaginative ways, and above all, satisfying the requirements of the
examiner. Your style must be persuasive, acceptable and holistic or comprehensive. You should
reflect deeply on the topic before you set pen to paper. Make an impression on the reader by the
natural way you convey your thoughts. Pay attention particularly to punctuation and spelling. If in
doubt, consult the dictionary if you are not sure about the use of a word. If you are not sure of a
word, replace it with its synonym. This is where a thesaurus comes in handy. Also make sure your
handwriting is neat and legible. Your essay must stand out from the crowd to make an indelible
imprint on the mind of the reader.

Always be fair and write in a balanced rather than in a jaundiced and biased manner. Give both
sides of an argument in an impartial and objective manner, to show your maturity. An essay
should not turn into a bullet point listing or tabulation of points. It should depict your ability to write
in continuous prose, in which you analyse, probe issues, reflect, evaluate issues, discuss, explain,
expound and propound new ideas, compare and contrast, and engage in some form of exegesis
or disquisition or academic discourse. It is a great pity that most of the students I handle these
days cannot string sentences together as they have a great proclivity towards writing in bullet point
form. Such a pity! These are students who cannot go very far in their academic pursuits.
Write in a lucid style which engages the attention of the reader or audience, and make them glued
or riveted to what they read, such that they will want to read more and more. Keep them in
suspense or on tenterhooks. Above all, be simple and straightforward. Avoid bombast and
verbosity. The hallmark of a good writer is simplicity. It is the golden rule in writing. One of my
professors at UNISA once admonished me by stating, „Simplicity is the mother of beauty‟.
One should try as much as possible to be a perfectionist or idealist in essay writing as much as
possible, but of course, no human being is perfect. What is essential and important is always to try
and strive to improve upon your previous efforts. The golden rule to good essay writing is to be as
simple as possible, to be forthright, straightforward and unpretentious. After writing, go over your
work to self-edit. Most students fail to heed this simple instruction.
3.2 AIM
The aim of this unit is to expose you to the various styles of continuous writing.
3.3 OBJECTIVES
1. To sharpen your ability to write down the train of your thoughts in an

organised manner
2. To equip you with the technical skills of composing essays which
are free of technical glitches and errors
3. To sharpen your critical thinking abilities and faculties, in order to
respond to issues in an open-minded manner
4. To awaken in you your creative and imaginative genius
5. To instil in you the sense of orderliness, objectivity and ability to
self-edit your own work
6. To help you develop and discover your own unique style of writing
3.4 DESCRIPTIVE ESSAYS
An essay is a piece of art work which requires you to think and perhaps research on the
topic. Descriptive essays, as the name implies, employ many adjectives or descriptive

words to describe events, people, places, things, among others. You must choose your
words carefully as you must be exact in your description. As in all essays, you will set out
your essay with a background introduction of your topic, go on to the main body, and then
conclude by way of summary or by giving some quotation. Your essay must be organised
so that you do not exceed the word limit or the timeframe given you to hand it in.
Descriptive essays are most often written in the present tense, though not always. Take a
look at the following topics:
1. My hometown
2. My favourite TV show
3. My favourite dish
4. A typical market day in my town
5. My first visit to the city
6. The person I admire most
7. The most interesting person I have ever known
8. The most interesting place I have ever visited
Assume you settle on topic 1, „My hometown‟. Your plot could be like this:
-Name of your town and its location in the country, population size
-History behind the settlement
-What the town is noted for and perhaps prominent people from there
-Geographical features there like rivers, mountains, rocks, famous landmarks, forests
-Main occupation of the people, local produce, local crafts
-Interesting things to find there such as prominent buildings
-Festivals, ceremonies and legends there
-What the town lacks
-Opportunities the town offers for potential investors
Assume you settle on Topic 6, „The person I admire most‟, your plot could be like this:
- His or her name, biography
- Description of how he or she looks like
- Why you admire the person
-The person‟s achievements

- The person‟s family life
-The person‟s hobby, likes and dislikes
-The person‟s impact on your life
An example of a descriptive essay
Write a descriptive essay about the most interesting place that you ever visited.
I was 23 years old then in 1973, when I had the unique opportunity to represent my country,
Ghana, at an African Regional Youth Conference on Population and Family Planning in
Nairobi, Kenya. I had been involved in youth seminars on family planning in my town and
region. Before that big conference, we were invited to attend seminars at Cape Coast, the
regional capital. We were representing our various youth organisations from different parts
of the region. I was then the Secretary of the youth wing of the Methodist Church in
Winneba, Ghana. At those seminars, we were consigned to working groups, to deliberate
on some assigned topics.
We had a hectic time debating and trying to reach a consensus on many issues. It was in
deed very difficult to reach a consensus among a group of people with varied work
backgrounds, from different age groups, different gender, and different levels of educational
attainment. Some of the attendees were conservative in outlook and perception, while
many of the young adults like me were radical and hot-headed.
One hot and humid afternoon, I received a letter from the Ghana Youth Council to attend a
national seminar in Accra at the Ghana Commercial Bank Training School at Labadi, Accra.
I was elated and beside myself with joy. The day was long in coming but it arrived at long
last. There, we had the most sumptuous of meals and the environment, ambience, décor
and immaculate neatness was beyond my expectation. After the seminar, I was again
selected with another young lady from Achimota College to attend the Africa Regional
Seminar in Kenya, on account of my performance in other seminars in terms of contribution
of ideas, writing of resolutions, among others.
Our flight from Accra in March 1973 was most luxurious, as we took the Pan Am flight from
Accra to Nairobi via Entebbe, Uganda. Entebbe was most enchanting to me from the aerial
view, as we approached it from the air. The city is just next to the vast expanse of water of
Lake Victoria, nestling comfortably by its side. In the background, we could see the red
volcanic soils of the surrounding mountains with the dark green riot of evergreen forest.
What natural beauty! No wonder, Uganda was once described as „the pearl of Africa‟.
In Nairobi, we were enchanted by the warmth of the people and the sereneness of the flora.
We combined our serious seminar deliberations with some site-seeing tours of places in the
vicinity of Nairobi such as the Athii Plains, Nairobi National Park, the Rift Valley, and some
Masai African settlement. I can say now that after 40 years, I still remember vividly in my
mind‟s eye the panorama of flora and fauna which I saw on that sight-seeing tour; that was
the most awesome and unforgettable sight I have ever seen in my life.

At the time, I remarked to some attendees that it was something which might be one sight
which one would see once in their lifetime; if fortune and fate do not endow them with a
second or third chance. We saw wildebeest, giraffes, zebras, lions, antelopes, monkeys
and other animals in their hundreds. As the afternoon merged into evening, the animals
kept arriving in their multitudes. If you saw those animals in the midst of the tall savannah
grass and clusters of umbrella-topped acacia trees, you would really conclude that the sight
was majestic, unbeatable, and that Kenya was a naturalist‟s paradise.
In concluding, I would say that it is great to be young, and I enjoyed every bit of my trip to
Kenya in 1973, especially with regard to the tour of the Nairobi National Park which
unearthed a national treasure trove of the exceptional natural beauty of the geographic
landscape of deep ravines and scenic beauty of the flora and fauna, whose indelible impact
on me keeps me wondering to this day why nature should endow some countries with so
much on the one hand, whilst on the other hand, others have arid deserts, and yet others
had parched carapaces, dambos and miombos.
Note: This essay has three main parts consisting of the introductory background, the main
body, and the conclusion.
3.5 NARRATIVE ESSAYS
Narrative essays tell stories or tell about things which happened in the past, so the past
tense is employed here. Such essays need to be told chronologically or sequentially,
following a logical time sequence. Most events will be in the reported speech and words in
the present tense like: this, these, now etc. will change to become that, those, then etc.
Not all essays need to be factual or based on actual experiences and encounters. We can
make up some stories by using our sense of imagination and creativity. That is how
novelists develop their talent and become prolific writers and essayists. We can employ
dialogue and some soliloquy or monologue in our essays to make them lively, but then, we
need to pay particular attention to punctuation marks and our tenses.
Examples of narrative essay topics may include:
- An unforgettable experience
- My first day at college
- The day everything went wrong
- Write a story ending, „All is well that ends well‟
- A terrible motor accident that I witnessed
-The most interesting book I ever read
-The day the world stood still
- A narrow escape

- Write a story ending, „I woke up abruptly with my heart beating and thumping against my
chest.‟
An example of a narrative essay
The day the world stood still
In mid-year of 2000, I was employed as an Economics and Management Lecturer at the Zambia
Centre for Accountancy Studies (ZCAS), to lecture on both academic and professional
programmes such as CIMA, IMIS, ACCA, NCC, NCEA, ABE, among others. I was formerly
lecturing at a neighbouring college called Evelyn Hone College of Applied Arts, Commerce and
Science, under the Zambian Government Ministry of Science, Technology and Vocational
Training. I deemed it very lucky to be accepted to lecture at such a prestigious institution, as the
interview and selection process was quite competitive and rigorous. After about a year, I had
comfortably settled in and attending to my pedagogical duties with zeal and vigour. I had endeared
myself to both students and my colleagues, being a naturally-born gregarious person, and coming
from West Africa, I am naturally expected and perceived to be outgoing and least reserved.
One hot and sunny afternoon, I had gone for an afternoon lecture, and after completion around
mid-afternoon, I was climbing upstairs and proceeding to the staff offices in the old ZCAS building
when I came across one of our senior staff of Asian origin. He came straight to me and asked,
„Kwesi, have you heard that the Twin Towers in America have been bombed?‟. I answered that I
had been lecturing all day and had no iota of an idea what gibberish he was talking about. Of
course, being a graduate of Geography and International Affairs, I knew quite a lot about other
countries and prominent buildings or monuments in the world such as the Eiffel Tower, The
London Eye, Twin Towers, Capitol Hill, Sydney Museum, Statue of Liberty, among others.
What was baffling to me at that instant was what had actually happened, as I was completely
taken aback and flabbergasted at the shocking and weird breaking news. At the foyer where I was
standing, I was joined by other lecturers who began explaining to me what they had heard and
seen by watching the astonishing event live on TV. The day was a Tuesday, the 9th of September
2001, later to be dubbed 9/11. It reminded me of the Ides of March in which one of Shakespeare‟s
characters cautioned someone to beware of the Ides of March. That singular catastrophic
cataclysm marked the year 2001 as an „annus mirabilis,‟ or a year of a great and notable event
which would be the watershed ushering in global terrorism.
I later learnt for the first time that a group calling itself al-Qaeda had claimed responsibility for the
bombing of the Twin Towers in New York, and they had planned further raids on Washington DC,
which fortunately were nipped in the bud. Later that day at home, I was to watch a TV video clip of
the day‟s catastrophic events as two jumbo planes flew in military swooping style at different times
of short interval to lunge into the Twin Towers, causing the tall structures to crumble gradually
down into rubble, with smoke and fumes billowing from the struck buildings, with debris strewn
everywhere, people fleeing from the scene…
It was total bedlam, chaos, panic and confusion. It was the day when the whole world stood still to
watch the gruesome scenes from cable TV all around the world.

3.6 COMPOSITION OR EXPOSITORY ESSAYS
An expository essay sets out to explain a phenomenon or how to do something. It expounds or

explains how to go about doing something. This is a technical kind of essay which requires you to
know the technical details of the subject, so some research may be necessary.
Consider the following expository essay topics:
- How to change a car tyre

- How to prepare my favourite dish
- How to write a research paper or dissertation
- The way a car engine works
- How to make a garden
- How to sew a new dress for my child
- How to build your own house
You may have to go about it in a systematic manner by giving an introduction, and then structuring
your essay into stages, describing what happens at each stage. It requires you to use the simple
present tense. Assume you settled on topic 7, „How to build your own house‟. Your plan could be
as follows:
-You first purchase a plot of land in an area you fancy
-You ensure the title deeds, indentures, site plans and all legal documentation is done and cleared
with relevant authorities at the Lands Department, Local Authority and the Town Planning
Department
-You make sure the lay of the land is right without major obstructions or disadvantages such as
marshes, prone to flooding
-You ensure access to the area is easy
-You verify if the area is serviced by water, electricity etc. even before you purchase the plot
-You check on security in the area and your potential neighbours
-You check future plans earmarked for the area or vicinity and how they can affect property values
-You can outsource clearing of the land
-You consult an architect to design your dream house for you
-You move on site after you have bought all the building materials, equipment and tools
-You need to assemble a team of experts to back you up

An example of an expository essay
How my favourite dish of rice and groundnut/peanut butter soup is prepared
I come from Ghana in West Africa, where people set much store by the type of food they eat. In
Ghana, by nature of the diversity of climate and vegetation, there are many varieties of dishes to
choose from. The culture of the people make them take pride in cooking their own foods at home
rather than eat out at restaurants. It is economical that way, and sometimes healthier. Some
foreigners brand our dishes as very spicy and loaded with carbohydrates.
This could be true to some extent as the population sizes and densities in West Africa are quite
high, such that meat and protein sources are expensive to procure. However, in Ghana, about
95% of the people live on seafood or fish and other protein sources such as game meat, snails,
sea and river shell fish, mushrooms, insects, among others. Foodstuffs include cassava, yams,
cocoyam, plantains, rice, maize, millet, sorghum, and different types of beans, fruits and
vegetables. The climate being hot, humid and tropical, the forests to the southern parts and
savannah to the northern parts teem with an assortment of food items. For a whole week, one
could plan a menu of different dishes. Besides, a lot of imported food items also abound on the
market.
We like all our foods well done or else you would be branded a bad cook. To prepare my favourite
dish of rice and groundnut soup for say four people, you would need two cups of rice, preferably
Basmati rice of high grade, four long fingers of hot chilli, two big ripe tomatoes, one bulb of onions,
tomato paste, salt, okra, green pepper, and some cubes of spices such as Maggi-cube or Knorrox
cubes, some dry fish or full chicken or half a kilo of chopped and boiled beef, some black-beauty
garden eggs or egg-plant (aubergine or brinjal), and some groundnut paste or peanut butter. Rice
is cooked the normal way. In case you need to know, you can cook a meal for four people by
having two cups of rice measured and poured into a tray for sifting the chaff or picking the bad
grains. With that done, you set a pan of water in a sizeable pot, and put it on a stove.
Let it boil. You wash your hands thoroughly well with soap before you start cooking. Wash the
rice and scoop it with your right hand into the pot of boiling water. Add a bit of salt to the rice to
taste. Check it from time to time to see if more water is needed. There are many varieties of rice,
so you should know the type which needs plenty of water before it cooks. After some time, you
can cover the pot to let the steam soften the rice and make it well done, the Ghanaian way. Set
the stove to about a quarter of its full strength or else you will burn it. If you have a rice cooker or
pressure cooker, then your work is made a lot easier, as the rice is cooked automatically, even in
your absence, as it is self-regulating.
To cook the soup, fill a medium-sized aluminium pot with two-thirds water. Slice the tomatoes into
two and put them in the pot. Peel the onion and slice into two and put in the pot. Do the same to
the aubergines. After about ten minutes, retrieve the onions, chillies, tomatoes and blend them.
Put the blended sauce in the boiling water. Add your dry fish or steamed or grilled chicken or beef.
Then add some tomato paste, a small portion of spice cube which you must crush with your
fingers and sprinkle in the soup. Pour in the blended items. Then you can wash, clean and cut
some okra and put in. Take some sizeable quantity of groundnut paste and add some water to
dilute it and pour it in the soup. From then on, you let your concoction cook for three quarters of an
hour before your soup is ready to serve. You will know it is well done when some oil forms on the
surface of the cooking soup. Before then, it will look whitish. Add some pinch of salt to the soup to
taste.
I love this dish of rice and groundnut soup as it is very delicious, filling and nutritious.
3.7 ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAYS
Argumentative essays are topics which debate issues by giving arguments for and against or the
pros and cons. First, critical words or concepts in the topic need to be clearly defined, then
background of the topic is given, before coming up with the arguments in favour, followed by the
arguments against. Your conclusion may require you to evaluate the issues at stake, take a stance
or position and offer some recommendations.
Political Science, Business Studies, Law, History, Literature, Economics, Accounts, ICT, and
Sociology students will be most interested in argumentative essays as there are many hot and
controversial issues in their fields of study such as gender-based violence, dowry or lobola
payment, rape, polygamy, polyandry, population control, arranged marriages, windfall tax,
retrospective law, adoption of new constitution by referendum, gender equality, enfranchising
convicts, free education for all, payment of unemployment benefits and welfare support, fat
executive pay and emoluments, corporate social responsibility, corporate governance, vertical and
horizontal equity in pay structure, street vending, female genital mutilation, male circumcision, use
of female and male condoms, setting up of military tribunals, coup d‟état, among many other
controversial issues. Consider the following argumentative essays:
-Gender-Based Violence is caused partially by paying huge dowries
-The best place for a woman is the kitchen
-Should boys be made to do household chores?
-Should men and women earn the same pay for doing the same job?
-The government has no business imposing taxes such as VAT and PAYE because taxation is
theft. Discuss
-Should pensions, gratuity and terminal benefits of workers be taxed in Zambia? Is that not double
taxation?
-Should the retirement age be pegged at 70 years in Zambia?
-Should we ban child labour?
- Should prisoners be allowed to vote?
- Gender equality is a myth because it can never be achieved in every facet of life. Discuss
-Tobacco is harmful to health, yet it is a money spinner and huge income earner. Should smoking
be banned?
-Biologically, women are stronger than men. Do you agree?

-Abortion is sinful and it should not be legalised in Zambia, a Christian nation.
- Free education is a blessing and a curse at the same time. Discuss.
- Gender-based violence-causes, effects and remedies
-Male and female circumcisions are unnecessary and barbaric acts against the person. Discuss
-Should we have chastity before marriage?
-Should bigamy or polygamy be allowed?
-Is happiness internal or external?
-Would you agree with the saying that charity begins at home?
-Should homosexuality and lesbianism be legalised?
-Should marijuana use, sale, cultivation, and possession be legalised?
-Is the United Kingdom right in not joining the European Union‟s common currency, the Euro?
-Should the state interfere in the upbringing of children?
-Is compulsory national service for students who graduate from tertiary institutions a violation of
their human rights?
- Is the EU right in restricting right of residence anywhere in the EU countries to non-EU persons?
-Is it right in some schools to leapfrog a precocious student, by making them miss a grade or two
at school, and jump them to a higher grade?
An example of argumentative essay:
From among a teacher, a medical doctor, and a farmer, who is the most important to society?
It must be noted that we live in a world of complementarity, interdependence, and supportive

relationships. No man or woman is an island unto themselves. With that said, we can realise that
the topic of discourse in this essay is tricky in the sense that it depends on who is arguing it out.
As a teacher, I hope I will not be unduly swayed by my professional affiliation, to swing the
pendulum in favour of teachers. I will try to be as objective as possible. I will first endeavour to
define the various professions involved, and also try to evaluate their social and economic
importance to society, how they are perceived by the public, their demand and supply, among
other variables.
A teacher is one who tends minds or is a mind-tender, nurturing and shaping minds, so that tutees
are equipped with knowledge, skills and comportment of character which will help them earn a
living for themselves, and be of service to their communities. Teaching is dubbed the noble
profession. In history, we read about ancient Greek and Chinese philosophers and teachers such
as Socrates, Aristotle, Plato, Confucius, Lao Tse, Sun Tzu (The Art of War), Gautama Buddha,

among others. Teachers endow us with knowledge which helps us understand our role in the
world, and answer difficult questions of life such as why was man created, what is the purpose of
life, is there eternity, who created the world, how can we attain happiness and perfection in life,
among other questions.
Teachers build the moral, social, religious, intellectual, and physical aspects of their pupils,
students, tutees, and charges. One of the greatest teachers of all time is our Lord Jesus Christ,
who was called Rabbi. His influence has been felt all around the world in the form of the Christian
congregations and denominations, even two thousand years after his death. So also have been
the great impact and influence of other religious teachers of the past such as Mohammed MPBUH
(Islam), Guru Narnak Dev (Sikh), Zoroaster (Zoroasterism), Mahavira (Jainism), Moses (Judaism),
Joseph Smith (Latter Day Saints), Charles Russell ( Jehovah‟s Witnesses), Bahaullah (Bahai
Faith), Ellen G. White (Seventh Day Adventists), among others.
Teachers can therefore be said to be the only professionals who have the greatest influence on
human beings, yet in terms of material wealth, they possess very little, and they have been poorly
rewarded, especially in Africa. Of course, universally, we have professors in the Russell and the
Ivy League universities who are relatively better endowed financially than their counterparts in the
Third World. Some are Noble Laureates, while others are consultants to multinational companies
which give them handsome research funds and endowments. Can we say then that the
importance of a teacher depends on the category of teacher, in terms of classification into
kindergarten, primary and middle school teachers, secondary school tutors, university lecturers
and professors, among others?
Lower level teachers are in greater supply than the demand, so they may be perceived to be less
important than medical doctors and large-scale commercial farmers. However, the fact remains
that all teachers are very important to society because there is nobody who has not passed
through the hands of a teacher of some sort, whether formally or informally. Some students did
home schooling, and were taught by privately-hired teachers or their parents. Others did self-
tuition. Yet the books they read were written by teachers and educators. Professor A.N.
Whitehead once averred, „Education is the purgation of the crudities of the mind‟. John Locke
many years ago referred to a young child‟s brain as a „tabula rosa‟ or like a white, blank sheet of
paper on which teachers made indelible imprints. Many successful people in the world point to the
foundation which was built for them by their teachers.
Medical doctors and all practitioners involved in the field such as anaesthetists, nurses, psycho-
therapists, pharmacists, medical auxiliaries, among others, help us to get well when we are ill.
Illness can be mental or physical, and can be seen as a disorder or malfunctioning of the structure
of the body due to the presence of pathogens or foreign bodies in the human body which require
medical intervention.
Doctors and para-medics are esteemed and adored for their medical feats on patients. However,
the fact remains that the best brains get accepted into universities to pursue medicine, and other
demanding academic fields such as actuarial science, engineering, architecture, law, physical and
natural sciences, among others. Invariably, society tends to perceive such fields as more
important than others such as agriculture and education. Obviously, the demand for medical
services far outstrips the supply, hence medics earn far more than either teachers or farmers.

Besides, medics have inelastic demand as their utility or usefulness to society is far more relatively
higher than that for teachers and farmers. Doctors spend far more years in training, internship,
and housemanship than either teachers or agricultural graduates do. Furthermore, the tasks
performed by doctors are far more demanding, rigorous, tedious, delicate, and they have lots of
risks and challenges. All told, it is reasonable for society to have a higher perception of doctors
than they have of say teachers or farmers.
Farming is said to be one of the oldest human occupations. Farmers provide us foodstuffs, fruits,
cash crops, and livestock products. We need food to survive on a daily basis. The beauty of
farming is that it can be practised by anyone as a hobby. On that note, we can see both the
imperativeness and pervasiveness of farming and its importance. Full-time farmers are of
paramount importance to our economy, as their exports bring in much-needed foreign exchange
for economic growth. In some economies in Africa, farmers in the informal sector constitute 60% of
the labour force, and their earnings constitute the largest share of GDP. In this regard, we can
conclude that farmers are very important collectively to the macro-economy.
In conclusion, we can say that it is difficult to point out doctors or teachers as of more importance
than farmers, or vice versa, because they all need one another to survive. The importance of any
one of them depends on public perception, their supply and demand, their professional status, and
their influence and impact on those they interact with.
REFERENCES
Strunk, W. Jr.,and White, E.B., 1999. 4th ed. The Elements of Style London: Longman
Hazlitt, W. On Familiar Style
Lucas, F.L., Style: The Art of Writing
Soyinka, W. Myth, Literature and the African World
Thurman, S., 2003. (2nd ed.) The only Grammar Book You’ll Ever Need: One Stop Source for
Every Writing Assignment Adams Media Publishing
Lester, M. and Beason, L. 2012 (2nd ed) The MacGraw-Hill Handbook of English Grammar
and Usage
Merriam Webster 2002 Merriam-Webster’s Guide to Punctuation and Style Merriam Webster
Mass Market
Merriam Webster 1994 Merriam Webster’s Dictionary of Synonyms and Antonyms
Merriam Webster 2003 (11 ed) Merriam Webster Collegiate Dictionary

Merriam Webster 2003 (4th ed) Webster’s New World College Dictionary: New Millennium
Oxford University Oxford English Dictionary
Oxford University Advanced Learners’ Dictionary
Oxford University Concise Oxford Dictionary
Oxford University Shorter Oxford English Dictionary
3.8 Activity
1. What is meant by prose or continuous writing?
2. Why should your essay have an introduction, proceed to the main body which should be in
paragraphs, and end with a conclusion?
3. What is meant by writing style?
4. What are the four types of essays?
5. How do you plan when you are set an essay topic?
6. What advice will you give to a junior who approaches you on how to write good essays?
7. Why is it important to self-edit your work?
8. Collect pieces of writing by different authors and critically evaluate them on what they did right
and what they could have done better.
3.9 Self-evaluation
1. What is meant by in-house rules or style of a university?
2. Why do universities make their own rules and style which their students must conform to or
comply with?
3. Are there universal styles and standards of academic discourse?
4. What are intellectual property rights?
5. What do you know about the World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)?

6. Where is the headquarters of UNESCO? What does UNESCO do for the world?
5. In what way does an essay reflect the personality of the writer or author?
6. Is it right to imagine and write about a topic you know next to nothing about?
7. Should all essays be factual and be based on actual experiential encounters?
8. Which type of essay are you most at home with?
9. When is your first or next novel or book of poetry coming out?
10. How often do you make an attempt to read a book for pleasure or leisure, such as a novel,
poetry or motivational book?
11. What does it take to become a good writer of renown and repute in Zambia?
12. Are essayists and writers eccentric, insane, lunatic, demented, non-compos mentis, forlorn,
forsaken, withdrawn, anti-social, eclectic, recluses, hermits, nuns and monastic copyists?
13. Is a writer a critical observer and recorder of social and natural events?
14. Why do we keep diaries? Do you keep one like Anne Frank did?
3.10 Self-reflection
1. What have you learnt from this Unit?
2. Are you sure that you can now write better essays than the time you had not read this module?
3. What type of essay are you better at?
4. After reading this Unit, what impression do you form of those who are fond of putting down their
ideas in bullet-points form?
5. What ingredients go into making a writer one of world-acclaim?
3.11 SUMMARY
Unit 3 has taken you through the various forms of continuous writing, namely, descriptive,
narrative, expository, and argumentative essays. You were made aware that most essays require
you to be imaginative, and to express your thoughts in a clear and logical manner. Therefore, you
need to plan beforehand what you are required to write. Your essay should address the topic
directly. Be precise in your choice of words. You also have to pay attention to mechanical aspects

of your essay such as correct grammar, tenses, punctuation, the use of capital letters, among
other issues. As usual, your essay should be organised around sub-divisions of introduction, main
body, and conclusion. Finally, always proof-read your work to correct your mistakes.
3.12 How to write Quality Essays and Assignments
 Structure your essay by sub-dividing it into suitable sections with sub-headings to show the
depth and breadth of your insight.
 Reflect deeply on what you write to ensure it makes good sense
 Your broad divisions will be:
-Introduction
-Literature review
-Methodology
-Main body of essay- Findings, Analysis, Presentation and deductions
-Conclusions
-Recommendations
-Glossary of technical terminology
-References
-Bibliography
-Appendices (This long outline applies to dissertations written and presented by final year
degree students)
 Your introduction should capture your topic, problem statement or hypothesis and
assumptions, your definitions, main purpose or objective of the essay, research questions
and objectives, the modus operandi or roadmap, showing the areas to cover or to be
addressed, brief background history of issue being investigated, significance of the topic,
limitations and scope of the research in terms of time, financial, information, resources and
effort constraints, justification for the approach to be adopted, among others
 In your introduction, you could use some quotes or quotations which capture the essence of
your research
 Your literature review will put your research in its global context and provide you with
epistemological underpinnings and the areas to look into, in order to fill in the gaps or hiatus
in the corpus of literature. Also to expose you to the work others have done on the topic to
prevent reinventing the wheel or duplication, because there is nothing new under the sun;
to add value to your work by reviewing work of authorities and critiquing their work; to give
you insight into the way forward and to give credibility and substance to your work to show
that it is scholarly and of scholarship; to give solid foundation of scholarship to your work by
standing on the authority of experts to back up your arguments. This is where we expect
lots and lots of in-text citations done according to the Harvard style
 Methodology
 The main body should be subdivided into:
- Main findings or results
- Analysis and critical evaluation of results
-Presentation of findings in graphs, tables of figures, charts and diagrams

- Assessment of issues by application of relevant models, theories and opinions of
experts in the field
 Conclusions and summary of main findings from the main body
 Recommendations for the way forward as prescriptions to solve the problem earlier
identified
 References of sources actually cited in the research to be done alphabetically, according to
the Harvard referencing style
 Bibliography or list of sources consulted but not cited in the research, also done
alphabetically according to the Harvard style
 Appendices of extra material to be appended at the back of the report to show evidence of
research. This is to be numbered sequentially
 Write objectively and constructively without personal bias, prejudice, malice and too many
opinions. Be factual and write in a balanced manner by giving both sides of an argument.
Write in a mature way, showing good sense of judgement in your selection of cogent and
pertinent material, and deeply reflecting on what you write
 Research exhaustively and thoroughly
 Avoid superlatives such as very much, too much etc
 Keep to the knitting or the focus of the essay without digressing or deviating
 Have an open mind and be receptive to new ideas
 Be logical and rational in your writing by following a clear plan
 Start each chapter with a chapter introduction of how you hope to proceed and what to
achieve at the end. Give your chapter ending a summary of key points discussed and a link
sentence to what to expect in the next chapter
 All new concepts should be precisely defined when mentioned for the first time
 All abbreviations should be given in full the first time mentioned, and then abbreviated later
 Avoid contractions used in informal or colloquial speech, for example, won‟t, I‟ll, isn‟t etc.
 Write in a formal style and avoid idioms, proverbs, figures of speech
 Be simple and avoid flamboyant style. Use technical terminologies where appropriate
 Provide list of abbreviations or acronyms at the beginning of the essay in alphabetical order
 Write your abstract or executive summary last, and it should include the title, research
questions, research objectives, key findings, main recommendations
 Avoid unnecessary repetition which irritate the reader
 Be selective of your choice of words. Use spell-check and the dictionary
 Observe to have sound arguments, mechanical accuracy, logical flow of ideas, strict
adherence to word count or limit, meet your deadlines in a timely manner
 Be thorough and meticulous in your grammar, spelling, punctuation, pagination and layout
 Use the correct font and required spacing
 Avoid use of personal pronouns such as we, us, our, I, etc. Use the neutral pronoun ‟it‟
 You can write, „ In this research, the researcher will examine…….‟ Or „This study will look
into………..‟
 Do use unambiguous language
 If you paraphrase somebody‟s idea, you still have to cite it correctly to avoid plagiarism
 If you quote substantially, indent it and put it in italics or in small font. If it is in the body of
your write-up, use inverted commas and the in-text citation follows

 Double check your work with spell-check on your computer or do self-editing or get a proof
reader
 Make sure to write substantially under a heading, and what you write should fit the heading
 Your references should be alphabetical, following the Harvard referencing style. If it is a
short essay, say 2000 word limit, not less than 10 and not more than 15 quality sources. If it
is a 10000 word dissertation, between 25 to 30 quality sources will suffice
 Remember to word-process your work in a correct format and ensure your work is neat and
broken down into sub-headings which are user friendly
4.0 UNIT 4 - REPORT WRITING
INTRODUCTION
A report is a formal piece of writing which requires you to observe seriousness and avoid any
shortcuts such as the use of colloquial or conversational tone. In formal writing, the use of
personal pronouns is not entertained. Neither are you to resort to the use of contractions and short
forms. These are highly discouraged. You should avoid personal pronouns such as I, we, our, us,
my, etc. Also you should write out all words in full without contractions. For example, It’s will
become It is, there’s will become there is, wouldn’t will become would not, shan’t will become
shall not, among others. Formal writing is a form of objective or scientific writing which requires
you to be impersonal. You could use the neutral pronoun „it’ or expressions like, in this study, the
researcher, or the study will investigate, or this study sets out to examine etc. You are not allowed
also to use abbreviations such as etc. for among others, e.g. for example, viz. for that is, i.e. for
that is, among others. However, abbreviations pertaining to in-text referencing such as infra,
supra, ibid, cf., et al., ed., Ed. n.d., pp, p, N.B., P.S., among others, are allowed.
The writer becomes anonymous and impersonal, in order to avoid bias and maintain objectivity. A
formal report is a scientific document which should be factual, unbiased and objective. It should be
written in a simple and clear manner without any idioms or figures of speech. Formal reports
include Annual Reports of companies and organisations, theses, dissertations, long essays,
project reports, reports of commissions of enquiry set up by the government, divisional or
departmental reports, among others. In writing reports, be concise and business-like by going
straight to the point. However, you are free to use technical terminologies but these should be
explained for the understanding of the audience who may not have your technical background to
understand those technical terms used.
A report is normally commissioned by a higher official with terms of reference given, date of
submission stated, and specific mandate given to conduct an investigation on a topic, and to
feedback to the commissioning authority in a prescribed manner, giving findings, analysis, and
recommendations. Reports can be short or long. A short report is called a memorandum or memo

report, while a long report could be a research dissertation, a thesis or an official report of so many
pages, such as the draft constitution of Zambia, which has to go to the Executive or the Cabinet,
Legislature or Parliament, Judiciary for Judicial review, the ballot or public voting on its acceptance
or rejection, in what is called a referendum.
When a report is written and not accepted for implementation, it is a draft. When accepted, it
becomes a policy document which is used to guide actions and to guide the implementation of
programmes. A dissertation is normally submitted to universities to obtain a master‟s degree and it
could be between 20,000 words to 50,000 words, while a thesis is for a doctorate or Phd degree,
and it could exceed 50,000 words. The word count will be determined by the particular university
and their in-house rules and standards, the requirements of a particular discipline of study, such
as Law, Science, Management, Humanities, Development Studies, among many others. In the
Sciences, reports follow the Scientific Method of putting forward Assumptions called Null (H0), and
Maintained Hypotheses (H1), defining concepts, collecting data to confront the problem being
investigated, findings and analysis of results, and finally stating the conclusions. ICT students who
do projects may have some slightly different approach to report writing. If in doubt of the format
required by your university, ask for guidance.
4.1 AIM
A report is a piece of formal writing which follows some standard pattern. In this unit, the aim is to
make you familiar with how to write a report, showing the clear divisions into sub-headings, and
the style of language required. Furthermore, you will know the difference between a short and a
long report, as well as the things to avoid when writing reports.
4.2 OBJECTIVES
 To understand what a short or memorandum report is

 To know the divisions of a long report such as a dissertation or Extended Essay or Project
Report
 To clarify the contents to be put under each section or division of a report
4.3 Sections or Divisions to expect in a Long Report
- Cover Page with name of organisation/university, topic title, author(s), supervisor, word count
Date of submission etc.
-Abstract or Executive Summary of about 300 words
- Acknowledgements
-Dedications

- List of Tables
-List of Figures
- Table of Contents
-Terminologies/Glossary of terms
-Abbreviations/Acronyms
- Introduction, Terms of Reference
- Background of Organisation
- Literature Review
-Methodology/Modus Operandi
- Findings and Analysis of Results
- Conclusions
- Recommendations
- References
- Bibliography
- Appendices
4.4 Sections or Divisions in a Memorandum or Short Report
-Memo format of: To:, From:, Subject:. Date
- Terms of Reference
- Introduction
-Main Body with sub-headings
- Conclusion
-Recommendations
- Appendices (where specified as in some accounting exams in ACCA and CIMA)
4.5 How a report is assessed or judged
A good report is logically structured with sub-divisions, sub-headings and sections are correctly
numbered and sign-posted for easy reference. Greater attention is paid to detail and organisation,
showing neatly arranged paragraphs, sections and pages which are right and left hand justified.
Chapters flow easily into one another, with each having a chapter introduction and chapter
summary, as well as linking sentences into the next chapter. A good report has tables of figures

and charts, graphs and figures to illustrate points in the analysis and data presentation. A quality
report is free from grammatical and spelling errors.
There is consistency in spelling, page numbering, page set-out, and the use of pronouns, among
others. The author should show mastery of ICT, communication, professional and graduate skills
which consist of clear and sharp tables and charts, clear expression of ideas, excellent analysis
and evaluation of issues to show critical thinking, correct referencing techniques, drawing
inferences from issues, applying theories and models to the solution of real world problems,
showing deep and broad insight of issues, and above all, displaying originality of thought. When a
heading is highlighted in bold, it is wrong to underline or underscore it at the same time.
Only verbatim words or exact words copied from authors are to be put in italics or small font or
indented in the page and author‟s name put at the end of the quote, with the year of publication
and if possible the page number. A well-written report is properly referenced by using the correct
methods of in-text citation, according to the APA, MLA, Chicago, and Harvard Styles, among
others, as prescribed by the particular university or learning institution.
A report has to be properly bound, either hard-cover or ring binding, according to the specifications
given by the authorities. If it a hard-cover binding, the title and name of the author should appear
on the spine of the book so that when it is put on the shelves in the library, it can easily be
identified and catalogued according to the Dewey cataloguing system for books of different
disciplines.
Write a report for the Dean of Graduate Studies on the high incidence of plagiarism among
external adult students. Your report should delineate the causes of plagiarism, and offer
recommendations.
EXAMPLE OF SHORT REPORT OR MEMO REPORT
To: Directorate of Graduate Studies
From: Kwesi Atta Sakyi
Subject: High Levels of Plagiarism in students‟ work
Date: 16th July 2014
1.0 TERMS OF REFERENCE
On 17th April 2014, this report was commissioned by the Dean of Graduate Studies, Professor
Allison Strawberry, to investigate the high incidence of plagiarism among graduate students of
Ploughshare University, Badmington, Ploughshire. The Commission was a one-man commission

consisting of myself as Reader, Visiting Fellow of Extra-mural and Commonwealth Studies,
Georgeford Campus of Ploughshare University. The remit of the Commission was as follows:
1. Establish why adult learners of Ploughshare University engage in plagiarism

2. Collect evidence of plagiarism from faculty
3. Interview some of the students
4. Recommend remedial measures
5. Review the Quality Assurance standards
2.0 INTRODUCTION
Ploughshire University was established in 1975 by a group of retired university dons to offer
quality tertiary education to the teeming population in Ploughshire. Until its establishment, there
was no university within 100 miles radius of Ploughshire. Ploughshire area has 45 junior
secondary schools and 23 high schools. Despite the dense population, the area could only boast
of two colleges of education for teacher training and one polytechnic for vocational training.
Ploughshare University had an exponential growth in the mid-90s when the Ploughshire
Mountains of exceptial beauty were declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and tourists from all
over the world started flocking to Ploughshire for sight-seeing. The people in the area are very
warm and welcoming.
The hospitality industry boomed as never before, as it attracted a wealthy clientele of business
magnates and wealthy celebrities from far and near. Magnificent hotels sprung up all over, and
supporting industries in transport, beverages, clothing, arts and crafts, catering and miscellaneous
others mushroomed in the area. Ploughshare University has benefitted from that exponential
growth. There are lots of light manufacturing industries in the area which employ thousands of
locals. Many working adults will like to have degrees, yet they cannot afford the luxury of
becoming full-time students at the expense of their vocations. Many have enrolled on
undergraduate and post-graduate degrees offered at Ploughshare University. Ploughshare is not
a member of the Russell or Ivy League group of universities, and as such, they have nothing to
lose putting economic gains ahead of rigorous academic standards. They have had their motto
as, „Your Success in Career Our Priority‟. Many parents who want the best education for their
children will not consider Ploughshare as first priority, as facilities there are the barest minimum,
with few high calibre lecturers who are over-stretched and a number of low grade part-time
lecturers who are economic to employ.
3.0 FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS
3.1 Interviews with students
Face-to-face interviews were conducted among a sample of 15 randomly selected part-time adult
learners. The outcome was most revealing and instructive. Some students hinted that they work
shifts and as such, they hardly have time to do serious academic work. Others said that they saw
nothing wrong in copying information from books, journals and internet sources without
acknowledging those sources. To them, they always struggled hard to meet the rigorous
standards set by the University, and sometimes they panicked and rushed to meet deadly
deadlines. They were of the opinion that the academic rigour should be relaxed for adult learners
who usually wear many hats as parents, workers, students, socialites, bosses at work, among

many other self-conflicting and ambiguous roles. Besides, observed that some sources had no
authors. They also noted that the lecturers are few and overworked so much so that they hardly
have time to attend to their queries. Majority agreed that they missed quite a number of scheduled
lectures because of pressure of work. All complained that they were not properly inducted on the
day of orientation. They pleaded that the orientation be spread out over a period of say one week
for them to cope with the vast amout of information which is currently telescoped into a a single
jam-packed day of activities. They also complained that there is information overload online, which
made it difficult to sort out the data and package it into a well-written academic essay.
3.2 Interviews with Faculty
For this report, eleven full-time lecturers were interviewed and they all agreed that plagiarism was
high among part-time adult learners who are busy workers, and are mostly in the middle age
group. The lecturers said that students were sent packs of material on the different referencing
styles, including the APA Style recommended for Ploughshare students. Students are supposed to
read those packs and get used to the relevant style, and use it in their work. Faculty were bitter
that the lecturer-student ratio of 1:95 was too high and above the nationally recommended ratio of
1: 60. They noted that tit compromised quality standards. They said that because of that, they
found it hard to effectively supervise students‟ work.
They noted that most students were guilty of the offence of copy-and–paste. They said that it was
high time the University adopted e-learning by creating a students‟ portal to simplify issues. They
also suggested that a plagiarism legal agreement be signed with each student before they embark
on their studies. Finally, they observed that some students did not plan their itinerary well and as
such, they engaged in procrastination. They suggested that students should be encouraged to
form learning clusters to engage in peer-learning and group motivation. To help students to be on
the narrow path, it was suggested that students be encouraged to submit their work at the
TURNITIN site online for them to regularly check their Similarity Index of plagiarism before finally
submitting their final work for assessment. A faculty member was of the opinion that students
should not word-process their work but rather tend them in handwritten to minimise plagiarism and
encourage them to hone their writing skills before the final exams which are handwritten.
Faculty showed the sole Commissioner copies of students‟ work which clearly revealed that
students engaged in plagiarism on a massive scale.
When lecturers were asked how much material they gave students, they replied that they gave out
hand-outs, online materials and excerpts from parts of the recommended and prescribed texts.
They said that they avoid spoon-feeding students as they encouraged students to research widely
to reflect the depth, breadth, and currency of their research sources.
3.3
Conclusions
This report concludes that plagiarism exists on a large scale among adult part-time learners at
Ploughshare University. Students complain of heavy workloads at their working places. They also
averred that their lecturers seem to be overloaded with work so much so that they hardly have
time to attend to their needs. On the hand, lecturers stated that students seem to be lazy and want

to be spoon-fed. The Commission reliably learnt that lecturers paid more attention to their full-time
students than they did to then part-timers, which is unfortunate.
3.4 Recommendations
 Employ more qualified lecturers on a permanent basis

 Extend the induction period for newly-enrolled students to one week instead of a day
 Include Research Methods in the curriculum of students
 Encourage peer learning among students
 Let students sign service quality level agreements which will be binding on them
 Encourage students to submit handwritten assignments instead of word-processed
assignments which may encourage copy-and-paste
Date of submission: 28th August 2014
4.7 References
Davies, J.W., 2001.Communication Skills - A Guide for Engineering and Applied Science
Students. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited (see pp. 117-135)
Kaul, A., 2003. Business Communication New Delhi: Prentice Hall (see pp. 35-122)
Lesikar, R.V., Flatley, M.E., and Rentz, K. 2008. Business Communications - Making Connections
in a digital world. New York: McGraw Hill
Rutherfoord, A.J., 2001. Basic Communication Skills for Technology New Delhi: Pearson
Education
Taylor, S. 2005. Communication for Business- A practical approach New Delhi: Pearson
Education Limited (see pp 27-44, pp. 224-245 and pp. 308-388)
Woolcott and Unwin. 1983. Mastering Business Communication London: Macmillan (see pp. 90-
147)
Williams, D. Communication for Business

4.8 Activity
a. From memory, list the parts of a long report.

b. How can we make a report objective and not subjective?
c. Why is writing a report referred to as scientific writing?
d. In which part of a report can we put our own opinions?
e. What is meant by terms of reference?
f. What is literature review?
g. What information do we put in the introduction part of a report?
h. What is in-text referencing?
i. How can we compile a report which is factual and not based on opinions of the
writer?
j. How is primary research different from secondary research?
k. What is the difference between a list of references and a bibliography?
l. How should both the list of references and bibliography be arranged?
m. What are these? Cover page, acronyms, lists of tables and figures,
acknowledgements, dedications, disclaimer, appendices, abstract or executive
summary
4.9 Self-Evaluation
a. What kind of preparation do you have to make before you write a report?
b. When a report is written, it should be free from grammatical and spelling errors. How can
you ensure this?
c. Why should you state all the assumptions you make, and define all technical concepts
in a report?
d. A report is normally adjudged by many criteria including the following:
 Mechanical accuracy of grammar, spelling, punctuation, sub-divisions, pagination

and correct numbering
 Communication skills
 Graduate or referencing skills
 Professional competence in the technical areas
 Organisation
 Logical flow of ideas

 Presentation style, applying and showing IT skills
 Originality
 Evidence of data collection, analysis, presentation, interpretation and evaluation
 Breadth and currency of sources used
 Topic relevance and sharp focus
 Critical thinking, analysis and inferences drawn, self-reflection
See how many of these criteria you understand and can apply to your own
work.
4.10 Self-Reflection
1. What is the difference between fact and opinion?
2. Why should most of the contents of a report be factual?
3. Are recommendations made at the end of a report factual or opinions?
4. Which people are likely to be the end-users of say a student‟s dissertation which is written
towards the end of his or her academic programme?
5. What kind of style of writing is needed to be successful in writing reports?
6. What is the KISS principle of writing?
4.11 SUMMARY
Unit 4 has taken you through report writing. A report is a formal piece of structured writing which
has clear-cut divisions. In a report, you have to be objective and avoid all forms of colloquialism or
informal methods of writing such as the use of contractions. As much as possible, you should be
impersonal in report writing by stating facts rather than opinions. Opinions are only expressed at
the end when you write the recommendations, which should of course be based on the facts and
analysis part of the report. Some reports such as dissertations, theses, market surveys, among
others, will require you to carry out primary and secondary research. In a report, make everything
explicit by defining concepts, giving the full meanings of abbreviations, and using correct
referencing methods. Finally, provide ample evidence by way of illustrations by using tables of
figures, charts, graphs, photos, among others. Ensure that your report is sign-posted into clear

sections with sub-divisions and headings. A report should not be written in flowery language but
rather in simple and precise business language.
UNIT 5.0: SYNTAX-GRAMMAR AND TENSES PART
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The word syntax means building words together to convey sense. Thus, in Unit 5, we shall explore
what we normally refer to as grammar or the rules governing how words relate to each other, their
functions in a sentence, their correct usage in particular situations, word register or collocation,
among others. The English Language is a dynamic and evolving language which has grown from
many centuries back to its current form. It has evolved from cultural diffusion, colonialism, empire
building, trade and commerce, science, theology and religion, conquest, among others. Many
words in English today have Latin, German, Greek, Sanskrit, French, and other origins.
The origin of a word is known as its etymology. Advanced dictionaries such as the Oxford
Dictionaries often show the origins of most English words. We can simply say that the English
Language is a melting pot, gestalt, amalgam and hotchpotch, or mosaic of all languages in the
world. I am told that some Ghanaian words which have infiltrated into English include words such
as kwashiorkor, kente, Nana, among others. Similarly, some Bantu words with historical
connections to English include words such as bwana, kaffir, Ubuntu, ndaba, among others. Dutch,
Swahili, Hindi, Arabic, Hebrew, Chinese, Sinhalese, Malay, Creole, Russian, Cantonese, Italian,
Spanish, Portuguese, Mandarin, Farsi, and other major languages of the world have all rubbed
shoulders with and impinged on the English language, influencing it.
English is the language spoken widely, mostly in the former colonies of Britain. These include the
USA, Canada, the West Indies or the Caribbean, Australia, South Africa, New Zealand, Sri Lanka,
India, Pakistan, and many parts of Africa, including West, East, and Southern Africa.
Commonwealth countries are also called the Anglophone countries. French-speaking countries
are called Francophone, while the Portuguese-speaking countries are called Lusophone countries.
Spanish speaking countries are the Hispanic or Latino countries, mostly found in South and
Central America.
5.2 AIM
You are welcome to this journey of studying syntax or grammar. I have to warn you that it is really
difficult for me to give you a full study or compendium of grammar in a module like this one. That

notwithstanding, it is comforting to know that learning never ends, as it is a life-long process. We
all continue learning by the day as many changes take place in this fast-paced globalised and
technological world. Learning is an on-going process of from cradle to grave.
It is fascinating to learn the rules of a language such as English. Now that we have a lot of
material online, sometimes I wonder why we need to write hardcopy books! However, not all of
you have internet access. Even if you had, it is reassuring for you to read something written by
your lecturer, which gives you a personal connection with him, as also he puts his own personal
spin and touch to the work, to make it bespoke or tailor-made and customised for your peculiar
needs. Those of you with internet access can go to the sites below for more knowledge on syntax
and grammar.
OBJECTIVES
 To understand the basic functions of words in a sentence

 To expose you to some of the subtle and intricate uses of the language
 To understand figures of speech such as idioms, paradoxes, among others.
 To gain knowledge for improving your writing
 To expose you to the technical rules of grammar
 To know about correct usage of punctuation marks
 To appreciate tenses, clauses and phrases in sentences
 To know more about forms of speech
REFERENCES
Crystal, D. 2003. (2nd ed.) A Cambridge Encyclopaedia of the English Language Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press
Greenbaum, S. and Quirk, R. 2012. A Student’s Grammar of the English Language Essex:
Pearson Education Limited/ Longmans
Penguin, 2004. Penguin Thesaurus London: Penguin Books
www.edufind.com/English/Grammar/
www.buzzfeed.com/paradoxmoerder/17-mind-bender/
www.grammar-monster.com
www.englishgrammarsecrets.com
www.ucl.ac.uk/english-usage/projects/grammarteaching/
www.usingenglish.com/reference/idioms/

5.4 Nouns
Proper nouns
A noun is the name of a person, place, event, natural and man-made landmarks, thing or
condition. Names of people, places, months, days of the week, events, mountains, rivers,
monuments, among others, are called proper nouns, and they always start with a capital letter,
whether at the beginning or middle of a sentence.
Examples are : John, Mary, Hanson, Mumba, Takoradi, Arcades, Saturday, July, New York,
Juventus Football Club (JFC), River Nile, Mount Everest, Eiffel Tower, Disneyland, among others.
However, some brand names may be written in lower case or small letters and in that case, we
have no choice but to write them as such.
Common nouns include names of animals, things and conditions which are abstract or unreal.
Examples are: ship, dog, doll, door, car, book, house, education, constitution, hopelessness,
sympathy, death, happiness, sorrow, misery, opulence, poverty, population, populace, citizen,
citizenship, citizenry, city, citation, among others. Normally, a common noun goes with the
indefinite article, a or an. For example, an orange, an hotel, an hospital, a rabbit, an ass, an
opossum, a king, a race, a mirror, an hippopotamus, among others. Many common nouns can be
formed by adding suffixes or ending words to other words which are not nouns. Some of these
suffixes are –ness, -tion, -ce, -ance, -ence, -ment, -er, -uance, -ity, -ing, -cy., -tude, ent, -or, -ship
5.5 Activity
Form nouns from these words:
Contain, entertain, continue, fly, ambivalent, absent, present, essential, normal, grave, grieve,
ambidextrous, transparent, competent, hear, grateful, abhor, issue, indolent, insolent, insoluble,
disconsolate, incorrigible, rigid, flexible, rigorous, accommodate, tough, entice, insure, absurd,
absorb, seduce, induce, deduce, induct, conduct, ornate, slow, stupid, impetuous, lethargic, tardy,
Intern, court, courteous, polite, rude, crude, inhumane, humble, continue, correct, collect, arbitrary,
Short-sighted, indigent, pity, petty, cruel, excellent, digress, enormous,
Divine, graceful, ambitious,
5.6 Abstract nouns
Something abstract is not real or tangible. For example, happiness, sorrow, death, agony, among
others, are conditions of human beings but they are not tangible. Examples are rape, theft,
robbery, ambition, servitude, ignorance, knowledge, darkness, light, misery, opulence, light-
heartedness, among others, are abstract nouns.

5.7 Activity
Write down 10 abstract nouns of your own.
5.8 Collective nouns
Some nouns are collective in the sense that they come with certain words attached to them
always. For example, we say a swarm of bees, a flock of sheep, a convoy of cars, a flight of
aeroplanes, birds, and stairs, among others. We also say a pair of spectacles, a pair of trousers
or shorts, a pair of binoculars, and a pair of shoes. The majority of nouns have their plural forms
formed by adding the letter „s‟ at the end. For example, shoes, pies, mangoes, shirts, books,
houses, among others. Others do not have plurals. For example, equipment, furniture, machinery,
cutlery, stationery, property, among others. We can say a suite of furniture, or items of equipment,
or a lot of stationery.
Note the Plurals of these words
radius - radii, circus - circuses, cactus - cacti/cactuses, prospectus - prospectuses, plateau -

plateaux, portmanteau - portmanteaux, bureau - bureaux, thesis - theses, stadium -
stadii/stadiums, oasis - oases, thesis - theses, forum - fora/forums, focus - foci, hippopotamus -
hippopotami/hippos/hippopotamuses, phenomenon - phenomena, atrium - atria, symposium -
symposia, wife - wives, chief - chiefs, life - lives, knife – knives, datum- data, formula-formulae,
larva-larvae, millennium-millennia, colloquium-colloquia, locus-loci, quorum-quorums, index-
indices, appendix-appendices, magus-magi, pudendum-pudenda, catalogue-catalogues, die-dice,
mouse-mice, louse-lice, caucus-caucuses, syllabus-syllabi/syllabuses, curriculum-curricula,
phallus-phalli/phalluses, alumnus-alumni, minutia-minutiae, addendum-addenda, corrigendum-
corrigenda, lacuna-lacunae, memorandum/memoranda-memorandums/memorandas, summons-
summonses, entourage-entourage, retinue-retinue, hiatus-hiatuses, circular-circulars, sorcery-
sorceries, encyclopedia-encyclopedias, consortium-consortia, fish-fish/fishes, array-array, series-
series, specimen-specimens, minimum-minima, maximum-maxima, spectrum-spectra, hospice-
hospices, serum-sera, octopus-octopuses
Below, find more collective nouns
A bevy of ladies
A swarm of bees/insects/locusts
A troupe of dancers or monkeys
A troop of soldiers
A ream of paper
A bundle or wad of currency notes

A cluster of trees or houses
A row of houses
A pride of lions
A gang of thieves
An army of soldiers/ worms
A contingent/battalion of soldiers
A shoal of fish
A school of whales/dolphins/porpoises
A litter of kittens/cubs
A tuft of grass/hair
A column of smoke
A pool of water
An armada or flotilla of warships
A pack of cards/wolves
A chain of stores
A chain of command
A cache of arms
A cavalcade/Calvary of horses
A caravan of camels
A cabal/syndicate of criminals
A band of wagons/criminals
A bunch of grapes/bananas
A harem of prostitutes
A collection of pictures/stories/poetry/stamps/shoes
An album of photos
An anthology of poems
A series of a movie/drama
An iota/modicum of truth

A keg of gunpowder/rum
An assortment of dresses
A pint of beer
A band of pilgrims/wanderers/vagrants/vagabonds
A flock of geese/sheep/birds
A bed of roses
A cavalcade of cars/people/motorbike riders
A galaxy/constellation of stars
A drove of cattle
A diet of professors/legislators/examiners
An assembly of congregants/worshippers/parliamentarians
A wisp of cloud/smoke
A swathe of virgin land
A panorama of natural scenery
A bouquet of flowers
A buffet of food
A train of ideas/thoughts
A herd of cows/elephants
A grub of larvae/cocoons
A procession of people
A menagerie of animals
A Panoply of photos/ books
A pocket of air
A stroke of luck
A skein of yarn or thread
A set of false teeth/instruments
A compendium of writings
An assortment of clothes

A shower of blessings/rain/praises/confetti/insults
A college of Nobel Laureates
A bench of prosecutors/lawyers
A chamber of commerce /legal luminaries
A posse of ladies
A suite of flats
A bundle of rubble/rubbish
A crowd of people
A conclave of cardinals/bishops/clergy
A senate of professors/Deans/academia
A congress of politicians
A congregation of worshippers
A farrago/raft of nonsense
A platoon/squadron of policemen/soldiers
A phalanx of warriors
A formation of warplanes
A shock of hair
A pile of clothes/stones/rubbish/files/work
A stash of cash
A brood of vipers
5.9 Activity
Write down 10 collective nouns of your own.
Note that we can classify nouns as countable and uncountable nouns. Think of some examples.
5.10 Pronouns
These are words which stand in place of nouns. We have the neuter pronoun, „it‟. „It‟ has no
gender, so it is neutral. If we say it is dead, the statement does not say whether the thing which is

dead is male or female. If, however, we want to be specific or gender sensitive, we use the
personal or possessive pronouns, we, I, our, your, my, mine, she, he, his, her, their, theirs, me,
you, and us. Reflexive pronouns include pronouns like myself, ourselves, yourselves, among
others. A sentence will be clumsy without the use of pronouns. Let us consider this sentence
about a man called Mr Greenlabel.
Yesterday, Mr Greenlabel bought a goat from Comesa market, and when Mr Greenlabel
reached home, Mr Greenlabel tethered the goat to a tree and Mr Greenlabel instructed Mr
Greenlabel’s wife to slaughter the goat at Christmas time, when Mr Greenlabel would receive
many visitors, including Mr Greenlabel’s relatives and Mr Greenlabel’s in-laws and Mr
Greenlabel’s many extended family members. Mr Greenlabel further had instructed Mr
Greenlabel’s wife to do Mr Greenlabel’s bidding without fail, if Mr Greenlabel’s wife wanted to stay
in a happy marriage. Mr Greenlabel’s wife was told never to lose sight of the goat and to make
sure Mr Greenlabel’s wife took the goat to bed if possible, to avoid any further brutal torrential
hostilities of gender violence, as Mr Greenlabel often went on a drinking spree, during which time
Mr Greenlabel would fly into fits and spasms of rage, fuming with fury and rage, and Mr
Greenlabel would turn Mr Greenlabel’s wife into a punching bag, when prior, Mr Greenlabel had
caged Mr Greenlabel’s wife in the house, with express orders not to set foot anywhere without Mr
Greenlabel’s permission and clearance. Mr Greenlabel and Mr Greenlabel’s wife had no issue,
and Mr Greenlabel and Mr Greenlabel’s wife lived with extended family members.
Wherever we find Mr Greenlabel‟s name, we can substitute the pronoun, he. The sentence will
then be shorter and less clumsy as:
Yesterday, Mr Greenlabel bought a goat from Comesa market, and when he reached home, he
tethered the goat to a tree and instructed his wife to slaughter it at Christmas time when he would receive
many visitors, including his relatives, in-laws, and extended family members. He further had instructed his
wife to do his bidding without fail, if she wanted to stay in a happy marriage. He told his wife not to lose
sight of the goat, and to make sure she took it to bed if possible, to avoid any further brutal torrential
hostilities of gender violence, as he often went on a drinking spree, during which time he would fly into fits
and spasms of rage, fuming with fury and rage. He would turn his wife into a punching bag, when prior, he
had caged her in the house, with express orders not to set foot anywhere without his permission and
clearance. They had no issue, and they lived with extended family members.
5.11 GERUND
A gerund is a verbal noun. For example, reading is my hobby. Here, reading is the name of an
activity which I do, so it is a noun. If I say, I am reading a book, then reading in this context is not a
noun, but a verb as it is a doing word but not an activity. We can say cheating is a bad habit.
Here, cheating is a verbal noun or gerund.
5.12 NOUN IN APPOSITION
It is the situation where two names are juxtaposed or placed side by side, referring to the same
thing. For example, Her Royal Majesty, the Queen of the United Kingdom, Elizabeth II, reviews
the troops at the Trooping of the colours at Buckingham Palace today.

5.13 MASCULINE AND FEMININE NOUNS
Nouns could be for males or females. Check the following pairs:
Masculine Feminine
Host Hostess
Heir Heiress
Gangster Gangstress
Duke Duchess
Emperor Empress
Governor Governess
Prince Princess
Tiger Tigress
Conjuror Conjuress
Sorcerer Sorceress
Ram Ewe
Stallion Mare
Lion Lioness
Mister Mistress
Patron Matron
Patriarch matriarch
Paternity Maternity
Mayor Mayoress
Actor Actress
Hero Heroine
Gander Goose
Billy-goat Nanny-goat
Bull Cow

Boar Sow
Waiter Waitress
Widower Widow
Chief/Chieftain Chieftainess
Cock Hen
King Queen
Deacon Deaconess
Servant Maid
Executioner Executrix
Barber Hairdresser
Tailor Seamstress
5.14 ADJECTIVES
Adjectives are descriptive words as they qualify nouns, or make nouns specifically known. If I say
the car is mine but there are many cars around, you might ask which car, to which I might say that,
that old, big, blue and old-fashioned car is mine. Words like old, big, blue, wrinkled, mangled, wise,
cruel, stale, shiny, clever, rich, not-too-old, middle-aged, rotten, roguish, important, excellent,
tasty, juicy, newly-wed, corrugated , convoluted, fresh, freshly-minted, are all descriptive words
called adjectives. Sometimes adjectives come in groups of words called adjectival phrases or
clauses. I went to a God-forsaken, outlandish and forlorn country. Which country did I go to?
The words in bold tell you. If I say, a lot of money or a great deal of money, or quite a
handsome and sizable amount of money has been expended on the project. The words in bold
tell you how much has been spent.
5.15 Activity
Write down 20 adjectives.
5.16 VERBS
A verb is an action or doing word. For example, words such as go, eat, stand, work, do, write,
learn, dig, and swim, among others. Verbs are in different forms as auxiliary or helping verbs,
simple present, simple past, past perfect, future tense, past participatory, among others. In the

simple sentence, I am, the verb is „am‟ while „I‟ is the noun. Consider the longer form: I am
working very hard these days to achieve all my goals timely. Such a sentence could be
compressed to read: I am working to achieve my goals.
When we write, we need to pay attention to our tenses as regards the correct forms of verbs to
use. Some verbs remain the same even in the simple past tense. Examples are: beat, cut, hurt,
bet, hit, read, rid, shed, and put, among others.
Every day I beat the boy. Yesterday I beat the boy. Last time I had beaten the boy. Tomorrow I
shall beat the boy.
Every day I cut the grass. Yesterday I cut the grass. Last time I had cut the grass. Tomorrow I
shall cut the grass.
Every day I hurt him. Yesterday I hurt him. Last time I had hurt him. Tomorrow I shall hurt him.
Every day I bet on horses. Yesterday I bet on horses. Last time I had bet on horses. Tomorrow I
shall bet on horses.
Every day I hit him. Yesterday I hit him. Last time I had hit/hitten him. Tomorrow I shall hit him.
Every day I read. Yesterday I read. Last time I had read. Tomorrow I shall read.
Every day I rid myself of fear. Yesterday I rid myself of fear. Last time I had rid myself of fear.
Tomorrow I shall rid myself of fear.
Every day I shed tears. Yesterday I shed tears. Last time I had shed tears. Tomorrow I shall
shed tears.
Every day I put it down. Yesterday I put it down. Last time I had put it down. Tomorrow I shall put
it down.
5.17 Activity
See if you can conjugate the following irregular verbs:
bust, burst, abide, bid, cost, input, let, quit, preset, thrust, upset, spread, sublet, slit, shut
(en.wiktionary.org/wikl/hitten
Simple Present Simple Past. Past Perfect Future Tense
hide hid had hidden will hide
begin began had begun shall begin
sink sank had sunk will sink

lead led had led will lead
fall fell had fallen will fall
feel felt had felt will feel
fell felled had felled will fell (a tree)
sing sang had sung will sing
seek sought had sought will seek
drive drove had driven will drive
dive dived/dove had dived will dive
smite smote had smitten will smite
stink stank had stunk will stink
sting stung had stung will sting
bite bit had bitten will bite
shrink shrank had shrunk will shrink
heave heaved had heaved will heave
weave wove had woven will weave
hoist hoisted had hoisted will hoist
shove shoved had shoved will shove
ring rang had rung will ring
drink drank had drunk will drink
run ran had ran will run
tear tore had torn will tear
wear wore had worn will wear
bear bore had borne will bear
rear reared had reared will rear
do did had done will do
write wrote had written will write
feed fed had fed will feed
hang hanged/hung had hanged/hung will hang

swell swelled had swollen will swell
reek reeked had reeked will reek
sow sowed had sown will sow
sew sewed had sewn will sew
ride rode had ridden will ride
shear shorn had shorn will shear
leave left had left will leave
fly flew had flown will fly
fry fried had fried will fry
live lived had lived will live
get got had got will get
set set set will set
smell smelt/smelled had smelt will smell
learn learnt had learnt will learn
dig dug had dug will dig
dry dried had dried will dry
try tried had tried will try
rend rent had rent will rend
slit slit had slit will slit
slide slid had slid will slide
spit spat had spat will spit
strive strove had striven will stride
spell spelt had spelt will spell
sling slung had slung will sling
5.18 ADVERBS
Adverbs tell us more about verbs or how actions are done. For example, John is living
dangerously. The word dangerously tells us more about how John is living. Another example,
Mary goes home often. We may ask how Mary goes home, and it is often. Masuku seldom pays
his taxes. Jane is forever crying. Betty shed tears profusely. The child is safe with her mother.
Esther walked fast to school. Bob blurted out the forbidden word with much contempt. The
group of words, with much contempt is an adverbial clause of manner, telling us how Bob said
the word. Most adverbs end with –ly. For example, the following are adverbs: slowly, rapidly,
importantly, beautifully, gracefully, excellently, admiringly, viciously, cruelly, severally, jointly,
madly, thoroughly, and ominously, among others.
POSITIVES, COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES
Positive Comparative Superlative
Beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
Good better best
Bad worse worst
Deadly deadlier deadliest
Holy holier holiest
Handsome more handsome most handsome
Cruel more cruel most cruel
Cunning more cunning most cunning
Far farther farthest
Blunt more blunt most blunt
Crooked more crooked most crooked
Wicked more wicked most wicked
Tasty tastier tastiest
Seldom more seldom most seldom
Stupid more stupid most stupid
Wrong more wrong most wrong
Little less least

References
www.english-grammar-revolution.com/
www.englishclub.com
en.wikipedia/wikl/list of English Prepositions
grammar.yourdictionary.com/parts-of-speech/conjunctions
5.19 PREPOSITIONS
Prepositions show the relationship of one thing to another in a sentence. Common prepositions
include:
On, toward, off, onto, near, like, until, up, down, underneath, across, through, with, beside, besides,
inside, within, without, during, via, per, around, about, past, since, along, outside, beneath, at, behind,
before, beyond, above, against, amid, amidst, among, amongst, upon, next, to, over, from, for, front, back,
Most often, students mess up with prepositions and expose themselves as being weak on
grammar. This is so because they do not take time to research to know the correct forms, as they
tend to write what they hear most often. For example, we hear most people in Zambia say, „To my
side, there is no problem,‟ instead of saying, „On my part, there is no problem.‟ Some people say,
„I went at his place‟, instead of saying,‟ I went to his place‟.
This shows laziness and ignorance on the part of some students to research, because they play
by the ear and assume that the correct form of English is the run-of-the-mill colloquial English they
hear spoken every day in the streets, compounds, and in colloquial local parlance. Proper English
is vintage or exceptional, and it comes with diligence, and it is acquired at a price of proper
education characterised by continuously seeking to better oneself. The way you use prepositions
shows your pedigree or calibre.
Some Standard Prepositions
Survive on/from, subsist on, submit to, subscribe to, submerge under, suffer from, allude to, apply
to, learn from, lean on, take advantage of, draw from/on, probe into, put into, down with/to, through
with, true to, suffer from, infer from, deduce from, at peace with, in conformity/consonance with,
speak to/with/from/on, in consonance with, conform to, confer with, in consistence with, in contrast
to/with, confer with/on, arrive at, depart from, in alliance with, in cahoots with, obsessed with,
adapt to, adoption of, in addition to, read to/from/between, write to/on/from, back from/to/up/with,
wade into, walk off/up/on, work on/to/for/by/from, stand up to/for/from, stand by, separate from, in
line with, come to/up with/from/by, open to/for/up, denied of/, rid of, drawn from, deduce from, in
furtherance of, consists of, as regards, with regard to, comprises (no of), in adherence to,
concomitant with, in concert with, abide by, desist from, insist on, add to/on, deduct from, sit
on/from/at/by/with/for, apart from, part with/from, party/privy to, converge at, in compliance with/to,
refrain from, assemble at, assemblage of, refer to, defer to, depend on, get to/from, liaise with,
adept at, friends with, bet on/at, get even with, in consultation with, advise on, rely on, in reference
to, run away from, glean from, come into/upon/by, debate on, subjected to, critical of/to, drawn
from, pointed at/to, comfortable with, go from/to/towards/by/against/with, afraid of, common
to/with, conversant with, side with, rely on, take over/up/away/to/, in sync with, deter from, boils
down to, come out/off/into/by/to/with/from/about, in association with, live up/to, live
with/by/for/on/up to/, apply for/to, in touch/tune with, account for, atone for, attract to, in
furtherance of, further to, infer from, eat with/from, die of/from, run away from, attached to, attack
on/from/with, run away from, adhere to, confused with, bemused at, congruent to/with, danger to,
fall on/through/for/in, comply with, campaign on, stand on/to/by/for, pass by, pass on to, devolve
from, evolved from, revolve around, in reference to, according to, in accordance with,
5.20 Activity
Correct the following sentences:
1. The boy fell on his bicycle.

2. Aisha dried her clothes on the sun.
3. John stood with ceremony for his fiancée and married her.
4. He came of the bus.
5. Mary sat besides her little sister.
6. He said it to purpose.
7. He sat on table with his family for dinner.
8. He ate on the table.
9. John drove passed my house yesterday.
10. I live at Mutendere.
11. John showed of his new clothes.
12. I heard the news from the radio.
5.21 CONJUNCTIONS
A conjunction is a word which joins phrases or clauses or groups of words in a sentence. They
help us make long sentences, or complex and compound sentences. The way you use
conjunctions shows your mastery over the language. These come in handy when doing summary.
They also help us write coherently when composing essays or writing reports. We use
conjunctions and prepositions a lot as these go with verbs and adverbs. Every complete sentence
is a complete thought which makes sense.
Examples of conjunctions are as follows:

and, but, nor, for, or, yet, so, because, scarcely when, neither nor, either or, no sooner that,
too to, after, although, even though, as soon as, such that, unless, till, not only…but also,
than, also, both, in as much as , notwithstanding, further to, once, rather than, otherwise,
even if, in that, before, just as, so that, among others
Consider the following sentences:
1. John saw a snake.

2. He pointed it out to James
3. James suggested they find a big stick and kill it
4. John was afraid. He had heard many bad stories about snakes. He
was not for the idea
5. James called him a coward.
6. John said cowards live to fight another day
7. James retorted by quoting Shakespeare, „Cowards die many times
before their death‟.
8. As if the snake heard their conversation. It slithered away into a big
hole under a rock..
9. John was happy. James was not.
10. John confessed he was afraid of snakes. He said he was a naturalist.
He loved animals. James said he loved to keep pets. He would not
have a snake as a pet.
5.22 Activity
See if you could use conjunctions and punctuation marks like commas, semi-colons, full stops,
colons, among others to join all 10 sentences above from 1 to 10 to form one long sentence.
5.23 DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECHES
Direct speech is the actual words spoken by someone, usually put in inverted commas. Indirect or
reported speech is when what is said by someone is paraphrased by another person reporting it.
For example, Lizzie said,
Direct speech
“I can‟t figure out how many inches make one metre, since I do not have a conversion table.
Besides, inches were used a long time ago.”
Indirect or Reported speech
Lizzie complained that she couldn‟t figure out how many inches made one metre since she didn‟t
have a conversion table, besides, she thought that inches were used a long time ago.
5.24 Activity
Write the following sentences in indirect or reported speech.
1. Jemima said, “All these old books have to be either thrown away or donated to charity. They
are irrelevant to what we now teach our students in ICT.”
2. Mr Styles barked out orders to the boys, “Hey, you guys! Get on your bikes and let‟s get going.
We are 2 hours behind schedule for the fair. Ride as fast as you can but take care not to fall off
your bikes. I guess you guys have had a sumptuous lunch, and we‟ve got to be back to your
dorms before supper. Make sure you put on your helmets and hand gloves as the weather can get
bad any time. Always remember the Scouts‟ motto, „Be prepared.‟”
3. Teacher to her pupils, “ Class, today we are going to study some interesting things in geography
about the earth, sunrise and sunset, the seasons, and movements of the earth on its axis, and its
journey round the sun. How many of you have seen the sun, the moon and the stars? Well, if you
haven‟t, then you may not have been born yet, and you wouldn‟t deserve to be either in this class
or any other class for that matter. “
4. Mother to her young daughter, “ Elsie, be a good girl and stop crying. Papa is going to buy you
lots of sweets today. He is also going to take you to the zoo and also to Fairyland for a train ride. “
5.25 SENTENCES
A sentence is an ordered group of words which make sense by conveying an intelligible message
or idea. Each word in a sentence has a particular function. A complete or meaningful sentence
has a subject, object, verb, adverb, auxiliary verb, adjective, preposition, conjunction, definite and
indefinite articles, among others. If I say I saw a car or an ostrich, I have used indefinite articles a
and an, because I do not know that car in particular or that ostrich. However, if I had said, „I saw
the red car belonging to the policeman, or I saw the ostrich which Father Thomas keeps in the
Manse, then, the article the specifies the particular car or ostrich.
5.26 PUNCTUATION
The meaning of a sentence will change if it is not properly punctuated with commas (,), full stops
(.), colons (:), question marks (?), inverted commas (“ “), apostrophe commas („), semi-colons (;),
exclamation signs (!), ampersand (and), and brackets ( ) at the appropriate places.
We use full stops at the end of complete sentences, and only a fool ignores putting full stops.
Commas are used when we list items. We must remember to put a comma before the last but one
item listed, and put the conjunction and before the last item in the list. An alternative will be to
ignore the conjunction and, and put a comma, but end with the phrase, among others, or write etc.

However, in dissertations or theses, avoid using etc., e.g., viz., and such other abbreviations
common in written communication.
5.27 Activity
Punctuate the following sentences
1. When are you going home to visit your parents

asked the Counsellor
2. Here in this school we treat everybody equally
however equality like all other concepts is difficult
to define and also difficult to put into practice that
notwithstanding we do our level best to be above
board knowing very well that we will fail in our
duties as custodians of law and order if we are
found wanting we hope always to maintain a good
tone of the school and to create an ethos of hard
work academic excellence among other sterling
qualities that we strive to inculcate in all our
students character building is of cardinal
importance to our mission as educators because
we endeavour to build future leaders who will not
renege on their bounden duties to nation self
mankind and all who cherish progress and
prosperity our motto is striving for excellence with
your career our priority we pride ourselves on
being one of the foremost learning institutions in
the southern hemisphere you may ask the
question who do you emulate I will answer that we
have none to emulate but ourselves as we
consider ourselves primus inter pare or first among
equals
5.28 ANTONYMS, SYNONYMS AND HOMOPHONES
The word antonym stands for opposite, while synonym means similar in meaning. Homophones
are words which sound the same in speech but are spelt differently. Similar words and opposites
come in handy in essay writing, summary and comprehension, and in giving a speech.
Homophones help us to be precise and sharp when writing so that we can show mastery and
proficiency in the language. An editor, writer, poet, novelist, essayist, teacher, student, interpreter,
an academician, among many others, make use of synonyms, antonyms and homophones.

5.29 ACTIVITY
Write the synonyms and antonyms of the following words:
Word Synonym Antonym
Disturbed
Rough
Calm
Innocent
Articulate
Indifferent
Precise
Obvious
Important
Linear
Abstract
Question
Education
Problem
Work
Theory
Estimate
Tuition
Depart
Paltry
Masculine
Neutral
Indolence
Different
Ignorance
Poverty
Cruelty
Absurd
Comedy
Illicit
Material
Mundane
Temporary
Temporal
Literary
Allegory
Category
Pedigree
Norm
Substantial
Consequence
Apex
Eminent
Stale
Rigid
Stern
Opportunity
Public
Phobia
Appreciation

Grateful
Seldom
Plot
Assignment
Passionate
Resolute
Astute
Reign
5.30 ACTIVITY- PHONETICS
Use your dictionary, or consult a teacher of English to show you the shades of difference in the
phonetic pronunciation of the following homophones. Your ability to differentiate the sounds
correctly will help you overcome your spelling woes and blues. In Africa, my experience of
teaching for 44 years has made me realise how students in Ghana, Nigeria, and Zambia have
difficulty in dealing with both spellings and correct: pronunciation, aside the difficulties of,
enunciation and correct usage of words in their right context. This can be put down to native
language interference, and picking up the wrong accent from their teachers and their locale. Take
note of the following groups of words and practise their spelling and accurate received
pronunciation. I wish I had read English at the university to be able to give you a more technical
angle. Never mind, I guess Einstein and Shakespeare never went to the university but they all
learnt the hard way through self- tuition, just like the late African-American polyglot and polymath,
Mama Maya Angelou, did. ( Some of the words are homophones, homographs, heteronyms and
homonyms. Find the meanings of these terms)
read (past tense of read), red, ready, Reading
lead (metal), led (past tense of lead)
were, wear, weir, where, ware, wire
wore, whore, war, ore
hoard, horde, hold, hood
leather, lather, ladder, leader, lethal
litter, later, letter, latter,
work, walk, wake, whack,
week, wig, weak, Whig

sod, sword, sworn, swan
wed, word, weld, wad, world, ward
lake, like, leak, leek, lick, luck, lurk
rod, road, rude
rid, read, reed, raid
accept, except, excerpt
sell, cell, sale, seal, ceil, sail
prod, proud, prude
proof, prove, prof
baton, batten, pattern, button, patent, patient, buttocks, bottom, butter, barter
ruin, roon, rune, roan
fair, fare, fur, fear, fir
bare, beer, bear, burr
fuss, firs, fears, fares
heel, heal, hill
hail, hale
purr, pair, pare,
boat, bought, butt, but
male, mail
mill, meal
won, one, worn, wand, wan
reel, real, rill
reef, riff, rev
pane, pain,paen
right, rite, write
sight, cite, site
waist, waste
poor, pore, pour

peer, pair, pear, pare
pail, pale
reign, rain, rein
feat, feet, fit, fete
hut, hurt, heart
tight, tithe, thigh
head, herd, heard
piece, peace, peas, piss,
bus, buzz, bars,
which, witch, winch
cap, carp, cup, cape
leave, live,
bread, bred, bled,
sheer, shear, share, shire
boar, bore, Boer
mall, maul, mole, mol
sit, seat
set, cert,
pail, pale,
peel, pill, peal
eye, aisle, isle, ire,
ice, eyes, isles, aisles
might, mite,
moat, mote, moot, mute
meet, meat
wand, wound, wound, won‟t
oat, ought, oath
horn, hone,

power, purr
haul, howl, hall,
mite, might, mart, mat
mud, mad,
mere, mare, mayor
bail, bale, bill,
pie, pyre, pile, pall, pal
wait, weight
purge, page
purse, pays, pies, pyres
hell, hail, heel, heal,
host, hoist,
none, nun, non-
hare, hair, here, heir, hear
toads, toes, toast, toss
horse, hoes, hose, host, hoax
flare, flair,
cot, court, caught, quote, coat
sore, sour, soar, saw
strait, straight
stare, stir, stair, steer
assess, access
council, counsel
bark, back, bag, bug, buck, berg, beg
troupe, troop
root, route, rot, rut
urge, edge, age, hedge, haj, Taj
torch, touch, thatch,

torn, thorn, ton, tone
there, their, they, dare, day,
hark, hulk, heck, hack
lair, liar, layer, ley, lay
need, knead, nerd
if, eve, heave, elf,
half, have, halve,
bold, bald, bow, bow, bough
row, row, roll, raw, roar
hot, halt, haute, hurt, hut
ask, axe, hacks, hugs
hours, hoarse, horse, hoax
note, not, knot, naught, nought
deed, did, dead
that, dart, dad, dud, thud
throng, tong, bang, long, song, sang, King Kong, Hong Kong
5.31 MISSPELT AND MISUSED WORDS
Writing (present continuous, past continuous) e.g. Now, I am writing. Yesterday I was writing.
When you came, I had written.
Written (past perfect)
Continuous (without break)
Hire (rent or charter) e.g. I want to hire a mathematics teacher to be coaching my son.
Higher (comparative of high) e.g. The pilot flew higher and higher above the clouds.
Worst (superlative of good: „good better best, may I never rest, till my good is better, and my
better best‟ childhood rhyme)
Environment (note, not spelt enviroment)
Compliment Compliments (greetings) of the season. He sent her complimentary remarks on

her wedding. I compliment (greet) you on your success

Complement something which joins another to make it whole or complete. E.g. complementary
angles add up to 900. The complement or conjugate of a man is a woman.
Millennium
Professional (note, not spelt proffessional)
Accommodation
Committee
Impregnate (not impregnant) To make a girl or woman pregnant. She is impregnated by a man
(not impregnanted)
Pregnant I saw a pregnant sow being escorted by a wild boar, and they were rocking and
soaring in the neighbourhood of ZED in sin. Oh, what lovely souls, they made me feel old. Should
you be told? Oh no, hold yourself bold, and join the fold.
Integrate not intergrate
Lose to lose a precious thing
Loose not tight
Loss noun you need to overcome the loss of the football match by your favourite team
Match Match the two pairs of cards. They lost the football match
March You need to march like soldiers
Engage (note, it is not spelt engange)
Quality not qualitable (there is no such word) We could say, quality education or
qualitative research but not qualitable education!
Privilege not priviledge
Grateful I am grateful to you, not greatful
Cease Cease (stop) making noise.
Seize The imported goods were seized by Customs officers because the owner evaded
paying customs duties
Whether I am undecided whether to go home or remain here.
Weather The weather has been cold lately, and I need to buy some warm clothing.
Principal The principal reason why the Principal of the College was fired was his lack of
discipline in adhering to corporate governance principles.
Principle In science, we learn about many principles (laws) governing nature, such as
Archimedes‟ principle of flotation. Our science teacher, who is also the Principal of our college,
has taught us many of these principles in our Physics lessons.
Goal One of the cardinal goals in your life is to strive to lead a straight life so that you do
not end up in gaol (jail).
Being When I talk, I sound as though I were didactic, pedagogic, and like the preacher
man. Well, that is being myself, as a being given to teaching all the time.
Been I have been reliably informed that the guest speaker at our wedding will be arriving 30
minutes late due to logistic problems.
Interest It will be of interest to you to learn that interest rates in the banks have
skyrocketed, causing consternation and panic among entrepreneurs and investors.
Decoding When you receive a message in the process of communication, you try to decode
what you have received in order to respond appropriately to it.
Curb Crime is rife in this country and efforts should be made to curb it.
Quiet You must always remain quiet when you go to the library to read.
Quite It has taken quite a considerable amount of time for Henry to respond to my mail, and
this is quite unlike him to do so. I wonder what is making him quite quiet these days.
Semester This semester has passed quite quickly for my liking.
Conscious After blackening out in a coma, the patient gained consciousness hours later
when he was put on an intravenous drip and given a couple of injections. He came to, and started
asking where he was, what had brought him there, among other questions. In his conscious
state, he became delirious and chatted excitingly with all around
Charter If I have money enough, I shall charter a plane for our honeymoon. I hope you will
not chat me out of it. Of course, you needn‟t do that if the money comes rolling in.
Conscience Everyone with a conscience (not conscious) will know that rape is bad.
Queries I have received many queries from the Council about the property which I inherited
from my late grandfather.
Queues Long queues of vehicles started forming at the petrol filling stations when rumours
started flying that the forthcoming national budget was going to increase the price of fuel by a
substantial amount.
Filing You need a file for filing (not filling) away the hardcopy source documents you
receive.
Filling You need to be filling in those forms and questionnaires you constantly receive
from marketing researchers, needn‟t you?
Distraction The noise from the construction site nearby is a constant distraction to our studies.
Destruction The massive amount and extent of destruction to infrastructure and property
occasioned by the on-going war is incalculable and unimaginable.

Receive I have not received any news yet about the missing plane.
Definite I am definite about the proposal to set up a panel to investigate the riots.
Deceive Many people may be deceived by advertisements.
Believe I believe right will eventually prevail over wrong.
Relief It was a big relief to us to hear that the college will award scholarships to hardworking
students.
Congestion There is an increase in traffic on our city roads these days, leading to massive
congestion on our roads.
Lecturers Lecturers give lectures to students in tertiary institutions all over the world.
Lectures A lecture is a scheduled lesson given to students by professors in universities.
Lag Many students cannot cope with the speed lecturers deliver lectures. One way for
them to cope and not lag (not lack) behind is to listen and write down only key points, and then go
to research later.
Latter John, Peter, and Harry are young adults. The latter, Harry, is the one who has tied the
knot with his sweetheart. The former, John, says he will do so later, while Peter says he is not yet
decided on his sexual orientation.
Later Wait till later to submit your assignment.
Formal The two young men finally fell in love, and agreed to a formal homosexual marriage in
a country where the law allows it.
Its The car is grounded. Its crankshaft is broken.
It‟s It’s (It is) not our duty to repair broken-down cars for free.
A lot A lot (not alot) of water has gone under the bridge since you left for studies in the UK.
At least At least (not atleast), we are making some progress towards our studies.
In terms In terms (not interms) of writing skills, we in this part of Africa are lagging behind.
In turn You scratch my back and in turn (not inturn), I also do the same.
In fact In fact, (not infact) you need to do the needful by settling your debt to me in full.
Piece You need your peace of mind by ignoring some of the many demands from your
extended family. That is my piece of advice to you.
Guard Guard (not guide) jealously your rights from being infringed against by other
people.
Guide My tour guide (not guard) gave me a run-down of the most interesting places
to visit in Zambia, including the spectacular and unmissable Mosi O Tunya Falls.

There There (not their) are many things out there for their entertainment. It‟s theirs to choose.
Chosen I have chosen (not choosen) not to answer any queries from the press, as I know my
right to remain silent until my lawyer is present.
Celebrities Many celebrities (not celebreties) converged at the birthday party for the
renowned superstar.
Reference You need a reference (not referrence) from your former school or college to get a
job.
Referred I was referred to a specialist doctor or I was referred in one paper in my final exam.
Abscond Some students abscond (avoid attending) classes, which is an unwholesome habit.
Verb Noun
Practise practice
License licence
Advise Advice
5.32 TYPES OF SENTENCES
Sentences could be simple, compound or complex.
Example of a simple sentence:
Jason is a handsome man.
Example of a compound sentence:
Jason is not only a handsome man but also he is extremely rich.
Example of a complex sentence:
Even though Jason is handsome and extremely rich, unfortunately for him, he has a quick temper,
which has led him to have already gone through three divorces, a thing which is most unusual for
a man of his age, pedigree, and family background.
Complex sentences are difficult to construct, and as such, students who are not very capable are
advised to desist from writing them, as the more they write them, the more they become prone to
mechanical errors of spelling, punctuation, grammar, among others.
We can use conjunctions and connectives to form compound sentences.

5.34 Determiners, definite and indefinite articles
Consider this simple sentence:
„Man is cooking.‟
Does it make sense to you? You might interpret it in many ways as
. Some man is cooking
Some man is being cooked
Man (generic of mankind) or mankind is cooking
Man is cooking but woman is not
Thus, our sentence is naked and ambiguous.
We can improve it by saying,
A man is cooking. The article „a‟ modifies the man and it is a determiner or modifier. It is an
indefinite article. It tells us at least that a man, not a woman is cooking. To know more
specifically, we might ask the following questions
1. Which man is cooking? (adjective)
2. Where is he cooking? (adverbial clause of place)
3. What is he cooking? (noun/object)
4. Why is he cooking? (adverbial clause of reason)
5. How is he cooking? (adverb)
6. When is he finishing? (adverbial clause of time)
7. Who is he cooking for? ( object/noun)
8. Which recipe is he using? ( noun clause)
9. What utensils is he using? (noun)
Instead of the indefinite article ‘a‟, we can make the sentence more specific by using the definite
article ‘the’. We can now rewrite the sentence as:
The short man who lives down the road is cooking jollof rice for his children in the yard adjoining
the school because his wife has given birth and he is using the recipe his wife taught him some
years back. He is cooking slowly in a big aluminium pot over fire made in an earthen hearth.
He will be done in two hours.

Try to see if you can break the sentence into its functional parts by stating the function of each
word in the sentence.
5.35 ACTIVITY
Form compound and complex sentences with the following connectives:
even if, despite the fact that, in spite of the fact that, notwithstanding that fact, though/yet, not
only/but also, so much so that, in as much as, irrespective of the fact that,
5.36 Self-evaluation
10. What is grammar about?

11. Why do you need to study grammar?
12. How can you ensure that you do not misspell words?
13. What are antonyms, synonyms and homophones
14. Why do you need to have a good dictionary with you always?
15. How many times should you edit your own work?
16. Is it right to give your assignment to another person to write it for you?
17. Why do you think we need to take the study of homophones seriously?
18. What are conjunctions and prepositions? Give examples
19. How can you increase your vocabulary or word power?
5.37 Self-reflection
1. In this unit, what have you learnt so far concerning grammar?
2. Do you think studying grammar is useful?
3. Would you recommend the study of grammar to anyone you know?
4. Which particular aspect of this unit was very fascinating or interesting to you?
5. Do you think the author has opened you up to new knowledge?
6. What useful lessons have you learnt from this unit?

7. Would you agree with the author‟s observation that the study of grammar makes you sharp, and
it enables you to develop the sense of paying attention to every wee bit of detail of your writing?
8. How do you assess this unit? (The author still feels there are many things he could not attend
to in this unit because he has to make it snappy and end it somewhere)
5.38 SUMMARY
No one is perfect in grammar, because usages of the language differ from one geographical
location to the other, and from one time period to the other. Thus, the spatial and temporal
dimensions of the English language pose challenges. However, we are all expected to know the
rudiments of the language as it is found spoken on the BBC or found in the corpus of the Oxford
English Dictionary (OED). If in doubt, consult OWLS at Oxford University. For example, I learnt
long ago in Ghana that the phrase, „I can be able‟ is wrong and a tautology, yet in Zambia and the
USA, it is normal to say‟ „ I can be able‟ without eyebrows being raised. Strictly speaking, „I can‟ is
the same as „I am able to‟ or „I shall be able‟, so „I can be able‟ is wrong and a double repetition.
Grammar is learnt, and if you do not know, you should learn. In this unit, you have learnt the
functions of words and parts of speech, which should go a long way for you to be a better speaker
and writer of the English language. Always when you write, reflect on what you write, and think of
using the right word. If you are in doubt concerning the use of a word, check it up in the dictionary,
or better still, google it up.
UNIT 6 SYNTAX--- FIGURES OF SPEECH, IDIOMS AND PARADOXES PART 2
INTRODUCTION
English is an elastic and innovative language despite its many rules and strictures of grammar. It
allows the writer room to use many interesting expressions in colourful and diverse ways to add
effect, beauty and vividness to what is said or written. Sometimes, we have to find subtle and
diplomatic ways of saying things in indirect ways, depending on the context.
Some writers and authors may indulge in what one of my friends dubs as „authorial elasticity‟, or
what poets normally call poetic licence. We may coin our own terms or words, or what one of my
students terms as, „to vocabulate‟. However, until you establish yourself as an authority in the field,
it will be prudent for you as a student to play by the rules, and abide by the strictures of the
language. Hopefully, this unit will open you up and increase your critical thinking faculty.

In this unit, you will be exposed to some stock expressions whose real meaning may differ entirely
from the literal meaning. You will also learn about figures of speech, which will come handy when
examining any piece of writing. Literary terminologies will be given and defined.
6.2 AIM
To expose students to different ways of saying things in English, and further deepen their
knowledge of the intricacies, subtleties, and ramifications of English language usage
6.3 OBJECTIVES
1. To learn about idioms
2. To understand paradoxes
3. To learn literary terminologies
4. To understand literary appreciation
6.4 IDIOMS
The Concise Oxford Dictionary defines an idiom as,
„a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the
individual words’.
For example, when we say that John was over the moon, or beside himself with joy, or on
cloud nine, we know that John was very happy. Thus, idioms are some form of cryptic or hidden
language which we need to unravel or decipher. However, to the first language speakers or
natives, such expressions present no difficulties because they are very much at home with them.
Not so for second language speakers like you or me, born, bred and schooled in Africa in some
obscure public school or high school. We are often advised to write in as simple a manner as
possible, avoiding idioms as much as possible. We should know them so that whenever, and
wherever we encounter them in print or in spoken form, we shall not make heavy weather of them,
or be at sixes and sevens, or be completely lost at sea. There are millions of idioms, but with quick
wit and judging from contextual usage, we shall fairly get up to speed with the common ones.
Knowing a lot of idioms comes from being an avid reader, and having an enquiring mind and a
keen ear to listen.
Follow the link below and discover as many idioms as possible from the internet site.
www.usingenglish.com/reference/idioms/
Here are some common idioms which readily came to my mind when I was writing this module.
See if you can figure out their meanings.

1. Joseph can‟t say boo to a goose
2. The man is over the hill
3. Mercy‟s head was always in the clouds
4. John had butterflies in her tummy when we approached him with our business proposal.
5. We were asked to lie low until the coast was clear
6. Mable let the cat out of the bag
7. You have to borrow a leaf from Mildred
8. You should leave no stone unturned in your preparation for the exam
9. The orphan fell from frying pan to fire
10. The old sailor spun us many yarns
11. Nti has crossed the Rubicon in his relationship with Ajo
12. Ntiriwa burnt her boat as regards her resolve to stay put
13. Daniel has green fingers
14. Mambo spilt the beans
15. Malwa sowed his wild oats two decades ago
16. Peter was driven from pillar to post
17. Andy played second fiddle to Henry
18. Dede is suspected of having long fingers
19. I managed to get a degree at the cost of an arm and a leg
20. Your argument does not hold water
21. Mansa burnt the midnight candle from both ends
22. Go and tell your tall story to the marines
23. Fiifi is always telling a cock and bull story
24. Nana has nailed his colours to the mast
25. Mumbi kept her cards tightly to her chest
26. Nsansa Warriors Football team are considered a dark horse in the local derby
27. Efua is a black sheep of the family
28. Dedza has shot himself in the foot
29. The sick man has turned the corner
30. The old man has kicked the bucket
31. All hands must be on deck.
32. Roll up your sleeves, pull up your socks, and put your shoulder to the wheel
33. He has many fingers in many pies or many irons in the fire
34. The foreign boxer ate his words, and was made to eat humble pie, when he was made to
kiss the dust by our own local boxer
35. That is a cloak and dagger situation
36. It is a chicken and egg situation
37. Philip sailed close to the storm
38. I suspect Taylor has something up his sleeve
39. Casas tied the knot with the pretty lady
40. Don‟t carry coal to Newcastle
41. There was barely room at the party to swing a cat
42. Don‟t split hairs
43. It was like squaring the circle
44. Abena stole a march on me

45. He fell between two stools
46. He left her in a lurch
47. Johnny runs with the hares and hunts with the hounds.
48. He has a Mr Jekyll and Hyde disposition
49. Education in Africa is subjected to Cinderella treatment by many governments
50. Edison painted the town red with his colleagues
51. Esther has put to bed
52. Abudu cannot think outside the box
53. Danso was drowning in debts
54. Ama saw red when she insisted that the property was hers
55. Manful was born with a silver spoon in his mouth.
56. The country has gone to the dogs
57. Moses made heavy weather of the impending exams
58. Make no bones about it
59. Mary is a wolf in sheep skin or a snake under the grass
60. Dave wears his heart on his sleeves
61. Johnson wears many hats at home and at work
62. Why shed crocodile tears?
63. That is his Achilles point
64. He is riding a high horse
65. Whose ox was gored?
66. He escaped by the skin of his teeth or by a hair‟s breadth
67. He killed the golden goose which laid the golden egg
68. His heart was set on fire when he set sight on the beautiful girl
69. The press is playing to the gallery
70. They were advised to bury the hatchet and smoke the peace pipe
71. He pulled wool over their eyes
72. He‟s the apple of the eye of the family
73. Tapiwa carved a niche for herself
74. My heart is in my mouth
75. I am torn between two worlds
76. The ball is now in your court
77. They are hands in glove with our detractors
78. This is a storm in a teacup
79. He pulled the chestnut out of the fire
80. He put the money where his mouth was
81. Bragging is not my cup of tea
82. He killed a fly with a sledge hammer
83. You have called for a tall order
84. The team was a sitting lame duck
85. He was fishing in troubled waters
86. He decided to set the Thames on fire
87. I have promised him the moon
88. He had a taste of his own bad medicine
89. Don‟t jump the gun

90. His hands are full
91. He is sitting on a time bomb
92. The sparks might fly if you bring those two people together
93. Don‟t bite more than you can chew
94. One day, matters will come to a head and you will meet your Waterloo
95. Asmah got his fingers burnt when he tried to dabble into politics
96. Aisha passed the exam with flying colours
97. Whenever there is an argument on the floor, Natasha will always sit on the fence
98. The professor knows his onions
99. Joe is always in a brown study
100. The boy is treated with kids‟ gloves by his parents
101. That beautiful lady is a Pandora‟s Box
102. The Persians won a pyrrhic victory
103. He was short-changed by his employers
104. He held the short end of the stick
105. She counts her chickens before they are hatched
106. He went away with bag and baggage
107. Neil should desist from punching above his weight
108. When the situation goes from push to shove, you must be prepared to bite the bullet
109. The President gave the General a blank cheque to make his own plans for the assault
110. Moses drew a blank when he went to the ATM to withdraw some money
6.5 PARADOXES
According to Webster‟s New World College Dictionary, a paradox is:
‘a statement contrary to common belief; a statement that seems self-contradictory,

unbelievable, or absurd, but that may be true in fact.’
Consider the following phrases:
Beautiful nonsense, cold comfort, wisest fool, pregnant pause, loud silence, cold sweat, open
secret, bitter-sweet victory, pyrrhic victory, good riddance,
Take a critical look at the following paradoxes and analyse them.
1 .The child is father of the man

2. More speed, less haste
3. Penny wise, pound foolish
4. Why is it that many people want to go to heaven but nobody is prepared to die?
5. All animals are equal, but some are more equal than others
6. If all nations are in debt, where did all the money go?
7. The more you look, the less you can see
8. If swimming is good exercise to stay fit, why are whales fat?
9. Nobody goes to that restaurant because it is always full
10. Sometimes, we need to be cruel to be kind
11. You can save money by spending it
12. I am nobody
13. I can resist anything but temptation (Oscar Wilde)
14. A rich man is no richer than a poor man
15. I am a compulsive liar. Am I lying now?
16. Many born-again Christians are drowning in the fountain of eternal life
17. The place was full of a loud silence
19. John is a wise fool
20. If you didn‟t get this message, call me on my mobile phone
21. If you want peace, prepare for war
22. Jesus said to Nicodemus, a Pharisee teacher of the Law, „Unless you be born again, you
cannot enter into the kingdom of heaven.‟
6.6 LITERARY TERMINOLOGIES, FIGURES OF SPEECH AND APPRECIATION
The English language, as alluded to earlier on, is elastic, eclectic, evanescent and evangelical
because it is beautiful, as it allows its user to be creative, adventurous, and romantic, as it
empowers and allows its adept and sage users to explore more, beyond the established confines
of the language. Albeit, with the proviso that they do not jettison conventional wisdom of the
conservatoire, such as the Royal Society and the English Club. One is made free to say things in
more than one way, and also to use rich expressions which convey meanings other than their
literal meaning. In this section of this module, some figures of speech which are commonly used
in literature will be defined, and examples given.

You will be exposed to the commonly used ones, as there are numerous others which you can
explore and discover for yourselves. We need to know these figurative expressions when writing a
critique of a piece of poetry or drama, or any piece of art work in literature. We need to be au fait
or savvy about these literary devices so that when we encounter any piece of work, we can use
our knowledge of them to critically evaluate and appreciate the style, mood, tone and diction of the
writer. That will develop our critical thinking faculties and make us enjoy fully what we read.
Without much ado, read on.
(Note that some of the definitions given below are taken from the Shorter Oxford Dictionary,
Concise South African Oxford Dictionary, and HarperCollins Electronic Dictionary)
Allegory a story, drama or poem which can be interpreted to give its hidden meaning, and
which teaches a moral lesson e.g. Chaucer‟s Canterbury Tales
Alliteration in poetry, a method of stringing words together which all begin with the same letter
e.g. Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled pepper (all words begin with the letter ‘p’)
Ambrosia food of the gods
Amphora an ancient Greek or Roman jar or jug or bottle
Anapaest prosody or a metrical foot consisting of two short unstressed syllables followed by
two stressed syllables
Anaphora use of pronouns
Antagonist an opponent or one who opposes
Aphorism a pithy or concise saying which contains a general truth e.g. a fool easily parts with
his money
Apothegm/Apophthegm a concise saying or maxim e.g. nothing ventured, nothing gained
Apotheosis elevation to the status of a god or, to the highest level
Aposiopesis rhetoric device of break or pause in speech in a play
Apostrophe a speech in a play or poem addressed to an absent thing which is personified
Anecdote a story which is not proved but regarded as hearsay
Anti-climax a disappointing end to a series of exciting events
Antinomy a paradox or something which sounds absurd but which holds some truth
Antithesis the direct opposite of something
Antonomasia the substitution of an epithet for the real name e.g. The Iron Lady, for Margaret
Thatcher, or the man is a Solomon (instead of a wise person)
Antonym the opposite of a word e.g. the opposite of costly is cheap

Assonance in poetry, the resemblance of sound between syllables in nearby words arising
from the rhyming of stressed vowels or consonants e.g. killed, cold, culled
Ballad/Ballade a poem or song narrating a story
Bard a poet Shakespeare is referred to as the Bard of Avon
Cantata a musical narrative play resembling an oratorio, except that it is shorter and not
as large as an oratorio
Cast the people involved in performing a play
Catharsis purification of the emotions by vicarious experience
Classical poem a poem which represents traditional forms and standards, such as of the
Greeks and Romans, or the Renaissance period
Climax a high point in a drama when excitement is highest
Comedy drama or play full of humour, with a happy ending
Consonance recurrence of similar-sounding consonants in a poem
Conundrum a riddle or puzzle to be solved
Couplet lines in a poem which are designed to follow some metric rules of equal length and
which rhyme
Denouement final part of a play when matters are either resolved or explained
Dialogue speech in a play between two people
Diction the choice of words in a piece of writing
Dirge a funeral song
Drama a play set for the stage with different scenes and episodes
Dramatis personae cast or actors/actresses in a play
Electra the Electra complex for girls is connected with Sophocles‟ play, Oedipus, and also
the psychoanalysis of Sigmund Freund The opposite concept for boys is the Oedipus complex
Elegy a mournful poem written to extol the dead
Ellipsis omission of words from speech or writing characterised by dots
Empathy feeling for another person by putting yourself in their situation
Enantiosis juxtaposition of opposites (irony), in which what is said is the opposite of what is
meant
Enjambment in poetry, continuation of a sentence without a pause

Epic a long heroic story told in verse, e.g. Homer‟s Iliad and Odyssey
Epilogue writing or speech at the end of a long piece
Epistrophe repetition of a word at the end of a sentence
Ethos norms or customs of behaviour
Eulogy a piece of writing which praises someone highly
Euphemism where mild words or expressions are used to make a situation less painful or
embarrassing e.g. the man kicked the bucket, instead of the man died
Fallacy an argument which lacks internal consistency as it has a wrong premise or

assumption
Farce a comical play which has a lot of improbable assumptions, and having a seemingly
buffoon plot
Fiction a novel, or piece of writing which has fictional characters
Free verse a piece of poetry written in freestyle without regard for some standard norms
Griot wandering poets or praise singers found in West Africa
Hyperbole exaggeration e.g. I owe you a million apologies, I am hungry. I think I can swallow
a whale
Homily a sermon or long speech
Iambic pentameter
Irony
Imagery a piece of writing which employs vivid mental images in figurative language
e.g. The relentless flood came raging unannounced like a swarm of locusts, and rapaciously
swept away many people, uprooting them from rooftops, and somersaulting over houses. Many of
the poor and unfortunate inhabitants got buried in their watery graves, far flung from their abodes
like the erratics which were carried away by glaciers from their native places during the
Pleistocene era.
Juxtaposition putting things side by side for contrast and comparison
Litotes understatement The English are noted for their understatements, while Americans are
the opposite. For example, if an English man was the world champion and he was quizzed by
journalists whether he was really the world champion, he would say something like, „Well, I don‟t
know. Ask the fans.‟ An American would say, „Yeah, I‟m the greatest. Everybody knows. Go ask
your dad and mum. I spar with elephants and swim with whales! Does that ring a bell? Come get
a sucker punch and stop yabbing. I yab with my fists in the ring where you get a helluva stings.
Even when I walk on stilts, it gonna tilt in my favour and I wanna whip them fella all. Get that?!‟
Lyric the words of a song which often rhyme like a poem

Magnum opus the greatest work of a writer e.g. Is Things Fall Apart Achebe‟s magnum opus?
Malapropism improper use of words e.g. My father assassinated a goat for us at

Christmas
Meiosis a synonym for Litotes or understatement
Metaphor a figure of speech in which someone or something is likened to the qualities of

another thing in a direct manner e.g. Michael is a lion. This means Michael is as brave as a lion
Metaphysical a philosophical approach to writing e.g. metaphysical poems of William Blake,

Rudyard Kipling, Robert Burns, Walter Scott, Dryden, Henry Longfellow, William Shakespeare,
Maya Angelou, Henry Gates, Wilmot, Alfred Lord Tennyson, among others
Metre the rhythm of a piece of poetry, which is determined by the number and length of feet in a
line
Metonymy the use of a word for something with which it is associated e.g. we are yet to hear
from Bush House (meaning from the BBC)
Monologue a speech addressed to oneself in a play cf. monologue
Mood a piece of writing can tell the mood of the writer when we do critical literary
appreciation
Muses In Greek mythology, the nine Muses or ladies who represented facets of knowledge
such as poetry, music, dance, art, rhetoric, among others
Novel a long piece of writing which has fictional characters in a story which may be based on
some personal observation, experience, or purely based on fertile imagination
Obloquy strong writing which condemns an action
Ode a poem dedicated to a thing or person e.g. Ode to the Nightingale
Odyssey a long, tedious and adventurous journey, or piece of writing which talks of heroic
deeds
Paean a song or hymn of praise, joy, triumph
Parody a piece of writing meant to satirize or ridicule someone
Panegyric a speech in praise of someone
Pantomime a play acted without speech
Personification a situation in a piece of writing where abstract concepts or animals are made
to behave like humans, e.g. Below, are some lines from Alfred Lord Tennyson which I had learnt
in school in 1964 when I was 14 years old
„Of old sat Freedom on the heights,
The thunders breaking at her feet,

Above her shook the starry lights,
She heard the torrent meet.
There in her place she did rejoice,
Self-gathered in her prophet mind,
But fragments of her mighty voice
Came rolling on the wind
Then steps she down thro‟ town and field
To mingle with the human race
And part by part to men revealed
The fullness of her face
Grave mother of majestic works,
From her isle-altar gazing down,
Who Godlike,
Wears the crown,
Her open eyes desire the truth,
The wisdom of a thousand years is in them
May perpetual youth
Keep dry their light from tears;
That her fair form may stand and shine
Make bright our days and light our dreams
Turning to scorn with lips divine
To falsehood of extremes‟ Alfred Lord Tennyson (1809-1892)
Plot the gist or summary of a play
Poem a piece of writing which is composed for musical, emotional and aesthetic appeal
Prima Dona the principal character in a play
Prologue something written as a preamble or short piece to a long piece such as a play
Prose continuous writing as in an essay or report

Prosody the study or art of composing poetry in terms of sound and effect
Prosopopoeia a figure of speech where an absent person is made to speak
Protagonist someone who supports an idea
Pun a writing which has a play on words e.g. Mercy Oppong, have mercy upon my poor
soul.
Repetition in poetry, some poets employ the scheme of repetition of particular words and
phrases to achieve some intended effect. E.g. „Water, water everywhere, and not a drop to drink,
Water, water everywhere, and all the boards did shrink, We were as still as still could be
Like a painted ship on a painted ocean‟ (Paraphrased from the Ancient Mariner)
Rhyme choice of words in poetry which have the same sound, often placed at the end of
the lines e.g. Spoon, moon, soon, croon
Rhythm the beat or tempo in a piece of work
Satire a piece of writing which makes fun of someone
Similes a figure of speech which likens one thing to another e.g. as slow as a snail, as easy as
ABC, as sharp as a razor, as poor as a church mouse, as innocent as a baby, as new as a pin or
new coin, as rich as King Croesus, as stupid as an ass, as cunning as a fox, etc.
Sketch/Skit the outline of a play or a short play
Soliloquy a speech addressed to oneself in a play viz. talking to oneself, monologue
Sonnet a poem of fourteen lines which uses any of formal rhyme schemes
Strophe a group of lines forming a section of an ode or poem
Synonym the opposite of a word e.g. loud antonym quiet
Synecdoche a figure of speech in which a part is made to represent the whole e.g. ZCAS
(meaning the ZCAS basketball team) lost to UNZA (UNZA basketball team)
Synopsis brief summary of a long piece of writing
Theme the gist or main idea in a play or piece of writing, which serves as the golden thread
uniting all the parts in a holistic manner
Tone the way a piece of writing speaks to you, harshly, softly, frankly, crudely, rudely, etc.
Thespian relating to drama or the theatre
Threnody relating to wailing or lamentation
Utopia an imaginary state or condition of perfection
Valedictory farewell address at a funeral, or given to graduating students

Vade Mecum handbook or manual of instruction given to students in a college or varsity
Viva Voce live and face to face interview
Verse writing a verse or stanza of poetry
Verisimilitude something looking real but in reality, it is fake
Wordsmith a spin-doctor or person endowed with the facility of using words in an easy manner
Zeugma also known as syllepsis, it is where a word in a sentence is made to perform more
than one function, both literal and metaphorical e.g. Joseph is a Tiger. This is because, one, he
belongs to a group known as the Tamil Tigers. Second, he is a fierce person who does not easily
give up when all others want to quit.
References
grammar.about.com/20figures.htm
examples.yourdictionary.com/figures of speech
www.usingenglish.com
humanities.byu.edu/rhetoric/figures of speech
www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/figures of speech
6.7 Activity
1. Here are thirteen poems for you. Use the figures of speech outlined above to write an
appreciation of each poem, taking note of the author‟s style, diction, mood, theme, tone, and the
figures of speech present in each poem. Enjoy reading.

Poem 1
African Rhythm
Rhythm, rhythm,
Great African rhythm in syncopation syndrome,
Synchronous with soulful symphonies,
Hold your breath
African rhythm violates your ears with violent vibes,
Get it right and hold it tight,
It soothes the soul with searing messages,
Rhythm, rhythm
African rhythm vibrates the air with vibrant jives
To the chit chat of the percussion bead gourd,
To the clanging metallic clang and
Cadences of the congas and castanets,
To the cascading fluted music of the reed flute,
And octave gourdly xylophones,
To the magical thrumming sounds from the kora and mbira,
Yeah, to the eurythmic cavorting
And gymnastic gyrations of male dancers,
Watch the zigzag and intricate limb movements
Of female dancers,
Feast on the messages choreographed by waist wriggling,
Torso trembling and buttocks bouncing,
Rhythm, rhythm, African rhythm
It arrests your soul to do a gig and a dig,
Boboo, boboo, dum, dum, chaa
Boboo, boboo, boo, boo, chaa
Boboobo, boo, boo, dum, dum, chaa
Chaa, chaa, chaa,
Akechaa, Akechaa, eei
Dum, dum, dum, dum, chaaAkecha eei, dum, dum
Poem 2
In my village
In my village,
Embalmed beef is their beef,
No one eats carcases
Of chickens, fish and cattle,
That is their beef

In my village,
Village chicken is reared and rarely not consumed,
They live on organic food,
Fresh and raw from the farm,
Unsaturated by fanciful fertilisers and chemicals
In my village,
Chickens and livestock roam in the free,
Eating termites, worms, grub and medicinal herbs,
To beef themselves up without cholesterol
I say, in my village,
No one suffers from cancer,
Obesity is unknown,
Old people have 20/20 vision
Again I say, in my village
They have no freezers or fridges
For frozen carcases,
For, those who eat carcases
No sooner become walking carcases
Before they expire and kept frozen in morgues and mortuaries
In my village
GMO foods are non-existent
Supermarkets, takeaways and ice creams
Are luxuries beyond their reach
They drink local brew
From fermented maize, millet and sorghum

They refrain from sugar-saturated fizzy drinks
That is why in my village
80 year olds have full set teeth
And farm all year round
They suffer no heart complications
They are as fit as a fiddle
In my village
They have beefs against modernity
They bend backwards to embrace
The wisdom from generations past
They subsist on traditional herbal medicine
For, they abhor the sins of our modernity
However, the old and the young
Are embroiled in arguments,
To eat or not to eat carcases, that is the question
© (2014) Kwesi Atta Sakyi email: kwesiattasakyi449@gmail.com
Poem 3
Let me sit my somewhere
I see people go
I see people come
Is there anything happening hereabouts or thereabouts?
Oh, let me sit my somewhere
It‟s no business of mine
To nose-poke into fires in the hearth
In other people‟s homes
That‟s bad manners, bad manners
So we‟ve been told

From good habits of old
Which we mustn‟t put on hold,
Rather enjoined steadfastly to uphold,
They could be roasting a toad
Or they could be smoking a roach
But then, none of my business to encroach,
They could be dancing to the kakaracha,
Oh, let me sit my somewhere
I‟m not a cockroach,
But then the scent from a smoking toad,
Wafting on the air just across the road
Could be sickening and it gives cold comfort
Oh, my belly bottom is retching
And ready to implode
I fear my belly will cave in if I throw
So nobody can tell me something?

Here I am sitting my somewhere
I see them go to the Airport
To and fro
They go
To and fro
They come
Just like visitations to the teaching hospital
Yet, there is no dokita (doctor) around
Nor do norses (nurses) abound
I see strange strangers
I see weird ladies in fine laces
Crime is writ 3D on their faces
They seem people who go places
I smell a rat cooking in an African cauldron
Or could it be a python simmering in
Obe nla (big soup)
In a gargantuan African cooking pot?
Strange scents evoke fanciful imaginings
Of the goings-on and the goings-under
So nobody will say me something,

Anything juicy to quench my thirsty African curiosity?
But I get krokro (20/20) eyesight oh
And I get bloodhound olfactory nerves oh
Ibe, I get pin-pricked rabbit-like ears oh,
Only way the thing my eyes don see
My mouth no fit talk oh
My mouth dey fit shut like a clam oh
To and fro
Fro and to
They play seesaw with their entrée and exit
Like the tides at the shore

Ebb and flow,
They reap but do not sow
As they say, no one defecates without stooping,
To the Airport they go to and fro
But these don‟t work at Airport
Neither do they work anywhere
Yet they drive German posh cars,
Eat Russian caviar, smoke Havana cigars,
Drink French Cognac, Scotch whisky, Italian
Wine and wear vintage Spanish or Moroccan leather
Shoes, even American stiletto–heeled shoes,
Besides, munch Hungarian sausage and English fish and chips,
They strut about with lazy bone girls,
Girls who dunno how to get a life,
They fit no sane man‟s criteria for a wife
He-men adorn their bodies

With satanic tattoos and ensigns
They wear expensive garbs and habiliments
Fit for kings and queens
Yet, their outfit taste is an outrageous distaste –
Chains, rings, jewelry of sorts
Adorn ears, noses, necks, fingers, ankles and toes
In the wrong and most unlikely places,
Tongues, navels and genitalia also,
Above this cacophonous riot,
The never missing high society perfumes
Suffuse and gag the air,
They have affectation for the gang rag-tag,
They shit expensive shit oh, oga
Yet they covet my simpleton style,
My brother, my sister, these 419s are true to type,
Nowhere cool at all at all oh,
I bet my bottom, they envy my unsung stool
Perhaps, it has not stunk enough oh,
To merit the media limelight,
Perhaps, I need to do a great publicity stunt,
Today is party day,
They blare funky rap music at the loudest,
The way it happens all over the city
When there are funerals the Ghanaian way,
So are they partying or holding
Their own funereal funerals,
Before d-day when the storm breaks?
They dance the dance of the uneasy rich,
They fake fake happiness,
Oh my brother, my sister,
Their inside no cool at all at all oh,
They drive on the suicidal fast lane of life
Abi, but me, I dey my corner oh,
Let me sit my somewhere oh,
Ino be cockroach oh!

One day, yes it took only a day,
Their secret leapt out of the gate
Like a freshly caught fish out of the basket,
A kid brought from up country
Spilt the beans,
He let the cat out of the bag
Yes, he spewed the beans like hot potatoes,
It was indeed a birds‟ whisper,
„You know what, they cook magic powder
Day and night
So they get dollar power here and there,
They sell to throwers and couriers
At Kotoka International Airport (KIA)
Perimeter in Accra,
We count dollars day and night

In wads, rolls and bundles,
Oh, you can smell the dough in our domicile
Blah, blah, black sheep------------------------

Oh, so magic powder is secret of their
Dollar power?
Cocaine, they call it?
My brother, my sister,
Let me sit my somewhere,
Nowhere cool oh, at all, at all oh
I no ibe cockroach oh! And Ino be
Kakaracha or nkakaraka oh!
Cocaine is cooking and brewing a storm,

When cooked,
They will eat and shit and sneeze,
The scent will create a stench,
Soon, they will swoon and „quench‟
With BNI and FBI hot on their trail,
They will shrink and resist drinks
Their tails will shrink between their legs,
They will gnaw at their fingernails
And their faces will become crescent–shaped
But me, they think I‟m a snail and a stinker,

Yet we all go reach our destination,
Oga, let me sit my somewhere oh,
Where I see them go and come,
To and fro, to and fro
In East Legon and Spintex Road
They live in majestic mansions of the Gold Coast,

But me oh, Ino be son of a smoking gun

To be constantly on the run
I run no business of illicit rum
I will sit still on my bum

Whilst they go to and fro, to and fro,
Let me sit my somewhere,
Somewhere on the fence
Where I‟m risk-averse
My decision has no reverse
Poem 4
Angry African Woman
You came round to eat my yam

Then you came again to eat my nshima (maize pasta)
But today, you must prostrate
And pay homage
I have daubed my body with sweet-scented cocoa cream
I have smeared some parts with natural shea butter
And I have also dusted my pudendum with
Bint-el-Sudan talcum powder
For Friday evening special effect
On Saturday, I prefer scintillating aroma
Of Town Hall or Saturday Night talcum vintage,
Yes, I am ready for those who pay,
They get the password to the secret gate
They obtain discounts and a good bargain,
Good customer, call again
You came to suck succulent breasts

You came to steal sweet kisses
But today you must pay
Or else you will eat cold nshima
With maggot-infested bearded meat,
Net even cold matoke leftovers for you
If you want fresh hot sadza (nshima)
Or hot yummy pounded yam with
ogbono or egusi soup and bitter leaf
Stuffed with chunks of isi ewu (goat meat)
Or do you prefer ugali, joloff rice, jambalaya or couscous?
Then you must go on all fours
And pay really big,
Nshima and sadza are not for free
Nor is pounded yam or any of the African dishes,
In a credit crunch period
The naira is expensive to mint
Yet I‟m reasonable enough to know

You don‟t vomit cash
But understand, I have endless needs to
Keep the good sexy looks and be dapper,
Besides, I need insurance for old age
I run risk of female diseases
Like cervical cancer, obstetric
Fistula and cancer of the breast,
Just as you men suffer prostate cancer
And urinary retention
I detest men with stingy arms
I abhor mean men with stony hearts
If you come again without a loaded purse
I shall incant on you a secret curse
I will crush your nostrils in bed
With my helluva surplus breasts
To cause asphyxia,
I will yank your silly willy from between your legs
I will dump your tuxedo, shoes and pants,
In the dirty running kitchen sink
Or into the dirty dish water in the nearby ditch
I‟ll act like a proper witch and bitch
Then give you a forensic frisk over
When I‟ve crooned you to a deep sleep
In your dead drunken stupor
Then you will trudge home half awake
Through the village
In your bare birthday suit
In the wee hours of a cold Monday morning
Indeed I hate yam eaters who don‟t pay

Or who pay skimpingly
I scorn nshima swallowers who don‟t stay
These are the Casanova candidates for castration
They behave like hit-and-run minibuses
That ply in the streets of Lusaka,
Or like the Okada and Molue mad drivers of Lagos
Or like the Trotro drivers in Kokomlemle in Accra,
Or like the Matatus in Kampala or Nairobi
They are all the same everywhere in Africa,
They are greedy money prostitutes
They cram the buses to the brim,
What a grim experience for commuters,
Hmm, life for prostitutes, commuters and bus
Drivers is always on a knife edge – slim
Hey fella, yam and nshima are staple foods

They must be eaten always fresh and hot,
If you come again and you don‟t pay
I will chase you with a fufu pounding pestle
To inflict you a mortal wound
I will slosh you with a stinking week-old
Urine of mine specially brewed for the purpose

I will pepper-bomb your eyes with alligator chilli
I will put sand in your gari
I will hang a bell around your neck
To alert the village womenfolk,
Remember, sex doesn‟t come cheap these days
Its price is directly proportional to inflation,

The economic crunch and the intensity
Of the sex drive waxing hot between your thighs,
In these age and time, stick to one woman,
One man, one nshima,
Multiple sex partners is costly and a nightmare,
It breeds wahala,
Sex maniacs and serial sexists,
Go home to roost,
One woman is more than enough for life,
Is that your bonafide wedded wife?
(From the book Mosi O Tunya Sounds 2009 by the author with a few modifications)
Poem 5
On your Wedding Day
Nuptial knots tied

Airtight,
No backward step to take,
Nor sideward glance to look
Nor false love make or fake
For things of the past have passed and gone
A new dawn is unfolding in your life
A bud is budding and sprouting,
Beautiful flowers in twain glitter
On the green grassy lawns they litter
Like butterflies they flitter,
Dancing and floating dreamily about in dreamland,
Honeysuckle, roses and flowers of diverse
Hues and sheen
Grace the honeymoon scene,
Pure and white their garments shrouded,
Wedding bells peal, replete with beat
Wedding bed wet with rivulets of sweat
Love kisses stringed with sweat beads
Bride and bridegroom spear
Each other with cupid arrows,
Cavorting, carousing and caressing
In joyous abandon,
Marriage feast festoons their feral-like festal fiefdom,
A world theirs and theirs alone to govern,
No government nor authority so wanton

Can their holy ramparts of love trespass
Unbending love, unending love, they are wont,
Till death do them part,
Love, like sweet music, play on
And ambrosia, food of the gods, feed
Poem 6
Books
In my dreams,
Endless piles and piles of them,
Helpless heaps and heaps of them,
Neat rows, and rows of them, books!
In my days, books were the in-thing

We browsed through the blades
Sniffed and chewed on the cud,
Digesting and savouring the old and the new,
Foraging and rummaging through the leaves
For the knowledge ensconced in the tomes
The words raced through the mind,

The intriguing pictures flashed past –
All were processed in the mind‟s eye
Long after perusing them in the books,
Books!
No one needs them these days,

The young are the worst offenders
They bypass them every now and then
In preference for computer games
And in preference for internet names
Of their famous cartoon characters
Manufactured by Walt Disney
Or encrypted by the Hollywood scribes
They snatch away our readers
As now they are the teachers

And the mind-minders
What a world without knowledge!
It is utterly cabbage
Rummaging through on the internet garbage,
If the young ever dare read the books,

It‟s Harry Potter this or Harry Potter that –
They hardly read anything else,
Of the pick from the hat,
Harry Potter is heavily loaded for the purse,
what a terrible curse
Harry Potter puts on the nurse
Who cares and banishes ignorance –
The other books!
Critics of pedagogy
Contest the book is a ruse,
It satisfies but one sense
Out of the five senses
So interact sense is another sense
Virtual reality is another science,
Check the Simpsons Cartoons,
MP3 players are another media,
All are parts of the encyclopaedia
Of pedagogy
It‟s not the book alone,
That is but one medium
(From the book Mulungushi Sounds 2007 by the author)
Poem 7
Ode to a heavy downpour in Lusaka
That fateful and frightful day in early March,
The entire Lusaka sky was leaden dark and overcast,
It was laden with pitch dark clouds,
As dark and ominous as two moonless midnights combined,
Daylight turned into greyish gloom,
As cumulus-nimbus clouds straddled the sky,
The impending storm announced its entrance
With flashes of lightening and peals of thunderous thunderclaps,
The sky was a scene of turbulent warfare among the elements

The tree crowns became dark green
Against the silhouette of the Lusaka skyline,
To me, the sky was pregnant and heavy with child from the rain god,
When months back, the hot weather had intercourse with the water bodies,
But which midwife would deliver the child of a god?
The rain broke loose, and it poured and poured and poured relentlessly,
Raining a torrent of faceless cats and dogs,
Almost the entire city remained indoors in offices and homes,
Caged behind bars by a torrential deluge,
It rained and rained till the ground was choked,
It could no more drink the run-off,
The limestone, artesian and aquifer formations,
Had no more pores to soak in the downpour,
Lusaka drainages burst their seams, it seemed,
Industrial areas, residential areas, offices-
All became theatres of water manoeuvres,
Reminding city dwellers, drainages are neither sufficient nor efficient,
City dwellers accused Lusaka City Council,
Lusaka City Council blamed road contractors,
Road contractors castigated central government,
Central government put the buck on donor community and cooperating partners,
The blame game went in a circle, in a circus,
The streets of Lusaka had turned rivers
On which ships could steam and Venetian Gondolas could ply,
The deep deluge inundated streets and pedestrian sidewalks,

Many workers walking home got stranded in pools and poodles,
As well as mighty oceans in the worst-hit areas
Oh, that was a watery way for wayward wenches,
To wade through to meet their dates
Alas, the rain had kept date also with the late evening,
Hunters and their prey could not drink their Hunter‟s Gold in their haunts,
Yes, it rained deep into the night,
It rained and rained as never before,
As if the windows of heaven were wide open,
And the sky itself was like a badly leaking roof,
Most appointments became disappointments, and missed appointments,
Everyone in Lusaka that day in March had rain appointment,
It was indeed, a real rainy day that Monday, 10th March in Lusaka
© 2014 Kwesi Atta Sakyi
kwesiattasakyi449@gmail.com
Poem 8
Ambition
Of sterner stuff ambition is made,

It springs from deep wells of vision,
The will to succeed never left to wilt,
On and on it rides,
Till the ultimate goal it abides
Loftier goals set and kept,

The soul to glorious heights leapt,
By dint of hard work, gold to mint,
A glorious vista to glint,
In a chink in the curtain of life
Nay, noble thoughts your ambition to clothe,

Abnormal and base ambition our forebears sought not,
To such ilk they nautically steered north at nought,
Giving a wide berth at 180 degrees,
Cast out fear and boldness escort,
When thy aim a noble thought,
Vainglory and coarse ambition put to zero,
Gross ambition consider dross,
Bold as a lion, thy prey to pursue with eagle sight,
When glorious ambition courts thy thoughts,
Sit not tight, with both hands set to grab
And hug hugely in thy bosom,
Nor like Lot‟s wife look back and a salt pillar be,
Apply thyself to strenuous deeds,
Relentlessly pursue thy goal to the dot,
In thought and in deed apply with speed,
Taking one step at a time, like a tot and
A shot of gin, deep in action steep thyself,
Till the deeds accumulate to the goal,
Then behold, beside thyself intoxicated with success
Simple men steadfastly stood

Their ambition ground for to claim,
From ground zero upwards they built,
In the end, sat they at summit of success
Of their cherished skyscraper tower of ambition,
Surveying new vistas in the chinks
Provided by the vast curtain of life,
Only the unadventurous never ventures
To cross the line to realms of roaring success
Pusillanimously they pursue their aim with diffidence,
Follow your dream; drift along in the stream,
Keep ambition dream close to reality,
And imagination and creativity rekindle at full throttle
With hope, faith and hard work,
Reap inevitable resounding results,
Ambition, the cordite that ignites motivation,
Yielding insight into glorious futures,
Ambition, the spark that mushrooms
Into a nuclear-like explosion,
Once in motion, knows no breaching,
It grows astronomically in fission and fusion,
Yielding and yielding at its fruition
Poem 9
Mosi O Tunya
There are sights

And there are sights
The sights and sound of Mosi O Tunya
In lower Zambezi in Zambia
Defy description.
Bless that day in 1995

When, like David Livingstone of old,
I beheld the Victoria Falls
In full force in May
What a wonder of nature
Which on beholding,
Instantly increased my faith tenfold
In the Creator
I stood stupefied in awe,

At the concourse of cascading froth
Like sparkling white teeth of a giant,
A gargantuan curtain of white cloth
Over a mammoth gaping precipice
Whose unimaginable depth made me vertiginous
When I took a walk on the tantalizing
Knife-edge Bridge
Oh, all atheists need to troop to Zambia

And on beholding this seventh wonder,
Debunk their unbelief with geometric alacrity,
Behold Mosi O Tunya
Is the smoke that thunders
Only found in Zambia,
Twalumba!
Poem 10
Temptations of Daughters of Eve
Zambian damsels,
Venuses of vintage African women
In beauty and charm they stand tall
It requires a philosopher king and an angel
A great deal of restraint not to fall
To the wicked temptations
Of these daughters of Eve
No wonder rape is galore,
But take note not to make them whores
For, your act of rape is not part of our lore

Nor your patronising of brothels one of our mores
Rather appeal to your better self
And put your good manners to the fore
Before you fall,
In all my travels and travails,
Never saw a treasure trove of African beauty

Awash in this Garden of Eden,
In this Noah‟s ark of Zambia,
In the beautiful and picturesque
Sunshine land of Zambia,
Zambia here we come
Welcome
Mwaiseni mukwai
Here we come, Zambia
Seductive smiles of the ladies
(Never mind having flights of fancy of sexual orgies)
Erotic paroxysms of dancers
Electrocuted in mid-section
Unbelievable gyrations of the waist
Can make you salivate in your pants
And sure you can rant,

Wondering what bedroom secrets lie untold
Except the overt and public display
Of waist gyrations in traditional dances
Which you now behold
Brave yourself,
Makishi masquerade dancers on fire,
Serenje kalindula on the loose
Amayenge dance ensemble sock
It out to the high heavens -
Caterpillar, caterpillar, caterpillar!
Hey, welcome to earthquake dances
Mind the sod on which you stand
You could be swept off your feet
And instantly transported into a
Mental world of orgies, obscenities
And debauchery -
Wait a minute,
Don‟t think from your waist downwards
You may be standing on quicksand
Or else you will get sucked into the
Inferno by the bewitching lady temptresses
Hold your firepower,
Arrested midstream in your daydream?
Flow with the stream

They are full of breams
Big and delicious breams they are

In this unforgettable land of the Zambezi
Make a date or you will be late
Come with your mate
To behold heaven‟s gate
At the Mosi O Tunya
Where angels took flight

On beholding the majestic sight
Of the mighty Mosi O Tunya -
The Victoria falls!
Poem 11
Zambia
Zambia, Land of natural beauties,

In flora, fauna and inflorescence,
Endowed with wonderful people of extraordinary
Warmth, patience, beauty and welcoming disposition
Yes, land of Broken Hill man,
Veritas zinjanthropus austrolopithecus,
Land of copper, cobalt, corn and gemstones,
Roan antelope of colonial Northern Rhodesia fame,
Big 5 game and other wildlife of renown,
Land of the mighty Zambezi River,
And historically, not the least,
David Livingstone, Cecil Rhodes, von Lettow – Vorbeck, Gore-Brown and
The indefatigable freedom fighter,
KK of the Kenneth Kaunda brand name
Savannah woodland stretches

As far as the eye can see
Myriads of countless birds and reptiles
On the Lochinvar, Lukanga Swamps and Kafue Flats,
Take a deep breath,
Survey the geomorphological transformations,
The diastrophic upheavals,
Zambia translates into the epicentre
Of waterfalls, faults, crater lakes
And fold mountains –
The innumerable dambos, miombos
And plateaux fan out in a phalanx,
Ah, indeed, Zambia is a geographical
Tapestry for the naturalists to find!
Come to think of it,

Imagine a peaceful country of 72 tribes,
Bordered by eight ex-war torn countries,
Unbothered and unblemished by internecine skirmishes
Despite a wide cultural diversity!
In Zambia, there is no lack of festivity,
All year round festivals are lined up –
The Umutomboko ceremony in Mwansabombwe
The colourful Kuomboka regatta of the Lozi on the Zambezi,
The captivating Likumbi Lya Mize masquerades of the Luvale,
The Ukusefya Pang‟wena ceremony of the humorous Bemba,
The unforgettable warrior N‟cwala ceremony of the Ngoni-
Yeah, there is no shortage of cultural carnivals in Zambia
To entertain the transit or transient tourist,
Here we come, Zambia

Twalumba
Twatotela
Zikomo
Enisha
Mulishani, Mwauka bwanji
Munazuwa
Sancho emuane ekudee
Mwabuka
Mwaiseni mukwai
Eya mukwai!
Poem 12
The Geography of Love
Your grace and poise overwhelms me like a tsunami

Your lambent eyes flicker like hurricane lamps
In the throes of a tropical storm or line squall
Your breasts bob and heave
Like beacons on the waves of the Atlantic
At Takoradi Harbour
Your behinds are like the drumlins left
Behind by glaciations
Or like mammary hills of Oblongo and Ningo near Accra
Your serrated neck like yardang corridors
Through which the unseen wind blasts
Your slender arms like the Nile snaking
Its way north over the Sudd region in Southern Sudan
Your navel like an oasis in the Libyan Desert
Your thighs like giant timber trees in the
Thick tropical forest of Sierra Leone, Liberia,
Cameroun and Congo DR,
The gap in your front teeth like a
Ravine in the Rift Valley of East Africa
Or like the gaping gorge at the mighty Victoria
Falls in Zambia

The crown of your head like the
Umbrella-shaped acacia tree tops of the Savannah
The hair on your cunt like the
Tall leafy green elephant grass of the
Niger-bend swamps of Timbuctoo in the rainy season
Your lips curve like the ox-bow lakes
And meanders of the Nile in its lower
Lacustrine/riverine course
Again, your lips are like the recumbent
Folds on the Atlas and Drakensberg Mountains
Your fingers fan out like distributaries
Of the Niger Delta
The ebbs and flows of your breathing
Are like the breakers at Krokrobite Beach near Accra,
When you utter a word,
It has the resonance of a simoon on the Sahara Desert
The colour of your skin
Is a cross between the grayish gigantic
Granite tors
And the dark-brown jagged shales on the shores
Of Kromantse in Central Region of Ghana
Your square slender shoulders like the
Table Mountain towering over Cape Town
Your legs are like the massive columns
Of the valley of the Pharaohs in Abu Simbel
On the Nile in Luxor, Egypt
Your feminine figure is crafted like
An earlier version of a Motorola cell phone
Or like the guitar,
Or like one of the ornately carved wooden
Statuettes made by the master woodcarvers
In Livingstone in Zambia,
Your eyelashes and eyelids are like
Sweeps of crescent-shaped barkhans on the Sahara Desert
Your smile is like the dreamy and
Pleasant Athii Plains near Nairobi in Kenya
Your shapely legs converge at your torso
Like the confluence of the Niger and
Benue at Lokoja in Nigeria
The Sweetness of your lips like honey
Or local jam on tea bread from Nsawam in Ghana
Your nostrils like the entrances to the
Caves at Abrobiano in Komenda, Central Ghana
Your tummy as flat as the Okavango Pan in
Botswana
When you walk past, it is like an
Ostrich inspecting a guard of honour in
Windhoek, Namibia
Or like the wildbeest and gazelles strutting
Past on their annual migration on the Masai
Mara in Kenya

When in flight, your canter is like the
Zebra on the run, pursued by the carnivores,
When the setting sun casts your shadow on the ground
It is like the stilted masquerades
Doing their yuletide dance in Winneba, Central Ghana
Your whole body is a mosaic of love potions
When you dance, your arms and legs make
Intricate movements
Yeah, conveying silent messages of love in all directions
The message that you are ripe
You need the vibes from the guys and suitors
Yeah, they come forth with different
Guiles to woo your love,
Alas, most walk away nonplussed
And befuddled,
You ridicule them for their crass stupidity,
Oh, love, you are too hot for their wit
And I wonder who will solve this African conundrum of love
6.8 Self Evaluation
1. Why is it that we should not use a lot of idioms when we write? Give three reasons.
2. What is the definition of a paradox?
3. Write down 10 idioms of your own. What does each one mean?
4. Give examples of a hyperbole.
5. In which type of essays do you think you can employ a lot of idioms?
6. What is a cliché?
7. What is malapropism?
8. What are prefixes and suffixes? Form words with these prefixes: mal-, dis-, con-, de-, mis-,
em-, en-,
9. Form words from the following suffixes: -ment, -cy, -ly, -ce, -ness, -less
10. What is meant by literary appreciation?
11. Compose a poem choosing your theme from any of the following: Diligence, Love, Fear,
Faithfulness, Corruption, Success, Ageing, Inequality

6.9 Self reflection
1. What new things have you learnt from this unit?
2. Having gone through this unit, what do you think you should do well to succeed as an excellent
student of English?
3. Why do you think this unit turned out to be very big?
4. Do you have any suggestions for improving this unit?
5. How do you hope to improve yourself in the study of English?
6.10 SUMMARY
In this unit, you were made aware that the English Language is an elastic and interesting language
in the sense that things can be said in many varied ways by using idioms and figures of speech
which are natural to native speakers. An idiom is a way of saying things other than their literal
meaning. You were also made aware that there are thousands of idioms in the English language.
However, we are cautioned against the excessive use of idioms in our writing as they can be
barriers to clear communication. We are to know them to enrich our experience, and to help us
understand them when we encounter them in verbal communication or in fictional writing. Finally,
we were made aware of some figures of speech which should help us appreciate works of art such
as poetry, drama, novels, among others.
UNIT 7 COMPREHENSION AND SUMMARY WRITING
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The word comprehension means understanding or grasping the key points in a passage, and the
word summary means a gist or short version of a long piece of writing. A comprehension passage
will test your language skills in terms of word usage such as antonyms and synonyms, questions
on content or your own understanding of issues raised in a given passage, and your reflection,
reaction, assessment and analysis of those issues. Often a comprehension exercise will ask you

to explain figures of speech, idioms and other literary devices used by the writer of the passage
and also to assess their style of writing, tone, diction, mood, among others.
In effect, the exercises set will also evaluate your skills in appreciating a piece of writing and
helping you to develop your critical thinking faculties. When you encounter a long piece of writing
in an exam, you are supposed to read quickly through it to capture its theme. You are supposed to
underline key points or make notes on the margins. But before you read the passage, you are to
skim through the questions set even before reading the passage. Pay attention to facts and figures
given in the passage as well as examples given. Each first sentence of a paragraph contains the
key idea in that paragraph.
Questions will be set to test your grasp of ideas so be prepared to isolate those key issues and
paraphrase them by expressing them in your own words as much as possible. Summary writing
used to be known as précis, from the word precise. A summary therefore should be short and
exact or precise by not adding to or subtracting from what is said in the passage. The import of
summary writing is to develop your ability to say in a few words, something which is said in so
many words. In summary writing, try to state the key points in your own words, and stick to the
word limit given, such as summarise a 10,000 word dissertation in an abstract or executive
summary of not more than 300 words. Your summary should avoid examples, and capture key
points from the main sub-divisions, mainly from the chapter introductions and summaries.
7.2. AIM
The aim of Unit 7 is to make you familiar with the methods of writing summaries to long passages,
or paraphrasing in your own words the main ideas in a given passage, as well as answering
comprehension questions which test understanding of what is read.
7.3. OBJECTIVES
 To assist students acquire critical thinking skills when analysing long passages
 To assist students increase their vocabulary
 To expose students to many writing styles
 To help students develop rapid reading skills
7.4. Activity
Here is a passage for you. Answer the questions and summarise it in no more than 300 words.

PASSAGE A
Cyber-Crime in Ghana
It is said that an idle hand will find something to do, good or evil. Cyber-crime is the crime
committed on the internet, whereby people create a spam or fake message and send unsolicited
messages to as many email addresses as possible, by scouring and searching through the
internet for email addresses of people they do not know.
These internet criminals or hoodlums engage in identity theft, whereby they send you a message
that you have won a huge sum of money through online lottery, or they work in a bank in Benin or
Burkina Faso, and they are aware of a dormant huge deposit of money, whose owner was
involved in a plane accident many years ago, or that they are the son or daughter of late Colonel
Gaddafi, or some eminent personage who left some endowment to be bestowed on you, a named
beneficiary. Meanwhile, you, a black person, have no blood familial connections to the said
demised white personage.
They ask you for your personal details so that they can send the money direct to your bank
account. Others send you messages that will ask you to submit an application so that if you pay
them a certain sum of money through your Visa card or Paypal, they will send you an online
application or software which you can use to direct a lot of traffic to your online website, or
software which you can use to direct a lot of traffic to your online account, and make a lot of
money.
These scammers are young men who are computer savvy and nerds. They are called Sakawa in
Ghana. Recently, I read online that Ghana is number one in Africa for cyber-crime, and number
seven in the world. If you visit internet cafes in Accra, Winneba, and other places in Ghana, you
will find young adults who spend days on end surfing and browsing, doing what they know best.
Some of them even pretend they are ladies who seek friendship with men abroad. Some
undiscerning guys abroad bite their carefully-couched words. Through deceit, these unemployed
young men make a living.
It has surfaced that some of these criminals are Nigerian 419s who have relocated to Ghana. It
will be better that our forensic department in the police service in Ghana mount a 24- hour
surveillance of these cyber criminals, who commit cyber-crime in cyber space. Perhaps, there is
need to deploy some of these young men and train them in some online outsourced work, just as
in India, many companies in the West outsource and offshore their customer calls to Indian
Companies.
We have a lot of IT talent in Ghana but then these young guys have nothing productive to do other
than resorting to cyber-crime. Some of them engage in pornography, while others engage in
crimes such as hacking, paedophile, among others. Now that Ghana has one of the fastest
internet connectivity in Africa, and internet access is relatively cheaper, there is need to properly
equip our internet police surveillance unit in Ghana.

There are now many gadgets which can access the internet via cell phones, i-pads, tablets,
among others. We should check our internet cafes and ensure that they post signs around the
cafés, asking users to be ethical in their access of the internet. There are many other ways we
can transform the negative use of the internet into positive advantages in the fields of e-health, e -
learning, e-tourism, e-transport, home-working or telecommuting, e-governance, e-tailing, e-
marketing, e-agriculture, and for driving SMEs.
Last year June, when I was in Accra, I was very much encouraged when I saw a posse of young
school girls who came into the cyber café I was in, around the Main Post Office area in Accra,
ostensibly, they had come there to do research or access their emails.
We need to empower our school kids with IT knowledge and e-books. I can bet that there are
many people in Ghana out there, who know little about how to use the computer, or who do not
have access to a computer. We should encourage our school kids to have e-books, e-libraries and
state-of-the-art IT laboratories, because if they do not get up to speed with global trends, they will
be left behind by the rest of the world in the global village, with its gulf of global divide.
I remember in the 60s, I used to visit the library at Sufflet House in Winneba to borrow books to
read. Now we have e-libraries online, which have e-books, some of which are for free. Children
can access them anytime anywhere, wherever there is electricity. This is where we need to
increase our sources of power, by resorting to the use of alternate sources, such as solar, wind,
tidal, biomass, biofuel, gas, geothermal and thermal energy sources.
In conclusion, the law on cyber-crime should be beefed up to avoid having cyber criminals who
tarnish our image at home and abroad. Besides, we should equip our forensic department in the
police to intensify surveillance of online activities, under the ambit of the Freedom of Information
Law. This should not be misconstrued as intrusion and invasion into our privacy.
However, this is a dilemma facing governments the world over, whereby there is the need on the
one hand, to preserve and balance confidentiality and privacy of an individual's communication,
and on the other hand, secure the security and well-being of the state against terrorists, saboteurs
and criminals.
By Kwesi Atta Sakyi
7.2.1
n. What arguments are given by the author in the passage on the need for
governments to fight cyber-crime?
o. According to the author, what are some of the crimes committed online by cyber-
criminals?
p. What suggestions are given by the author for fighting cyber-crime?
q. Why do you think male youth adults in Ghana are prone to cyber-crime?
r. Give synonyms (similar words) and antonyms (opposites) for the following words
used in the passage:
1. scouring
2. engage

3. dormant
4. eminent
5. endowment
6. demised
7. scammers
8. savvy
9. undiscerning
10. surveillance
11. talent
12. trends
13. gadgets
14. misconstrued
15. dilemma
7.2.2 Consider this passage too.
PASSAGE B
8Ds for Distance Learners in Ghana and everywhere
Discipline, Determination, Detachment, Drive, Desire, Diligence, Depth, Dependability
Distance learning or education is off-campus or non-residential and non-formal education that

takes place between a student and a service provider or educational institution. These days, this
mode of instruction is heavily dependent on the use of ICT facilities such as computers, cell
phones and computer input and output devices. There are still the use of hardcopy instructional
materials such as textbooks and study guides. These are used to supplement soft copies of
materials which are found online and on CDs or DVDs. With regard to distance learning, there is
need to have cheap and speedy internet connectivity to link the learner and his tutors in the virtual
classroom.
This connectivity also helps the distance learner to interact online with other students, as well as
receive support from tutors and lecturers or supervisors. Lecture notes can be downloaded and
assignments can be sent by uploading them to designated sites. This is very flexible, convenient,
time saving and cost effective. In some distance learning institutions, students are periodically
required to present themselves physically at designated campuses and locations so as to meet
with their lecturers for intensive sandwich programmes. This requires a lot of resilience as such
lectures are crammed and jam-packed within a short timeframe. Mostly, adult and mature learners
are able to cope since they are highly focused and they desire to have value for money.
This system requires a modular system whereby a course is desegregated into self-contained and
standardised units which are assigned some credits for passing them. Distance learning is very
convenient for both the learner and the learning institution because there are no rigid timetables to

follow and learning institutions reduce on cost of infrastructure and full time staff. The institution
outsources writing of course materials to consultants. The student learns at his own pace.
However, he has to work hard to submit assignments to beat deadlines. Workers have to fit their
busy work schedules into their study patterns, which often require a balancing act. This requires
having a lot of will power. Distance learning is also much more affordable and custom-made than
residential programmes.
The process of globalisation is fast blurring the frontier between formal and informal learning,
because these days one can access lecture notes of prestigious institutions online, even if one
was not registered with them. These include Oxford, Harvard, Cambridge, MIT, University of
London, UCT, Phoenix Open University, UNISA, UWC, UG, UCC, UDS, UEW, KNUST, among
others. The greatest disadvantage for distance learners is that some live in non-conducive
environments such as rural areas, where access to the internet may be challenging. Others may
face distractions from friends and family members. Besides, it may be costly for distance learners
who have no access to public libraries to access books and quality literature. The worst case
scenario is where a distance learner has no room to swing a cat because of heavy workloads and
taxing work commitments at the workplace. If you are in such dire and stressful environments, you
need to negotiate work breaks with your supervisors or with work colleagues who can cover you
up in your absence. Opt for flexitime, job sharing, telecommuting or teleworking, shift work, among
flexible working arrangements.
Some distance learners may have to either spend a fortune to buy expensive books or spend
much money acquiring laptops, computers and printers. Distance learners do not experience the
collegiality and social intercourse found in a campus setting, thus missing out on developing their
interpersonal and leadership skills. These notwithstanding, many people worldwide have made it
to the top in life via distance learning. Having been a distance learner before, when I was pursuing
my MPA degree with UNISA in South Africa, I know very well what it entails, since I did it for eight
years. During that period, I learnt the lessons of time management, self-discipline, detachment
from wasteful activities such as being glued to the soap operas on TV, among others. The motto of
UNISA then inspired me a lot, as it stated that the road to the stars is steep, hence you have to
work extremely hard to be a star.
Discipline: A distance learner should cultivate a sense of self-discipline, because you are
studying under self-supervision, thus you need to be proactive and to have initiative. You need to
be resolute in your quest for knowledge and to exercise self-control, by reducing on non-value
adding activities such as drinking binges, and excessive socialising. The academic world is a
lonely world and your need for affiliation has to be supplanted and sublimated by your need for
achievement and expertise power or referent power. In your quest for academic improvement,
you have to set yourself achievable and reasonable goals and objectives which you must have the
discipline to realise. You need to prioritise your activities and have a to-do-list on a daily basis.
You will need to reduce on some strenuous physical activities which may wear you down. You will
need to sacrifice a lot during the period of distance learning. This is part of the high price you have
to pay for embarking on the academic journey or odyssey.
Determination: Intrinsic or self-motivation is the best form of motivation as it has internal locus of
control, and it is sustainable. Time is the most valuable human asset; hence the saying that time is
money. You should set a timeframe for achieving your academic objectives, thereby forcing you to

work with zeal and determination towards the realisation of those objectives. This is because as
you age, you slow down and there are many family and social demands which may distract or
divert your attention, especially for those of us from the Third World countries with extended
families. Failure to achieve your academic goals in time can be traumatic and costly in later life as
the cost of living rises and competition heats up. Research has shown that those with higher
qualifications usually earn higher incomes.
Detachment: Being a distant learner requires you to sometimes switch off from happenings in
your immediate environment, so that you can concentrate on your studies. Some people believe in
multi-tasking and they may listen to music on earphone pieces. I do not think this is healthy at all
because you may not be able to engage the text you are reading in critical exegesis or
disquisition. It is important to apply all your faculties to what you read and digest, so you can later
engage in meaningful reflection and recall of information. As a would-be academic, you need to be
balanced in your argumentations and presentations, maintaining objectivity.
Depth: A non-formal or informal external learner or distance learner has to show depth of analysis
in his answers. You need to show both breadth of coverage as well as depth of analysis. This will
come from conducting comprehensive research through reading from several sources to gain
different perspectives on an issue of discussion. You have to show greater scope of knowledge by
giving practical examples or substantiating arguments with your own observations or insight, or
seeking the views of experts through structured interviews, focal point discussions and surveys.
As a distance learner, you are supposed to exhibit maturity and hands-on knowledge in your
answers, because being outside the confines of the restrictive walls of an academic campus, you
have access to many sources of information, especially if you live in an urban or metropolitan
area. Such sources include archives, museums, public libraries, government bureaux, private
sector publications, magazines, peer-reviewed journals, newspapers, among others. You can
conduct micro-investigations through primary research, using research instruments such as action
research, participant observation, interviews, questionnaires, surveys and focal group discussions.
Drive/Desire: The hunger for knowledge or desire to learn is usually high among capable
students who come from poor and economically-challenged homesteads. This is why in some
countries, education and health care delivery are seen as the two cardinal merit goods and are
heavily subsidised. Take for example, the Scandinavian countries of Sweden, Norway, Finland,
Denmark and The Netherlands, and Canada and India where education in particular is cheap.
Some of these countries are welfare states with policy of from cradle to grave coverage of citizens.
In former socialist and communist countries, free education and medical care were in vogue.
Nonetheless, the process of globalisation has greatly helped to liberalise tertiary education so
much so that quality education can be accessed anywhere, any time in the world, at minimum
cost. Ivy League and Russell Group universities are no more exclusive ivory towers as their
coursework are open source and available online.
I remember in the 60s when I was at teacher training college, my seniors used to take
correspondence courses with the Rapid Results College (RRC) in London. In 1967, our teacher
trainee students‟ allowances were cancelled by the NRC (National Redemption Council), the
military junta or regime in Ghana then, so I could not avail myself of the RRC facility. However,
upon completion of my course in 1970, I had secured my six O Levels with credits and I embarked

on a mathematics course with another London-based correspondent college at Oxford called
Wosley Hall.
So you see if you have the hunger or desire for knowledge, you will always find a way out, despite
obstacles. As a distant learner, you will need to follow your dream by having a huge appetite to
acquire knowledge by reading avidly, voraciously, and rapaciously. You should acquire relevant
knowledge in your chosen field or career. Constantly review what you learn and see how it
applies to the real world by finding a one-to-one mapping relationship. Try hard to transform and
translate theoretical knowledge into practical, problem-solving knowledge so that in future, you can
become a consultant or expert. Declare a total onslaught on education by making some personal
sacrifices such as delaying marriage, cutting down your expenditure on luxury goods, saving a lot
to pay your fees, among others.
Diligence: To be diligent means to be extremely hard working, by submitting your assignments in

the prescribed manner to meet non-negotiable deadlines for assessment. It means you have to
avoid procrastination which is said to be the thief of time. Your answers should be thorough and
exhaustive by citing all used sources appropriately in the preferred citation manner, such as
Harvard, MLA, APA, among others.
You should spell-check every word you use and you should pay attention to grammar,
punctuation, pagination, paragraphing, structure of the essay, definitions, bibliography, in-text
citation, appendices, diction, handwriting, font size, font type, sub-headings, introductions and
conclusions, linking sentences, abstract, appropriate style of writing which should be formal,
avoiding colloquialisms and contractions, logical writing, analysis, appropriate methods of data
presentation, correct and precise diction, among others. You should take pains to plan your
answers. Be simple, precise and clear. Avoid any shortcuts such as using abbreviations which are
not written out in full the first time they are mentioned..
Study your body clock and know your peak learning times. When studying, avoid phone calls or
put your phone on silent. In your essays, avoid unnecessary repetition. Provoke your sentences
and do not leave them hanging without further explanation or elucidation. Ask questions in your
essay and answer them. Always have a very good dictionary handy, and refer to it always when
you are unsure of the use of a word. Read over your answer and try to edit your own work and
make corrections. Be critical of your own work and assume the posture of the devil‟s advocate.
Your work should be neatly set out, ensuring that your handwriting is very neat and legible. If your
work is not word-processed, ensure you use deep blue or black ink for your assignments or
answers in exams. If you word-process your work, then use spell-check and the editor to improve
your presentation. Provide contemporary examples and illustrations in your assignments or
answers.
Dependability: Cut a picture for yourself in the minds of your supervisors that you are dependable
and reliable, so that a rapport is built between you and them. As much as possible, do the work or
assignment yourself, but you may consult widely. You should establish networks with like-minded
people who can mentor and motivate you, and at the same time exchange ideas with. In this way,
you benefit a lot from a variety of ideas.
In conclusion, I want to encourage all distance learners in Ghana and elsewhere to remain
focused and steadfast, because the end result is self-rewarding and much satisfying, as it gives
you a sense of fulfilment. No matter your age or circumstance, you can spare a thought and go as
soon as possible to register for a distance learning programme in any university or college nearest
to you. In these post-modern times, we subscribe to what is called life-long learning. You can
never go wrong if you invest in human capital or self-improvement because you empower yourself
to be competent at what you do, and many people will depend on you for consultations and advice
By Kwesi Atta Sakyi
7.2.3 Activity
Summarise the passage in not more than 500 words
b. What does the writer mean by a virtual classroom?

c. What are computer peripherals or input and output devices?
d. According to the writer, what are the advantages of distance learning?
e. What disadvantages or challenges do you face as a distance learner?
f. Why does distance learning suit adults?
g. Why does the writer describe embarking on distance learning as an odyssey?
h. What does the writer mean by having an internal locus of control?
i. Where can a distance learner like yourself look for information when conducting
research for your assignments and preparing for exams?
j. Why are peer-reviewed journals cherished by scholars and academicians?
k. Give synonyms and antonyms for these words used in the passage:
1. Discipline
2. Determination
3. Detachment
4. Flexible
5. Convenient
6. Cultivate
7. Crammed
8. Cope
9. Collegiality
10. Distraction
11. Blurring
12. Designated
13. Supervisors
14. Resilience

15. Substantiate
16. Proactive
7.2.4 Self Evaluation
a. Which of the 8Ds above do you think strikes you the most?
b. How do you hope to compensate yourself after doing a lot of academic work?
c. How do you hope to utilise the times between your study periods?
d. How do you think the use of social media networks such as Facebook, TWOO,
myzamana, twitter, whatsapp, Linkedin, among others will help you in your studies?
e. How should you go about summarising a long passage?
f. How can you figure out the meaning of difficult and unfamiliar words used in a passage,
apart from checking them up from the dictionary?
References
Supplementary reading:
Allen, W.S., (1974). Living English Structure London: Longman
Best, W. D., (1956).The Student’s Companion London: Longman
Eckersley, C.E. (1960). Comprehensive English Grammar Boston: Addison Wesley
Fitikides, T.J., (2002). Common Mistakes in English London: Pearson Education Ltd
Fowler, H., Fowler’s Modern English Usage
Gowers, E., 2014. (revised version of 1954). The Complete Plain English London: Penguin
Books
Lamb, G.F. and Fitz-Hugh,(1960). Precis and Comprehension for General Certificate (Ordinary
Level) London: George G. Harrap and Co. Ltd.
McIver, A., (2004). The New First Aid in English (2nd Edition) ISBN: 9780881326277
Ogundipe, P.A. and Tregido , P.S. (1965 ) Practical English Book 5 -English for the Certificate
London: Longmans
Ogundipe and Tregido Practical English Usage
The Chicago Manual of Style
The Elements of Style
7.2.5. Self-Reflection
11. How often do you read novels or motivational books?

12. How do you treat new words and figures of speech which you come
across in your reading?
13. What do you think is the best way to improve your reading speed?
14. What constitutes critical appraisal of what you read?
15. Where and when do you think you can do serious reading with
maximum concentration?
16. Are you fond of using bullet points in answering questions in
comprehension exercises? Why do lecturers frown on bullet points?
17. How can you increase your vocabulary or word power?
18. . Should you use a lot of bombastic or big words in your writing?
19. How do you judge a piece of writing is of high quality?
20. What role does knowledge of correct pronunciation of words, or
phonetics, play in enhancing your ability to comprehend and
summarise long and complicated passages?
21. What style of writing do you prefer? Simple and straightforward writing
or grandiloquent and flowery language which is difficult to understand?
7.2.6 Summary
In all your writing assignments, remember the golden rule of the KISS Principle of KEEP IT
SHORT AND SIMPLE (KISS). However, you should not fail to be comprehensive and holistic in
your answers. Avoid bullet points or telegraphic language. Write complete and meaningful
sentences. While reading a long passage, look for key or central ideas and note them down.
These can usually be found in the first sentences of paragraphs. Get the meaning of words from
either the context of the passage given or from your general knowledge field, but ensure the
meaning tallies with its usage in the passage. Ensure that answers to comprehension questions
are specific, and reference is made to examples given in the passage. Some questions can be
answered by using material from the passage. However, if you quote verbatim from the passage
ensure that you state so in your answer.
UNIT 8.0 REFERENCING - VARIOUS SYSTEMS
8.1 INTRODUCTION
If you are engaged in academic work, you are required to conform to academic rigour and strict
standards. These standards are observed universally in all universities and academic circles. If
you have not been through the four walls of a university to acquire a degree, but you have done
some professional or other tertiary education training before proceeding on a degree programme
like this one, it is probable that you might not have been taken through the strictures and rigour of
conforming to these standards. If so, you had better take note of this unit. Whenever you submit
an assignment or any coursework for internal and external assessment, you are required to
diligently and unfailingly use correct referencing and in-text citation techniques.
These are known as graduate skills. Correct referencing locates your work in its global context,
and it lends your work the hallmark of excellence, scholarship, honesty, integrity and a sign of
diligence. Besides, it prevents your work being downgraded as a rushed, „copy and paste‟ effort.
It protects you from being sued for plagiarism or committing the offence of academic theft. This
dishonesty is manifested by you copying profusely from a source in a book or from an internet
source without acknowledging the source of your information. If your work is found to have
contained a substantial amount of plagiarism, the worst case scenario is to have your work failed,
or you risk not being awarded your degree, and that will, sadly enough, signal the beginning of the
end of your academic odyssey.
You may wonder how this can be found out. There is an online site called TURNITIN (turn it in)
where your work can be submitted and it will produce a similarity index (SI) which ranges from 0 to
100%. If your work shows a high index of anything above 20%, then you are in hot waters for
either copying from an existing source or you did not reference your work correctly. I have
supervised some students in the past whose SI were beyond 50% and they were failed. They did
not graduate in their cohort, as they were referred and had to re-submit at the subsequent
semester. However, this may not be the case in other universities because rules and policies differ
from university to university.
I have found in my teaching career that some students are by nature very stubborn and they
disregard healthy advice. Abiding by these standards is part of the academic discipline being
instilled in you to be obedient, honest and meticulous in your work. A word to the wise is enough.

8.2 AIM
This unit will prepare you to be conversant with correct referencing techniques as espoused by the
various schools of thought on the subject, including the APA, Harvard Referencing Style, Chicago
Manual of Style, and the MLA style.
OBJECTIVES
 To demonstrate methods of in-text citation

 To demonstrate the different referencing styles
 To acquire insight into excellence in academic writing
8.3 Harvard Referencing Style
The Harvard referencing style is generally referred to as „Author-date‟ style. When referring
to the idea of an author whilst writing your assignment, you are required to mention only the
surname or family name of the author or authors, followed by the year of the publication in
brackets, and if possible, the page or page numbers. This is known as in-text citation. If you
write more than three or more lines of the source verbatim or word to word, then you need
to indent that part in your essay in a smaller font, or in italics, or in inverted commas. This
must be done consistently and continuously in your write-up to avoid the offence of
plagiarism. It is better to analyse what you have paraphrased or quoted verbatim so that
your essay reflects your own ideas and input.
You could use another source to either substantiate that author or to refute his or her idea.
This is what is known as exegesis or critical thinking and scientific writing. Use the
arguments of academic experts to build up your own arguments in a systematic and logical
way, to show the depth and breadth of your wide reading, or the currency and scope of your
research. Use original sources if possible by referring to actual writers‟ works in reputable
academic journals, instead of from secondary sources which may have diluted the original
works of the authors. This is what happens if you rely on some of the manuals produced for
some professional academic programmes. Seek no shortcuts if you want your work to be of
academic scholarship.
Let us have a look at this hypothetical example of in-text citation style:
Lucas and Stembridge (2003) assert in their book that familiarity breeds contempt, and that
a suprerior officer should maintain a social distance between him and his subordinates,
because they argue that the superior must assert his authority and he must carry an aura of
fear and authority around him. Contrary to this viewpoint, Aravinda et al. (2007 p. 54) are
of the opposite view that to achieve goals faster and efficiently, the leader should be a team
player, and he should keep an open door policy by being easily accessible, not isolated
from the pack, and he should use an informal, and democratic method rather than an
arrogant, autocratic, top-down, high-handed, and iron-fist approach.

Hanson et al. (2006: 112-115) have come up with a practical approach which they call the
hands-on or contingency approach, in which they argue that there is no one best leadership
style, that it depends on so many variables such as the nature of the task, the time frame
given, the disposition and personalities of the followers and leader, the culture of the
organization, among others. All these authors reflect diverse views which need to be
weighed when one finds oneself in a leadership position. Perhaps, it can be argued that
leadership requires common sense, some loose-tight approach, and perhaps ability to
adapt fast to changing situations. It could also be said that to some people, leadership
comes naturally, whilst others have to struggle to learn it from school, or from being
mentored.
This example above shows you that you should endeavour to have some authors cited, at
least in each paragraph of your work, especially when giving background information in the
literature review, introduction, definitions of concepts, and analyzing factual information. All
tables of figures, graphs, charts and illustrations used must be correctly referenced by citing
their sources.
At the end of your write-up, you have to give the references of all the works cited in your
work under the title of REFERENCES (note that it is not BIBLIOGRAPHY). The references
should be arranged in alphabetical order, using the surnames. Bibliography comes after the
REFERENCES as the list of books or journals you consulted but have not cited in your
work.
A full reference will look like this:
Lucas, R. and Stembridge, A. P. (2003). The dilemmas of leadership and possible

approaches. London: Oxford University Press.
Points to note:
1. Surname of first author mentioned followed by a

comma, his initials in capital letters, „and‟, followed
by surname of second author separated by a
comma, his initials in capital letters, then the year
of publication of the book. The title of the book is
written in italics, followed by city of publication
(London), which is separated by a colon (:), then
comes the publisher‟s name (Oxford University
Press).
This is what we call academic rigour and you have to follow it rigidly in order to be
successful, and go far on your academic journey.
8.4 APA Referencing Style
APA stands for the American Psychological Association, and it is the largest grouping of
psychologists in the world. It is a prestigious professional body of psychologists.
Their prescribed style of referencing to me does not differ so much from the Harvard style
above. I have given a table of their citation style at the end of his unit, as well as some
online sites to consult.

8.5 MLA Referencing Style
Monash University gives the following points about the MLA style of referencing.
MLA stands for Modern Languages Association which is based in America. All the four
referencing methods discussed in this unit originated from the USA and they have become
universal.
 If the author's name is mentioned in the sentence, only cite the page number (see Author
prominent citation below).
 Font and capitalisation must match that in the reference list.
 Long quotations (more than three lines) should be indented.
 If you are citing more than one reference at the same point in a document, separate the
references with a semicolon e.g. (Smith 150, Jackson 41).
 If the work has no author, use the title.
 If you are citing two works by the same author, put a comma after the author's name and
add title words. e.g. (Smyth, "Memories of Motherhood" 77) to distinguish between them in
the in-text citation. Do this when citing each of the sources throughout the piece of writing.
 If two authors have the same surname, use their first initial e.g. (G. Brown 26)
Reference list - general points
 The recommended heading for the reference list is Works Cited, which should be centred.
 Each reference should be formatted with double-spacing and a hanging indent.
 Capitalise the first word of the title or subtitle, and all other significant words.
 Author's names should be listed with full forenames if known.
 The name of the first author is inverted to list the family name first. If there are additional
authors their names are not inverted.
 If you cite more than one work by the same author, give the names in the first entry only.
Thereafter, use three hyphens instead of the name, e.g. ---.
 If a reference does not have an author, list it by title. Ignore the leading article (A, The etc.)
when inserting the reference into the alphabetical works cited list.
(Source: guides.lib.monash.edu/citingreferencing/mla)
8.6 Chicago Style

The Chicago style uses footnotes and numbering system in the in-text citation. Law students,
history and archaeology students prefer this style. Instead of the author-year style used by the
other methods within the text, numbers starting from 1 are used where the author‟s name and year
should be, and each number is put as a footnote at the bottom of the page. Fancy having say 10
different citations. Then you need to put 10 footnotes and explain details of each one, apart from
endnotes at the end of the chapter or unit, with extensive explanations given for each number.
This method looks dated or somewhat old-fashioned, and is less used now. However, if that is
what is recommended for you by your department or university faculty, then you have no choice
but to comply.

Here is a short hypothetical example:
In the olden days, surgical operations were carried out without anesthesia. Patients were bound.
hard, and the doctors used implements such as pincers and crowbars to prise their patients open
and operate on them. According to some authorities 1, patients suffering from gunshot wounds
would be given some gin or strong alcohol to drink to lessen the pain. However, some other
authority2 makes reference to the use of hard drugs such as cannabis or hashish in the treatment
of severe ailments. Archaeological evidence3 has revealed records of how the ancient Egyptians
performed their surgical operations, which had some element of magic incorporated by the priestly
class, who doubled as medical doctors and diviners.
1. See the historical writings of Sir Winter Small in Annals of the Dead, Journal of History Vol. XXI, pp. 234-287, 1924
2. Journal of Medicine Vol. 20, pp329-678, 1921
3 Lancelot Journal Vol. XL p. 17 1879
8.6 Activity
1. Take any textbook and check the following details:

 Year of publication
 Which edition?
 Name(s) of author(s)
 Title of the book
 Blurb at the back of the book giving author details and perhaps photo
 Example of In-text citation on any page of the book
 References at the end of the book
 Table of contents
 Acknowledgements
 Dedication
 List of tables
 List of figures
 Abbreviations/Acronyms
 Glossary/Terminology
 Position of page numbers (centred, left or right bottom corners)-pagination
 Is the referencing method APA, MLA, Harvard or Chicago style?
 Are there footnotes? Which style of referencing uses footnotes and
numbering system?

8.7. Self- Evaluation
1. Which of the four referencing systems do you prefer?

2. What system has your university recommended for you?
3. How confident are you now that henceforth, you will not be found
wanting with regard to the offence of plagiarism?
4. When you come across any material in a book, article, journal, or from
any location which you think might be useful for your assignment, what
details are you to note down?
5. Do you think using the correct referencing method is cumbersome?
6. Have you ever heard about the organisation called WIPO (World
Intellectual Property Organisation)? What do they do?
7. What do you know about BSO, ISO, ISBN, BSI, Copyright, Patent,
Trademark?
8. Write an article on male and female circumcision, and do some
research and apply the referencing techniques you have learnt in this
unit to it
9. How would you feel if you wrote a lyric and a famous musician came
across it and without your consent, went to make music out of it and
made millions of dollars?
10. What is the meaning of the copyright sign © which is embossed in the
first page of a book?
11. What are the following abbreviations, symbols, and expressions often
used in connection with in-text citations? Ibid, op cit., supra, infra,
n.d,, anon., et al., (sic), cf., Ed., ed., and, Evans (2007a),
Evans ( 2007b)
8.8 Self-reflection
1. Why do you think you are required to reference your work in an appropriate manner?
2. What are some of the likely consequences of not adhering to the rigour of proper referencing?
3. If you copied profusely from someone‟s article but you failed to acknowledge the source in your
assignment, do you think your professor will find out?
4. What are the many benefits attached to referencing correctly?
5. Do you think you will find references in a novel or work of fiction?
6. How can you be conversant with the referencing standards discussed in this unit?

Recommended Reading
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTE. (2010). BS ISO 690:2010 Information and

documentation-Guidelines for bibliographic references and citations to information resources
Geneva: ISO
Neville, C. (2010). The Complete Guide to Referencing and Avoiding Plagiarism 2nd ed.
Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Pears, R and Shields, G. (2006). Cite Them Right: The Essential Guide to Referencing and
Plagiarism. Newcastle-upon-Tyne: Northumbria University Press
Stafford, L.W.T (1988), Business Mathematics
Yeoman, K.A., (2007), Statistics
Turabian, L.T., Chicago Manual of Style Chicago: University of Chicago Press
Roberts C.M. 2010 (2nd Edition) The Dissertation Journey – A practical and Comprehensive
Guide to Planning, Writing and Defending Your Dissertation London: Sage Ltd (7th edition)
Additional Reading
Murray, T., (2008), How to write thesis, 2nd Ed, Open University Press
Lucey, T.,(200-) Quantitative Methods
Race, P. 2003. Practical Tips for Students London: Blackwell Publishing
Cottrell, S. 2008 (3rd Edition) The Study Skills Handbook. London: Macmillan
Mort, S. 1992. Professional Reporting Aldershot: Gower Publishing
Gibaldi, Joseph. MLA handbook for writers of research papers 7th ed. New York: Modern
Languages Association
McMillan, K. Weyers, J. 2011 (2nd Edition) How to Write Essays and Assignments: Essex: Pearson
Education Ltd

Allion, B and Race P. 2004 (2nd Edition) The Student’s Guide to preparing dissertations and
theses London: RoutledgeFalmer
Rudestam K.E. and Newton R.R. 2007 (3rd Edition) Surviving your Dissertation – A
Comprehensive Guide to Content and Process.
Roberts C.M. 2010 (2nd Edition) The Dissertation Journey – A practical and
Comprehensive Guide to Planning, Writing and Defending Your Dissertation London: Sage
Ltd (7th Edi)
Turabian, K. L . 2007 (7th Edition) A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and
Dissertation Chicago: University of Chicago
Fisher C. 2010 (7th Edition) Researching and Writing a dissertation –an essential Guide for
business students London: Prentice Hall
Murray R. 2011 (3rd Edition) How to write a thesis Maidenhead: McGraw – Hill Education
University of Chicago Press 2010 (16th edition) The Chicago Manual of Style – The
Essential Guide for Writers, Editors and Publishers
Knight T 1993 Study Strategies for College Boston: Irwin Career Education Division
Moore S., Neville, C,. Murphy, M and Connolly, C 2010 The Ultimate Study Skills
Handbook Maidenhead: Open University Press
Lee Davies L, 2006 Developing Work and Study Skills Thomson Publishing
Pears R, and Shields G. J 2010 Cite them right: the essential referencing guide
Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan
Fisher C, Buglear, J., Lowry D, Mutch, A., Tansley, C., 2007 Researching and writing a
project for business students Pearson Education Publishing
Potter, S 2006 Doing Postgraduate Research Milton Keynes: Sage Publishing
Sharp, J.A, Peters, J, Howard, K., 2010 Student Research Project Surrey: Gower
Publishing
Hart, C. 2010 Doing a Literature Search Sage Publishing
Collis, J and Hussey, R 2009 Business Research-a practical guide for undergraduates and
postgraduates Palgrave Macmillan
Bell, J 2010 Doing your research project McGraw Hill

Business Research Methods 2011 Oxford: OUP
Nkhata, L 2003 Methodological options in policy relevant social research Lusaka:

Zambia Printing Company
White, P 2009 Research questionnaire development London: Palgrave - Macmillan
Cooper, D. R., Schindler, P.S., 2011 Research Methods Boston: McGraw Hill
Ghauri, P and Gronhaug, K 2010 Research Methods Harlow: Pearson Education
Saunders, M, Lewis, P, Thornhill, A. 2009 Research Methods in Business Harlow:

Pearson Education Limited
Maylor, R and Blackmon, K 2005 Researching Business and Management London:

Palgrave Macmillan
Websites
APA Citation Style Examples for UWA
APA_style_guide_to_electronic_references.pdf
www.ucd.ie/t4cms/Guide70.pdf
Error! Hyperlink reference not valid. Integrity
library.canterbury.ac.nz>Library
www.easybib.com
isuu.com/staffsuni-is/docs/Harvard_referencingexamples/1
ww.staffs.ac.uk/assets/Harvard-quick-guide_tcm44-47797.pdf
guides.is.uwa.edu.au/mla
https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/01/
guide.lib.monash.edu/citingreferencing/mla
Igdata.s3-website-us-east-
1.amazonaws.com/docs/380/331148/APA_Citation_Style_Examples_for_UWA_080514.pdf
General References
Greenbaum, S and Quirk, R. 2012 A Student’s Grammar of the English Language. Harlow:
Longman

Penguin Thesaurus, London: Penguin Books Ltd A.S. 2010 (8th Ed)
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English London OUP
Merriam–Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary 2012 (11th Edition) Merriam –Webster Incorporated
Oxford University 2007 Shorter Oxford English Dictionary Oxford: OUP Volumes 1 and 2.
8.9 SUMMARY
There are many ways of referencing an academic work but the four most popular ones are the
APA, MLA, Chicago and Harvard styles. They all have a lot in common as regards using author‟s
surname, year of publication, page number or numbers, title of article or book, city of publication,
and publisher‟s name. Correct referencing is an academic or graduate skill which you must pay
particular attention to if you want to succeed in your academic career. Your university will decide
which style to use. When doing any assignment, pay attention to rubrics such as font size
required, word count, spacing, pagination, organization of the material into specific headed
sections, among others.
APPENDIX 1
APA at UWA
The preferred style for all UWA Psychology, Education, Music Psychology, Music Education and
Nursing papers is APA. The authoritative guide to APA referencing is the Publication Manual, 6th
edition, so please refer to this if in doubt. There are 2 variations from the Manual as used
at UWA. These were arrived at in consultation with the UWA School of Psychology. They are:
 If no DOI (digital object identifier) is assigned and the article or e-book is retrieved from a
database, included the name of the database. There is no need to establish if the item is
only available from that database or to look for the URL of the journal or book's own web
site.
 Include the journal issue number if available. There is no need to check if a journal
paginates by volume or by issue.
Note: With the 6th edition, retrieval date is no longer required for online materials except for
sources which have very volatile content eg wikis.
Publication Manual of the American

APA Style Guide to
Psychological Association. 6th ed.
Electronic References
Call Number: Print: EDFAA, Reid and Science
Call Number: Online
Reference 808.06615 2010 PUB

APA Citation Style Examples Print Version (PDF)
 APA Citation Style Examples for UWA - Printable
APA Citation Style Examples for UWA
Material types Features Authors

Books and eBooks 3-5 authors repeated citations For 1,2,3-5 or 6-7 author
Chapter in book Article from CMO 8 or more authors
Author and publisher the
Conference Author/year same, 2 or more works
same
Dictionary/encyclopaedia Citing a work that someone
Editor/s
entries else has cited
Direct quotes and First author/ year same, 3+ authors
Images
paraphrases 2+ works
Multiple citations in one Linking multiple authors: and or
Journal articles
reference and
Multimedia and Software No date available (n.d.) No author - Article
Numbered edition other than
Music No author - Book
1st
Newspaper Retrieved from a database Organisation as author
Parentheses () or brackets [] for
Reports Retrieval date (if required)
extra information
Standards and Patents Title which includes a subtitle
Tables and
Figures (republished or
adapted)
Theses
Web sources (page, fact
sheets, blog etc)
Rules for naming authors, in-text and the reference list, are given mainly under Books
and ebooks but they apply to all reference types.
In most examples of in-text citations with multiple authors only the first iteration is given.
Books and eBooks [Top]

Material In-Text
Reference List and Notes
Type Citation
Pegrum, M. (2009). From blogs to bombs: The future of
Book: Single
electronic
(Pegrum, 2009)
author
technologies in education. Crawley, W.A: UWA Publishing.
Book: Two (O‟Donoghue and O‟Donoghue, T., and Clarke, S. (2010). Leading learning:

authors Clarke, 2010) Process,
themes and issues in international contexts. London:
Routledge.
But when outside parenthesis:
O‟Donoghue and
Clarke (2010)
suggested that...
First citation:
(Ranzijn, Ranzijn, R., McConnochie, K., and Nolan, W. (2009).
McConnochie, Psychology and
Book: 3-5 and Nolan, 2009) indigenous Australians: Foundations of cultural competence.
authors South Yarra, Vic: Palgrave MacMillan.
Subsequent citations:
If you have two or more references with the same first author and date,
(Ranzijn et al., name as many authors as necessary to distinguish the references in every iteration.
1997)
Book: 6-7
Jones, E. E., Farina, A., Hastorf, A. H., Markus, H., Miller, D. T.,
authors (Jones et al.,
and Scott, R. A. (1984). Social stigma: The psychology of
(See Journal Articles for 8 1984)
marked relationships. New York: W.H. Freeman.
or more authors)
Howitt, D., and Cramer, D. (2008). Introduction to research

Book: Different (Howitt and
methods in
editions Cramer, 2008)
psychology (2nd ed.). Harlow, England: FT Prentice Hall.
(The Australian
Book: No The Australian Oxford dictionary (3rd ed.). (1999).
Oxford dictionary,
author Melbourne: Oxford University Press.
1999)
Hallinan, M. T. (Ed.). (2006). Handbook of the sociology of
Book: Editor (Hallinan, 2006) education.
New York: Springer.
Dawson, V., and Venville, G. (Eds.). (2007). The art of
Book: 2 or (Dawson and
teaching
more editors Venville, 2007)
primary science. Crows Nest, N.S.W: Allen and Unwin.
Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2000). Population by age
and sex, New South Wales, 30 June 2000 (ABS Cat. no.
Book: (Australian 3235.1).
Organisation as Bureau of Canberra, Australian Capital Territory: Author.
Author Statistics, 2000)
Where the author and publisher are identical, use the word Author as the name of the publisher.
Groundwater-Smith, S. (2007). As rain is to fields, so good

teachers are
Book: Chapter
(Groundwater- to students. In S. Knipe (Ed.), Middle years schooling:
[i.e. Article] in
Smith, 2007) Reframing
edited book
adolescence (pp. 151-170). Frenchs Forest, N.S.W: Pearson
Education Australia.
eBook: Entire Chisum, W. J. (2006). Crime reconstruction [Adobe Digital
(Chisum, 2006)
book Editions]. Retrieved from Ebook Library.
Mitchell, H. W. (1913). Alcoholism and the alcoholic
eBook: Chapter (Mitchell, 1913) psychoses.
In W. A. White and S. E. Jelliffe (Eds.), The modern

treatment of
nervous and mental diseases (Vol. 1, pp. 287-330).
Retrieved from
PsycBOOKS.
Distinguish the works by placing
„a‟ „b‟ „c‟, etc after the publication Glenn, W. H., and Johnson, D. A. (1964a). Calculating devices.
date
Book: Different London:
works by same John Murray.
author in same (Glenn and
year Johnson, 1964a) Glenn, W. H., and Johnson, D. A. (1964b). Graphs
(Glenn and London: Murray.
Johnson, 1964b)
Keyormarsi, K., O‟Leary, N., and Pardee, A. B. (2007). Cell
(Keyormarsi, division. In
Reference
O‟Leary, and McGraw-Hill encyclopedia of science and technology (9th
book: Entry
Pardee, 2007) ed., Vol. 3,
pp. 618-621). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Keyormarsi, K., and Pardee, A. B. (2014). Cell division. In
eReference (Keyormarsi and
McGraw-Hill encyclopedia of science and technology.
book: Entry Pardee, 2014)
Retrieved from AccessScience.
Journal Articles [Top]
Material In-Text
Type Citation
Sohrabi, H. R., Weinborn, M., Badcock, J., Bates, K. A.,
Clarnette, R.,
Trivedi, D., ... Martins, R. N. (2011). New lexicon and criteria
Journal article for the diagnosis of
(Sohrabi et al.,
in print: 8 or Alzheimer‟s disease. Lancet Neurology, 10(4), 299-300.
2011)
more authors
Sohrabi, H. R., Weinborn, M., Badcock, J. Bates, K.
Complete author list:
A., Clarnette,R., Trivedi, D., Verdile, G., Sutton, T., Lenzo, N.

P., Gandy, S. E., Martins, R. N.
(Greenop et al.,
2007, p. 31)
Or
Greenop, K. R., Xiao, J., Osvaldo, P. A., Flicker, L., Beer, C.,
Foster, J. K., . . . Lautenschlager, N. T. (2011). Awareness of
Greenop et al. cognitive
Journal article (2007) reported deficits in older adults with cognitive-impairment-no-dementia
in print: With that “AQ-D and (CIND): Comparison
direct quotation DEX ratings by with informant report. Alzheimer Disease and
or paraphrase controls Associated Disorders, 25(1), 24-33.
were significantly
lower When paraphrasing text include page number/s in the in-text citation but do not use quotes. There is a right and a
than those of the wrong way to paraphrase. - see the Study

at http://www.uwa.edu.au/__data/assets/rtf_file/0010/1861354/RT4.4_Paraphrasing.rtf
Smarter guide
CIND
participants” (p.
31), ...
Journal article First citation: Almeida, R. A., Dickinson, J., Maybery, M. T., Badcock, J. C.,
online: Digital (Almeida, and

Object Identifier Dickinson, Badcock, D. R. (2010).Visual search performance in the
supplied Mayberry, autism spectrum

Badcock, and II: The radial frequency search task with additional
Badcock, 2010) segmentation cues.
Neuropsychologia, 48(14), 4117-4124.
Subsequent citations:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.10.009
(Almeida et al.,
2010)
Journal article
Anderson, M., and Reid, C. (2009). Don‟t forget about levels of
online: No DOI
explanation. Cortex: A Journal Devoted to the Study of the
supplied (Anderson and
Nervous
(Pheme Reid, 2009)
System and Behavior, 45(4), 560-561. Retrieved from
authentication
ScienceDirect.
required)
Thomas, K., and Bosch, B. (2005). An exploration of the impact
of chronic
Journal article fatigue syndrome and implications for psychological service
online: No DOI (Thomas and provision.
supplied (free Bosch, 2005) E-Journal of Applied Psychology: Clinical Section, 1(1), 23-
on the Web) 40. Retrieved from
http://ojs.lib.swin.edu.au/index.php/ejap/article/download/4/1
3
Best, C. T., and Queen, H. F. (1989). Baby it‟s in your smile:
Right hemiface
bias in infant emotional expressions. Developmental
Journal article
Psychology, 25(2),
online: CMO (Best and Queen,
264-276. Retrieved from University of Western Australia
electronic 1989)
Course
database
Materials Online.
[Note: This only applies to articles actually housed in CMO. If the full text is in an external database other rules in this
section need to be applied e.g. the CMO links opens in Education Full Text.]
Journal article Starrfelt, R., and Behrmann, M. (2011). Number reading in pure
online: (Starrfelt and alexia:
Advance Behrmann, 2011) A review. Neuropsychologia. In press, Uncorrected proof.
publication http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.04.028
Martinez, M. (in press). Imperative content and the painfulness
of pain.
Journal article
(Martinez, in Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences.
online: in
press) Retrieved from http://cogprints.org/6599/1/Imperative_Conte
preprint archive
nt_and_the_
Painfulness_of_Pain.pdf
Delgado M., Suriyagoda L., Zúñiga-Feest A., Borie F., Lambers
Delgado, H. (2014). Divergent
Journal article Suriyagoda, functioning of Proteaceae species: The South American
submitted for Zúñiga-Feest, Embothrium
publication Borie, and coccineum displays a combination of adaptive traits to
Lambers, 2014) survive in
high-phosphorus soils. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Conference Proceedings [Top]
Material In-Text
Type Citation
Paper in (Game, 2001) Game, A. (2001). Creative ways of being. In J. R. Morss, N.

conference Stephenson
proceedings in and J. F. H. Rappard (Eds.), Theoretical issues in
print psychology:
Proceedings of the International Society for Theoretical
Psychology
1999 Conference (pp. 3-12). Sydney: Springer.
Paper in Balakrishnan, R. (2006, March). Why aren’t we using 3D user
conference interfaces,and will we ever? Paper presented at the IEEE
proceedings (Balakrishnan, Symposium
online: 2006) on 3D User Interfaces. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/vr.2006.148
Electronic
database Published in IEEE Explore but has doi. Conference is published regularly.
Santhanam, E., Martin, K., Goody, A., and Hicks, O. (2011).

Bottom-up
(Santhanam, steps towards closing the loop in feedback on teaching: A
Conference
Martin, CUTSD
papers:
Goody, and project. Paper presented at Teaching and Learning Forum –
Unpublished
Hicks, 2001) Expanding
horizons in teaching and learning, Perth, Australia, 7-9
February 2001.
Reports [Top]
Material In-Text
Type Citation
(Western
Western Australia. Department of Health Nursing and Midwifery
Australia.
Office. (2013).
Government Department of
Aboriginal Nursing and Midwifery Strategic Plan 2011-2015.
reports Health Nursing
Retrieved
and Midwifery
from http://www.nursing.health.wa.gov.au/projects/
Office, 2013).
Kendall, C. (2011). Report on psychological distress and
depression in
the legal profession: Prepared for the Council of the Law
Non- Society of
government (Kendall, 2011) Western Australia. Retrieved from
reports http://www.mhlcwa.org.au/wp-content
/uploads/2013/08/Psychological-distress-depression-in-the-
legal-
profession-16-May-2011.pdf
Newspapers [Top]
Material In-Text
Type Citation
Hatch, B. (2006, July 13). Smoke lingers for those who keep
Newspaper
(Hatch, 2006) hospitality
article in print
flowing. Australian Financial Review, p. 14.
Use first few words of article title
in quotation marks
Newspaper Comstock drill plans reined in. (2009, January 9). Upstream:
article: No (“Comstock drill The
author plans,” 2009) International Oil and Gas Newspaper, p. 20.
Newspaper (O‟Leary, 2006) O‟Leary, C. (2006, June 29). Landmark study to aid push for

article online: public
Electronic smoking ban. The West Australian, p. 14. Retrieved from
database Factiva.
Hilts, P.J. (1999, February 16). In forecasting their emotions,
Newspaper most people
article online: flunk out. The New York Times. Retrieved from
(Hilts, 1999)
freely available http://www.nytimes.com
on the web
Some online newspapers are un-paginated, so no page numbers can be given in the reference
Multimedia formats and Software [Top]

Material In-Text
Type Citation
Films or
De Heer, R. (Director), Djigirr, P. (Co-Director). (2007). Ten
videorecordings (De Heer and
canoes
and DVDs of Djigirr, 2007)
[Motion picture]. Australia: The AV Channel.
films
Crystal, L. (Executive Producer). (1993, October 11). The
Television MacNeil/Lehrer news hour [Television broadcast]. New York
(Crystal, 1993)
programme and
Washington, DC: Public Broadcasting Service.
Zijlstra, M. (Presenter). (2011, May 28). Natural semantic
metalanguage
Audio podcast (Zijlstra, 2011) [Audio podcast]. Retrieved from
http://mpegmedia.abc.net.au/rn/podcast/2011/05/lin_201105
28.mp3
Kloft, M. (Producer/Director). (2006). The Nuremberg trials
[Motion picture]. In M. Samuels (Executive Producer),
Video podcast (Kloft, 2006) American
experience. Podcast retrieved from WGBH:
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/rss/podcast_pb.xml
PsycINFO. (2013, March 5). Sample PsycINFO search on
YouTube OVIDSP
(PsycINFO, 2013)
video [Video file]. Retrieved from http://www.youtuebe.com/watch
?v=jlb_84ykXj0
Skyscape, (2011). Skyscape Medical Resources (Version
1.14.8)
Software (Skyscape, 2011) [Mobile application software]. Retrieved from
http://itunes.apple.com/us/app/id293170168? mt=8andign=
uo%3D4
Music resources [Top]
Material In-Text
Type Citation
Liner notes Hogwood, C. (1993). [Linear notes]. On My Ladye Nevells
from a sound (Hogwood, 1993) booke [CD].
recording London England: I‟Oiseau-Lyre.
Mahler, G. (1989). Symphony no. 1 in D Major: Titan. [CD].
Sound
(Maher, 1989) Germany:
recording: CD
Deutsche Grammophon.
Track from a (Vine, 1996, track Vine, C. (1996). 5 bagatelles [Recorded by I. Munro]. On Mere
sound 1) bagatelles [CD]. Australia: Tall Poppies.

recording
In text citations include side and
band or track numbers
Track from a
Vine, C. (1996). 5 bagatelles [Recorded by I. Munro]. On Mere
sound (Vine, 5
bagatelles [CD]. Australia: Tall Poppies. Retrieved from
recording: bagatelles, 1996)
Naxos Music Library.
Online
Music score: Stravinsky, I. (1975). Rite of spring [Musical score].
(Stravinsky, 1975)
Print London: Hansen House.
Stravinsky, I. (1975). Rite of spring [Musical score].
Music score:
(Stravinsky, 1975) London. Hansen House. Retrieved from Classical Scores
Online
Library.
Verdi, G. (1983). Rigoletto: Melodrama in three acts. In P.
Gossett
Music score in (Series Ed.) and M. Chusid (Vol. Ed.), The works of
set of complete (Verdi, 1983) Giuseppe Verdi:
works Series 1, Operas (Vol.17) [Musical score]. Chicago:
University of
Chicago Press.
Schumann, R. (1988). Kennst du das Land [Knowest thou
where],
Op. 79 [Vocal score]. In C. V. Palisca (Ed.), Norton
Music score in (Schumann,
Anthology of
an anthology 1849/1988)
Western Music (2nd ed., pp. 338-342). New York, NY:
Norton.
(Original work published in 1849)
Sondheim, S. and Lapine, J. (2008). Into the woods [Libretto].
Libretto (Sondheim, 2008) New York:
Theatre Communications Group, Inc.
Standards and Patents [Top]
Material In-Text
Type Citation
Standards Australia. (1994). Information Processing – Text and
office
(Standards
systems – Office Document Architecture (ODA) and
Australia/New
Standard: Print Interchange
Zealand
format: Part 10: Formal Specifications (AS/NZS
Standard, 1994)
3951.10:1994).
Homebush, NSW: Standards Australia.
Standard Standards Australia. (2008). Personal flotation devices –
online: (Standards General
Electronic data Australia, 2008) requirements (AS 4758.1-2008). Retrieved from Standards
base Online.
Hornak, P. (1996). Resonator for magnetic resonance imaging
(U.S. Patent No.
Patent of the ankle. U.S.
5,641,424.7)
Patent No. 5,641,424.7 Aug. 1996.
Clark, J. M. and McCallum, J. M. (2008). Method for and
(Australian Patent
Patent online: composition of
No. AU
Electronic excipient suitable for use in herbal formulations and
2008100919,
database formulations
2008)
derived therefrom. Australian Patent AU 2008100919.

Retrieved from SciFinder.
Theses [Top]
Material In-Text
Type Citation
Lockhart, E. (2009). The physical education curriculum choices
of
Thesis in print:
(Lockhart, 2009) Western Australian primary school teachers (Unpublished
Unpublished
master‟s
thesis). University of Western Australia
May, B. (2007) A survey of radial velocities in the zodiacal dust
Thesis in print:
(May, 2007) cloud.
Published
Bristol, UK: Canopus Publishing
Rich, P. D. (1989). The rule of ritual in the Arabian Gulf, 1858-
1947:
Thesis online: The influence of English public schools (Doctoral
Electronic (Rich, 1989) dissertation).
database Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses – UK and
Ireland.
(AAT 8918197)
Bari, M. (2006). A distributed conceptual model for stream
salinity
Thesis online: generation processes : A systematic data-based approach
Institutional (Bari, 2006) (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from
repository http://repository.uwa.edu.au/R/-
?func=dbin-jump-fullandlocal_base=GEN01-
INSO1andobject_id=7053
Web sources [Top]
Material In-Text
Type Citation
Australian Psychological Society. (2008). Substance abuse:
Position statement. Retrieved from
(Australian http://www.psychology.org.au/publication/statements/substan
Web page Psychological ce/
Society, 2008)
Note: When citing an entire website and not a particular document on the website give the address in-text only. No
reference entry required (See APA Style Guide to Electronic Sources, 2013, p. 32)
(“Improve
indigenous Improve indigenous housing now, governments told. (2007).
Web page: No
housing”, 2007) Retrieved from
author
http://www.architecture.com.au/i-cms?page=10220
Use the first few words of the
page title
Jones, M. D. (n.d.). Commentary on indigenous housing

Web page: No
(Jones, n.d.) initiatives.
date
Retrieved from http://www.architecture.com.au
(“Mindfulness
Web page: No mediation”, n.d.,
Mindfulness meditation. (n.d.). Retrieved from
author or date: para 8)
http://www.freemeditations.com/mindfulness-meditation.html
With quote
Count paragraphs if not
numbered
Press release (Perth Zoo, 2014) Perth Zoo. (2014, March 11). Meerkat kits born at Perth Zoo

[Press release].
Retrieved from http://www.perthzoo.wa.gov.au/meerkat-kits-
born-at
-perth-zoo-19406/
CSIRO Minerals Down Under National Research Flagship.
(CSIRO Minerals
(2011).
Down Under
Driving sustainability through system innovation [Fact sheet].
Fact sheet National
Retrieved from
Research
http://www.csiro.au/Outcomes/Climate/Reducing-GHG/
Flagship, 2011)
driving-sustainability-factsheet.aspx
Malissa, A. (2008, October 2). Re: Egypt planning DNA test on
3,500
Discussion year old mummy [Online forum comment]. Retrieved
(Malissa, 2008)
forum from http://www.topix.com/science/anthropology/2008/05/egy
pt-
planning-dna-test-for-3-500-year-old-mummy
Brown, M. (2008, November 1). A royal pardon for the British
witches?
Blog (Brown, 2008)
[Web log post]. Retrieved from
http://www.worldhistoryblog.com
Anderson, O. (2005, June 2). Re: Psychology of terrorism
Electronic [Electronic mailing list message]. Retrieved from
(Anderson, 2005)
mailing list http://archives.econ.utah.edu/archives/theory-
frankfurt-school/2005w22/msg00000.htm
Sports psychology. (n.d.). In The psychology wiki. Retrieved
(Sports
Wiki December 2,
psychology, n.d.)
2008, from http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Sports_psychology
Tables and Figures [Top]
Material In-Text
Type Citation
Adapted from “ A
Conceptual
validation study of
the texture
All of a table,
response on the Marsh, A., and Viglione, D. J. (1992). A Conceptual validation study of the texture
figure, or data
Rorschach, " by response on the Rorschach. Journal of Personality Assessment, 58(3), 571-579.
used in text.
A. Marsh and D. Republished or adapted tables, figures or data must be clearly marked and the original source provided in text and
From a print
J. Viglione, 1992, appended to the caption of the table or figure.
journal
Journal of
Personality
Assessment,
58(3), p. 576.
Note.
From "Thermophy
All of a table, sical properties of
Assael, M. (1998). Thermophysical properties of fluids. London:
figure or data fluids," p. 113, by
Imperial
used in text. M.J. Assael,
College Press.
From a book 1998, London:
Imperial College
Press.

Note. The data in
column # are from Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2009). International
Part of a table, "International merchandise
figure or data Merchandise imports Australia, January 2009 (No. 5439.0), Retrieved
use in text. Imports, Australia, from
From the web Jan 2009", http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/5439.0?OpenD
Australian Bureau ocument
of Statistics.
Images [Top]
Material In-Text
Type Citation
Image Van Gogh, V. (Artist). (1888). Van Gogh’s Chair [Painting].
original:Citation (Van Gogh, 1888) London:
only in text The National Gallery.
Image ...the painting
reproduction: „Mona Lisa‟ Gombrich, E. H. (1995). The story of art (16th ed.). London:
Citation only in- (Gombrich 1995, Phaidon.
text p. 203) ...
Image used in Primal Pictures. (2009). Regional anatomy: Head and neck:
(Primal Pictures,
text: Electronic Meninges
2009)
database (layer 4, frame 19) [Image]. Retrieved from anatomy.tv.
Image used in Iinzart120 (2008). Illusions [Image]. Retrieved from
text: Freely http://browse.deviantart.com/?qh=andsectionandq=optical=illu
(Iinzart120, 2008) sions#/d1g5qs9
available on the
Web If no artist name is available, use the first few words of the image title
Multiple citations in one reference [Top]

Citation In-Text
Type Citation
Anderson, M., and Reid, C. (2009). Don‟t forget about levels of
explanation.
(Anderson and Cortex: A Journal Devoted to the Study of the Nervous
Multiple Reid, 2009; System and
citations in one Howitt and Behavior, 45(4), 560-561. Retrieved from ScienceDirect.
reference Cramer, 2008)
[Same order as reference list]
Howitt, D., and Cramer, D. (2008). Introduction to research
methods
in psychology (2nd ed.). Harlow, England: FT Prentice Hall.
Citing information someone else has cited [Top]
Citation In-Text
Type Citation
...O‟Reilly, as
cited in Byrne
(2008) argues
that... Byrne, A. (2008). Web 2.0 strategies in libraries and information
Secondary
services.
citation Or The Australian Library Journal, 57(4), 365-376.
O‟Reilly (as cited

in Byrne, 2008)

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APPENDIX 2
INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH TEST PAPER TIME: 3 HRS
SECTION A : CONTINUOUS WRITING OR ESSAY
Answer any one question here. 15 marks (Spend about 30 minutes on this.)
1. Write a feature article fit to be published, on the topic,‘ Examination malpractices in

secondary schools in Zambia’ ( 15 marks)
2. In your opinion, should right to abortion be recognised in Zambia? ( 15 marks)
3. Write an essay ending, ‘All is well that ends well’. (15 marks)
SECTION B: BUSINESS COMMUNICATION (Spend about 30 minutes on this)

Answer any one question here. 15 marks. Bullet points are not allowed here, as prose or
continuous writing is required.
1 (a) What are the qualities of effective communication within an organisation? (8 marks)
(b) What problems are created by communication gap in an organisation? (7 marks)
2. How can knowledge of ICT help a lawyer serve his or her clients better? (15 marks)
SECTION C
SUMMARY (20 marks)
Read and summarise the following passage in not less than 600 words. (5 marks)
Male Circumcision–A Painful Traditional Excision or a Painless Clinical Decision?
Reminiscences of the 60s in Ghana
By Kwesi Atta Sakyi
28th December 2012

What is male circumcision? It is also referred to as Male Genital Mutilation (MGM) or male genital
amputation. The word circumcision means cutting around (Wikipedia). It is the practice of the
excision of the foreskin or prepuce, at the tip of the male organ shaft or penis, to reveal the glans
penis, which is knob-end shaped, bulbous, bell-shaped or helmet-shaped. Others believe it is
shaped like a mushroom. It is believed that one-third of males in the world are circumcised. Male
circumcision is said to date back some 2500 years ago in ancient Egypt, among the elite or ruling
classes, as a form of sacrifice (Gascoigne 1998).
What is the import of male circumcision? It is believed that it is a mark of initiation into adulthood
or manhood, therefore a social observance of the rite of passage. It shows maturity, leadership
and ability to withstand pain, requisite of warriors. It is also a personal hygienic practice, to avoid
the accumulation of foul-smelling detritus or dead cells and fat forming around the ridge of the
glans, which is enclosed by the foreskin or prepuce. This cheese-like matter is called smegma
(Wikipedia). Medical experts believe circumcision prevents banalitis or inflammation of the glans. It
also prevents phimosis or inability of the prepuce to retract backwards for cleaning. Furthermore,
MGM prevents Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs) such as penile cancer, cervical cancer in women,
dermatitis, among many other ailments.(Wikipedia).
Male circumcision is said to be common in West Africa, the Muslim world, among the Jews and
Arabs in North Africa, and among many Christian sects. Biblical accounts of circumcision refer to
the covenant the Patriarch Abraham made with God (Gen 17: 7-14). Those Christians who avoid
circumcision place their authority on Paulian injunctions, concerning the new baptism of fire, as
contrasted with the old dispensation of physical sacrifices and external manifestations of faith,
based on the old Mosaic laws and religious traditions of the Talmud and Torah (Gascoigne1998).
(Colossians 2:10-15).
On the Tuesday of 11th April 1967, I was to make history in my personal life, as it was the day I
was circumcised by the traditional circumciser, Papa Wanzam, at the Winneba Zongo. At that
time, I had barely spent a year at the co-educational institution, the Komenda Teacher Training
College (KTTC), where I was pursuing a Certificate A 4 year teacher training programme. I had
entered the co-educational boarding institution, having earlier completed my 10 year elementary
education in 1966 at the Winneba Methodist Middle Boys‟ School, and having passed the dreaded
teacher training entry examinations with flying colours.
Earlier on, I had sat the Middle School Leaving Certificate exam (MSLC) or the standard seven
exams, and passed with distinction. Komenda College had quite a lot of elderly men and women,
some of whom were about three times my age, and they had really seen working life as
Agricultural Extension Officers, Village Catechists, Quartermaster Generals in the Workers
Brigade, High School Finalists, Head teachers, among others. Of course, there were young teens
also who were fresh from elementary school like me. Unfortunately, four of those teens were sent
home for poor academic performance at the end of that year.
Being uncircumcised gave me a lot of psychological worries, as I had to live with the stigma,
amidst jests and taunts from my male colleagues, who openly in public, made fun of me before our

girls and ladies. We had open bathrooms at the college, so there was no privacy for anyone. The
taunts went so far that sometimes I cursed my parents for not having taken action on the issue
earlier on. My academic performance was even affected in a way because of having some
inferiority complex among my colleagues at school. Many a time, during our Saturday evening
entertainment, which usually was a record dance, my male classmates would be taunting me in
front of our ladies, by telling me to go and get circumcised.
What an open embarrassment! I vividly remember that somewhere in 1956, whilst I was six years
old, I had seen my nephew being circumcised at home by the Wanzam. When I had enquired why
I was not circumcised, I was told that as I was born a twin, I had to undergo some special ritual or
traditional cleansing ceremony before being allowed to be touched by a razor. When I grew up a
bit, I wondered whether I was like the Nazarenes in the Bible. I waited and waited for my parents
to perform the special cleansing ceremony for twins, but it never came to pass. However, up to
age 15 or so, I remember that every year we held the annual twins yam festival in August, during
which time rams, goats and chickens were slaughtered and our bodies were smeared with red and
white clay, and we had to bath with water immersed with special herbs and the rubbish remains of
all the food prepared. We were fed with special diet such as mashed yam, mixed with red palm oil,
and boiled eggs.
We had to carry the same water with herbs, and make a procession through town while carrying
the water with the herbs in big metal bowls. Many families in town with twins also joined to
celebrate the occasion. The town was awash and agog with festivities, amidst singing of traditional
songs. We all headed towards the beach, to a place called Oseenee Poase (Oseenee Beach).
Sometimes, we would be suddenly possessed by some spirit, and we would start quaking all over,
amidst the singing and chanting of our appellations. We would lunge suddenly into the crowd of
onlookers who had lined the streets, charging with our carriage on our heads. Then we would be
chased and held up by strong men who would come, chasing us and chanting our appellations.
Sometimes, the journey to our chosen destination at the beach would be aborted and we would be
carried shoulder high to the house, still in our frenzied stupor. Having digressed a bit, let me return
to that fateful Tuesday on 11th April 1967, when I went for circumcision. Earlier on, before that
fateful day, I had in a chat with my octogenarian father, explained why I wanted him to accompany
me to Papa Wanzam at the Zongo to get circumcised in the traditional way. My old disciplinarian
father, for once, did not shout at me or argue that I had not yet undergone the special twins
cleansing ceremony. So, early that morning, we took off at dawn, walking. We arrived at the Zongo
around 5 o‟clock in the morning.
It was a distance of about 3 or 4 kilometres. We knocked on Papa Wanzam‟s door, at a place near
the Muslim Mosque at Winneba, known as Zongo. The old man of about 75 years old, with white
grey hair and beard, ushered us in. He provided a small stool for me to sit on as we told him our
mission. Then he went for his old and frail leather bag, out of which he produced a set of about six
sharp razor knives, and spread them on the floor in front of me. It was perhaps, to scare me. But I
had made a resolve that, come what may, the Rubicon was crossed. I neither shuddered nor show
any sign of being afraid or having second thoughts. The taunts, jests and humiliation, plus the
verbal abuse at college was enough to steel my nerves to enervate and motivate me to go through

the most gruesome ordeal.
Papa Wanzam carefully selected one razor blade from the lot and he assured me that everything
would be fine. I told my father not to hold me as I was prepared for the worst, being a fully grown
young adult, full of youthful exuberance and sophomoric braggadocio. Papa Wanzam set about
the business which he knew best. I wondered how many sizes and hues of penises he had
handled. As I write, I remember a line in Chinua Achebe‟s Things Fall Apart, which read like, „If a
penis does not die young, it will surely taste bearded meat.‟ Hmmmm! Papa Wanzam did his work
with consummate professional zeal, with a glint of hope and triumph in his sharp eyes. He first
pulled the prepuce or foreskin and with measured mathematical precision, he deftly dealt the first
blow to the top flesh of my organ.
A scintillating sharp thrill and pang of pain went through my nervous system, and I winced and
grimaced, remaining still, but throwing my head to one side and grinding my teeth hard. What
followed next was a terrible, excruciating, and indescribable sharp pain, as Papa Wanzam again
deftly dealt two sharp excisions to the underpart of my organ, where I guess the flesh, veins and
perhaps sinews converged. That was the deepest cut which was heart-wrenching, and
exceedingly terrible and horrific.
At long last, the ordeal was over and I had for the first time in my life, proved that I had indeed
arrived in the citadel of manhood and adulthood, that, I had relegated childhood fear into the
dustbin and archives of limbo and forgotten things. I had indeed, like Napolean or Julius Caesar,
become the monarch of all that I surveyed. I must have uttered, like Caesar did in 47 B.C., that, „I
came, I saw, I conquered (Veni, Vidi, Vici), after he had conquered Pharnaces II in Pontus in
current day Turkey (Wikipedia).
(The Latin expression could also be rendered as Venire, Videre and Vincere). These days, very
few of the teenagers in Ghana know little about the various phases of traditional life called the rites
of passage, because westernization and the computer age has taken over and overwhelmed
everything traditional. In my day in those 60s, groups of boys would get together in August, during
the cold fishing season, and raise their own money, unbeknown to their parents, and go to the
Wanzam to get circumcised. I did not grow up in a home where there were boys. I had eleven
sisters, and my father would not allow me the freedom to bond with other boys from outside .
Hence, my circumcision predicament. Back to our story.
After Papa Wanzam was through with me, he produced some brown powdery stuff from some tree
bark, which he daubed on the fresh wound, and he bandaged it with some strands of some old
cloth. He made me a big calabashful of millet porridge, which he made me drink to the last dregs. I
paid the prescribed fee and set off with my old man for a long walk back home. I walked perfectly
and normally, in order not to raise eyebrows or suspicions from acquaintances that we were likely
to come across on the way. The actual pain was to come a day or two after the ordeal. I went
about walking normally in my traditional Ghanaian male toga, without using my hand to shield the
wound in my cloth, as I had seen others do before me.
I decided to be bold and beautiful. I never gave the faintest clue to my neighbours of what had

transpired, but one observant old lady caught me napping. She enquired from me if all was well,
and for the second time in my life, I think I lied that all was well with me. She was one of my
numerous neighbourhood clientele, who used to employ me to write letters for them to be posted
to their relatives in other parts of Ghana. I remember that as young as 12 years old, while in the
upper primary school, my neighborhood women had great confidence in my potential as a scribe,
so they had voted to ask me to be their chief letter-writer. Those I wrote to often came to
congratulate me.
I had at that age, to listen carefully to their message which was often couched in the most difficult
native expressions. I had to try to summarise what they wanted written in the letter, and often, I
read back to them in the vernacular, what I had captured in terse words in English, with my stick
pen and nib, and a bottle of either Watermans Ink or Lions Ink. Quinck Ink was a luxury and an
exclusive brand. Let us get back to the circumcision story.
Those of us from the coastal areas often went to the beach to dress our wounds and to bathe in
the sea, as we believed that the saline sea water had many therapeutic powers. I think I still
believe in that, as the salinity of the ocean has been recognized as one of the greatest natural
disinfectants. After about 3 weeks, the wound was healed, except that the skin
colouration/pigmentation around it took quite sometime to return to its usual dark colour. In May, I
went back to college, and the taunts and jests thrown in my direction suddenly ceased. I guess
that if I had not been bold to take that critical decision at that age of 16+, I would have remained
uncircumcised up to today.
Perhaps, it would have greatly hindered or jeopardized my chances of having a woman to marry in
Ghana. I was told that there were taboos in Ghana then regarding circumcision. Twins like me
were considered specially born, so they were exempt from the circumcision ordeal, unless they
underwent elaborate cleansing rituals, which was expensive and which would take about a week
of being confined indoors. The head would be closely shaven, the body smeared with oil, myrrh
and white clay, and special beads would be tied at the wrists, with some beads around the neck
and waist.
It was an elaborate puberty rite in the rites de passage. There would be slaughtering of a ram,
feasting, dancing and a lot of jollification. Apart from twins, males who were earmarked to become
occupants of the black stool or be enthroned as traditional chiefs would be disqualified from being
chiefs, if it was found out that they were circumcised. However, with the advent of Christianity and
western education, some of these superstitions and cultural taboos were relegated into limbo.
They have been jettisoned or debunked. While at College in my first year in 1966/1967, one of the
African novels we used for English Literature was The African Child (Le Enfant Noire, 1953) by
Camara Laye.
Our American Peace Corps tutor, Miss Milligan (nee Mrs. Lewis), set our class alight with dramatic
rendition of how the boys in Kouroussa, rural Guinea, were taken to a clearing in the bush and
made to undergo some puberty initiation rites of circumcision. Miss Milligan would dramatise the
scene, where the dreaded circumciser, Kondon Diarra would emerge suddenly from nowhere,
brandishing his sharp razor knives, and the poor boys would cower and cringe in their makeshift

shelter in the bush, dreading and anticipating the unthinkable. Perhaps, they soiled their pants in
their cold comfort and humungous trepidation.
The women onlookers would vehemently petition the hideous and merciless Kondon Diarra to go
away shouting, “Go away, Kondon Diarra, go away….‟ Some of us in our mid-teens then would get
carried away by the vividly enacted scene, but then, to me it was like letting the dogs out, or the
cat out of the bag, as I became a target of derision and public opprobrium in my class of T1B. I
was subjected to some verbal abuse, but then, I took it all with humour and rode the storm in my
strike, without picking up any fights.
In a college of about 400 men and women, I guess I was like Hans Andersen‟s Ugly Duckling.
Readers might take note that it is most uncommon in Ghana to find a Ghanaian male who is not
circumcised. Ghanaians, by nature, follow Christian and Muslim teachings, though Muslims are by
far in the minority. In the Bible, the baby Jesus was circumcised on the eighth day after his birth, in
line with the covenant which the patriarch, Abraham, had made with God (Genesis 17:7-14; Luke
2:21-40). Many Ghanaian males get circumcised a few days after birth, in a painless clinical way
at the hospital. This is neonatal circumcision, which has raised media kerfuffle because of lack of
consent issue, and the issue of child abuse.
This is usually done under local area anaesthesia at the hospital. The social stigma of being an
uncircumcised male in Ghana is too heavy to bear. Clinical research by WHO/UNAIDS, and other
researchers has revealed that male circumcision helps to reduce the incidence of inflammation of
the prepuce, contagion of STDS, such as syphilis, chanchroid, HIV AIDS, trichomoniasis, hepatitis
B, Chlamydia, gonorrhea, papillomavirus, phimosis, balanitis, herpes, among others (Wikipedia).
Apart from being clinically hygienic, male circumcision has its special religious significance for
Jews, Christians and Muslims, who observe it to the letter. Without circumcision, a foul-smelling,
cheese-like deposit of dead cells and fat, called smegma, forms under the prepuce, near the ridge
of the glans or head of the penis. (Wikipedia).
The famous story of circumcision in the bible is the story of the rape of Dinah, sister to the twelve
patriarchs, sons of Jacob in Genesis 34: 1-31. Dinah strode into the territory of Gentiles, with
Hamor as head, and Shechem his son. Shechem raped Dinah and he and his father later
approached Jacob to request the hand of Dinah in marriage. Because of the abomination, the
brothers of Dinah planned a subterfuge or deceitful act of trickery to have their own back or
revenge. They would only consent to the marriage if Hamor and his party would oblige to undergo
circumcision and be like them. With much gusto and zeal, they willingly agreed and circumcised.
Simon and Reuben pounced on them and slaughtered Hamor, Shechem, his son, and all their
families. Perhaps, this is one reason in those days of war, like the era of Chaka the Zulu, men
abhorred circumcision.
A few months back this year 2012, male circumcision raised a storm and media kerfuffle in
Cologne, Germany, where some immigrant communities, notably of Jewish, Turkish, Arab and
Muslim origins, became alarmed when the German government tried to prevent them from
circumcising their young ones, claiming that it was child abuse under EU legislation. The affected
parties stridently fought for their cultural rights also under EU Law, and won.

In Zambia, NGOs and government departments under the Ministry of Health are vigorously
campaigning and driving the issue of male circumcision as a means to help reduce the incidence
and scourge of HIV-AIDS. Parliamentarians and politicians are in the forefront, showing the way,
after having been sensitized in workshops. The police and the much-respected and dreaded
Zambian Air Force (ZAF), have been brought on board, and their commanders have promised
them promotions if they go for circumcision. To me, the bottom line is to get male children
circumcised a few days after birth (neonatal circumcision) so as to circumvent the dread at a
mature age. I would not want any of my family members to undergo what I went through at
college. However, critics are against neonatal circumcision because they think it is child abuse.
References
www.annomundi.com
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics-of-circumcision
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/glans penis
www.circumstitions.com/References.html
A Nursing Student is introduced to Circumcision
www.thewholenetwork.org/14/post/2012
smegma/phimosis/balanitis
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumcision
Biblical references to circumcision, courtesy of Mike Gascoigne of Annomundi Books,UK.

Gen17:7-14; Gen 34:1-31; Exod24:4-8; Exod4:24-26; Exod12: 43-51; Joshua5:1-10; Luke1:68-71;
Acts7:2-8; Acts 10:15; Acts11:9; Romans 2: 25-29; 1 Corinthians 7: 17-20; Gal: 5:1-6; Gal6:15;
Colossians 2:10-15
Contact: kwesiattasakyi449@gmail.com
Answer the following questions
1. From the passage, what is meant by rites of passage?
2. According to the passage, what is the significance of circumcision?
3. What personal experience did the author narrate about male circumcision?
4. Why do you think he narrated that experience?
5. From the passage, delineate 4 benefits of circumcision stated by the author.
6. Why do you think about two-thirds of males around the world are not circumcised?
7. Why are critics against neo-natal circumcision?
8. What reasons are given in the passage for the drive for male circumcision in Zambia?

9. What historical and religious reasons are given by the author as reasons why people hate
to be circumcised?
10. In your opinion, do you think women prefer circumcised or uncircumcised men? Explain.
(10 marks)
11. Give synonyms and antonyms for these words which are highlighted in the passage:
consent, clientele, stridently, abhorred, covenant, circumvent, gusto, derision,

excision, patriarch, accumulation (5 marks)

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The University of Zambia

By Kwesi Atta Sakyi

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„The heights by great men reached and kept

Were not attained by sudden flights,

But they, while their companions slept,

Were toiling upwards all the night‟

„Lives of great men all remind us

We can make our lives sublime,

Leave behind us footprints on the sands of time.‟

By the end of the course, students should be able to:

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Continuous assessment 40%

4) Claire, M. B. and Gordon, M. S. (1991) Effective Writing: A Handbook for

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My contact cell phone numbers:

Zambia Centre for Accountancy Studies

Dedan Kimathi Road, P.O. Box 35243, Lusaka, Zambia,

Tel: + 260 211 232093/5, Fax: + 260 211 222542,

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UNIT 2 Oral communications

UNIT 3 Written communication

UNIT 4 Report writing

UNIT 5 Syntax-tenses, sentences, parts of speech

UNIT 6 Syntax- idioms, paradoxes, figures of speech, poetry

UNIT 7 Comprehension and summary writing

UNIT 8 Referencing methods - APA (American Psychological Association), Harvard Style,

UNIT 1 SECTION 1 NOTE-TAKING (LECTURE)

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1. You should be able to take down key points at a lecture

1 Cottrell, S. (2008) The study skills handbook. (3rd ed.) Basingstoke:

3 Kaul, A. (2003) Business Communication New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India

4 Stanton, N.M. (1996) Mastering Communication (3rd ed)

Time required: 180 hours

1.5 How to take notes during lectures

A lecture is a formal presentation done in a regular classroom or lecture theatre in a school or

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Write a SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats) of yourself in terms of things

STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES OPPORTUNITIES THREATS

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 Who is your role model or mentor?

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How did you cope at that time?

1.9 UNIT 1 SECTION 2 NOTE-TAKING (BOOKS)

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a. List 4 ways which help you locate information in books

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Colour of the book

Table of figures in the book

1.11 UNIT 1 SECTION 3 NOTE-TAKING (INTERNET)

The internet is a vast electronic resource with millions of computers connected

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Pie Chart showing sectors of a market

Percentages of sales of car series in 4 companies

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1.13 UNIT1 SUMMARY

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UNIT 2 ORAL COMMUNICATION

Oral communication includes face-to-face encounters at meetings, having informal chats,

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