Sludge treatment procedures guide

12/16/2019 6.
6 Sludge treatment and disposal procedures
Urban Wastewater Projects A Layperson's Guide (EEA, 1998, 124 p.)
Chapter 6. Wastewater and Sludge Treatment and Disposal
(introduction...)
6.1 General introduction and chapter content
6.2 Effluent disposal and reuse
6.3 Wastewater Treatment Processes
6.4 Wastewater treatment issues
6.5 Sludge disposal and Reuse
6.6 Sludge treatment and disposal procedures
6.7 Sludge treatment and disposal issues
6.8 General issues
(introduction...)
Figure
6.1 General introduction and chapter content
This chapter explains the main issues involved in the treatment of wastewater and sludges, and briefly
considers such matters as the reusing and disposal of sludge, the centralisation of sewage and sludge
treatment, the monitoring of processes, and the selection and training of operators.
The selection of the appropriate wastewater and sludge treatment method depends primarily on the
intended method of disposal or reuse of the treated wastewater and sludge. It is important to stress that
first an effluent and sludge disposal or reuse strategy should be selected and that appropriate treatment
processes should then be selected that meet the objectives of this strategy. The choice of method of
disposal or beneficial reuse of both effluents and sludges is frequently and incorrectly given too low a
priority when planning small to mediumsized wastewater projects, causing environmental and
economic problems on completion of the project. Thus, the importance in the selection of the disposal
and reuse strategy for treated waste at first, and then, the selection of the treatment method is
emphasised.
This chapter has been divided into the following sections:
6.2 Effluent Disposal and Reuse
6.4 Wastewater Treatment Issues
6.5 Sludge Disposal and Reuse
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12/16/2019 6.6 Sludge treatment and disposal procedures
6.6 Sludge Treatment and Disposal Procedures
6.7 Sludge Treatment and Disposal Issues
6.8 General Issues
6.2 Effluent disposal and reuse
The extent to which a wastewater has to be treated is determined by the standard of effluent quality
that must be produced before it is discharged to a watercourse, lake or coastal water. These standards
are determined, in turn, within the framework of the EC Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive.
6.2.1 Acceptable disposal and use of effluents
The Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive sets minimum standards in order to protect the local
receiving water environment. Local needs may require even higher standards. Deciding on the
acceptable discharges of an effluent into a receiving water, involves taking into account the local
topographical and hydrological circumstances as well as e.g. the best discharge point, mixing in the
water body etc.
Fig. 6.1 Birdseye view of a large wastewater treatment plant
Fig. 6.2 Diagrammatic view of wastewater treatment works
It is important to think in terms of effluent disposal as a means of water resource recovery so that the
effluent adds to the water available for the environment and further use. So, environmental water uses
are very important incentives in determining the treatment provided. In some areas with scant
resources, this may even mean direct reuse of the effluent for agricultural, industrial and even potable
purposes.
The Directive puts the onus of the work on either the discharger or the regulator to conduct
environmental studies to determine water body sensitivity or the need for extended treatment. Where
the need for less treatment has to be proven, the onus usually falls on the discharger.
6.2.2 Acceptable disposal and use of sludge
Amongst the byproducts of waste water treatment is sludge, an organically rich material. This must
be disposed of in the environment in a safe way which still avoids unnecessary expenditure. The
preferred method is agricultural use as fertiliser, known increasingly as biosolids. Other methods may
be necessary in local situations, such as incineration, but the ash usually still has to be disposed of to
landfill.
6.2.3 Acceptable disposal of other wastewater treatment byproducts
Grit and screenings are usually disposed of into a landfill or on waste ground, either directly or after
incineration. No significant beneficial use has yet been found.
6.2.4 What Treatment Efficiency and Treatment Concept is needed for the Proposed Wastewater
Treatment Plant?
The required treatment efficiency is calculated from the incoming load to the wastewater treatment
plant and the acceptable load to the receiving waters from the plant. Based on the incoming flows and
pollution loads, an appropriate process can be identified and signed. The most appropriated approach
will be chosen following a technical and economic evaluation and a comparison of alternatives.
The removal of gross matter, grit and other polluting material, including predominantly organic
substances suspended or dissolved in the wastewater, involves the use of treatment processes designed
to remove or eliminate each of these types of contaminant (see Figure 6.2).
6.3.1 Classification of Wastewater Treatment Processes
There are two main ways of classifying wastewater treatment processes in current use respectively
based upon
 the sequential order of treatment, i.e. preliminary; primary; secondary; tertiary;
advanced;
 the main process mechanism, i.e. physical; biological; chemical.
The former, based on sequential treatment stage, dates from the earlier period of wastewater treatment
development when “primary” meant a sedimentation process, “secondary” a biological process and
“tertiary” was an effluent polishing stage, in which a higher quality of effluent would be achieved
through nitration or some other physical process. The classification remains in common use but has
lost some of its relevance as both chemical and biological processes are now used in the secondary
stage of treatment and all three process mechanisms are used in the tertiary stage.
Both process classifications are now in common use and Table 6.1 therefore attempts to show the
interrelationship between the two. The table also shows which processes are used to achieve the three
classes of treated effluent recognised in the Urban Waste Water Directive less sensitive waters,
sensitive waters and the category in between which covers the majority of receiving waters. The table
also shows which principal wastewater contaminants are removed by each of the processes.
Annex A describes wastewater treatment processes according to their place in the treatment sequence,
not their principal process mechanism, and the sludge treatment according to the stage of treatment.
As far as has been possible, simplicity of presentation has been combined with technical accuracy.
However, in showing how individual processes can be referred to in both classifications,
simplification may have introduced certain minor inaccuracies which will not satisfy technical
“purists”. This publication is a guide principally for the nontechnical and should not be read as a
technically precise textbook.
Table 6.1. Classification of wastewater treatment processes.
CLASSIFICATION PURPOSE OF SEWAGE PRINCIPAL CLASSIFICATION

BY TREATMENT SEWAGE TREATMENT CONTAMINANTS BY TYPE OF
PROCESS TREATMENT PROCESS TREATED TREATMENT
SEQUENCE SEQUENCE
Preliminary To protect Screening and Timber, stones; Physical

downstream Comminution rags; paper.
treatment
processes
Grit Removal Sand and grit from Physical

roads
Primary To produce Primary Settleable, Physical

effluents suitable Sedimentation suspended solids
for discharge to
“less sensitive”
waters or to
reduce pollution
load to Secondary
processes
Chemically Settleable, Physicalchemical

assisted suspended solids;
sedimentation biodegradable
organics; phosporus;
heavy metals
Septic tanks Settleable, Physicalbiological

suspensed solids;
biodegradable
organics;
Secondary To produce Suspended Organic material Biological

effluents suitable growth
for discharge to (Activated
most waters or to sludge)
reduce pollution
load prior to
further treatment
Attached Organic material Biological

growth (Bio
film)
Anaerobic Organic material Biological
Processes shown Biological Organic material, Biological

as removing nutrient nitrogen,
nitrogen and removal phosphorous
phosporus can
achieve the same
purpose as
Tertiary processes
(see next section
of this table)
Coagulation Suspended matter, PhysicalChemical

flocculation phosphorous Physical, Biological
Combine Organic material, Chemical

processes Suspended matter,
phosphorous,
nitrogen
Tertiary To produce Filtration Suspended solids Physical

effluents suitable
for discharge to
“sensitive”
waters, for
discharge to
bathing waters
(disinfection) on
preparation for
some reuse
options.
Disinfection Pathogenic Chemical

bacteria/viruses
Other processes
gas stripping Nitrogen Physical
breakpoint Pathogenic Chemical/Physical

chlorination bacteria/viruses
Advanced Removal of Other processes

specific
contaminants
normally where
effluent reuse
options require
water of high
quality
Ion exchange Nitrogen; Chemical

inorganics/metals
Membrane Inorganic solids Physical

processes
Adsorption Refractory organics Physical

process
6.4 Wastewater treatment issues
6.4.1 Variations in Flow Between Day & Night and Climate
Even during periods of dry weather, there are substantial variations in wastewater flow rate and
pollution load conveyed to a treatment works through the day. The flow during the morning and
afternoon may be several times that recorded in the later evening or at night. During rainy periods,
floods and snow melting periods the incoming amount of wastewater may be significantly increased,
and may be several times higher than the usual dry weather load. In most cases it is much more
practical to store some of the wastewater during periods of peak flow. This practice is known as
“balancing”. Balancing is also used for the wastewater overflow from sludge treatment processes.
6.4.2 Measures to Moderate Impact of High Flows
Wastewater treatment works also have to be designed to maintain an acceptable quality of final
effluent during periods when rainfall enters the sewerage system discharging to the works. Modern
sewerage systems are usually designed to limit the quantities of rainwater and other surface waters that
reach the works, but older systems often allow the entry of substantial volumes of rainwater etc. thus
diluting the sewage flowing to the treatment works, frequently to a volume of 10 times as much as the
basic sewage flow.
Works, therefore, incorporate facilities for diverting and storing, on a temporary basis, part of the flow
arriving during and after periods of significant rainfall. The dilute wastewater, known as stormwater, is
held back in tanks until the incoming flow has subsided, when it is pumped back for normal treatment.
A typical arrangement permits the diversion of any flow in excess of 3 times dry weather flow into
storm tanks.
6.4.3 Environmental Control Suppression of Odour & Noise
Wastewater and sludge contain compounds that tend to give rise to unpleasant odours, specially
through the evolution of hydrogen sulphide gas and other sulphur compounds. A range of measures
often have to be taken to suppress these odours, including the provision of roofs on tanks and towers
containing materials (e.g. peat, activated carbon) that can absorb substances with unpleasant odours
before they are emitted to the atmosphere. There is an increasing demand for wastewater treatment
works to be operated in a manner that causes a minimal level of interference with the environment.
Noise from works operations, including that caused by the movement of vehicles, must also be kept
within agreed limits.
Treatment works are not usually considered noisy in their operation. However, they are not considered
desirable “neighbours” and therefore they generate complaints which are not always truly justifiable.
These social phenomena should be sensitively handled and taken into consideration in the planning
and design stages.
6.4.4 Wastewater Treatment from Small Communities
The treatment of wastewater from small communities is usually performed using one or more of a
small range of techniques, and is often provided in the form of a package plant that has been
prefabricated and then installed on site.
The simplest approach is the provision of a Septic Tank, of which there are several designs, in which
most of the wastewater solids are settled and the effluent discharged to a watercourse etc. if it meets
the required quality standard or given further treatment. The solids have to be removed from the septic
tank on a regular basis (e.g. 1,2 or 4 times per year).
Further treatment can be by one of the following means (more details in Annex A):
1. A small Biological Filter, sometimes filled with plastic media
2. A Rotating Biological Contactor
3. A Sequencing Batch Reactor, which is a small activated sludge plant usually operated
automatically, on a fill and draw basis
Alternatively, the septic tank settlement process can be omitted and all the wastewater passed directly
to an Extended Aeration Plant.
6.4.5 Decision on Centralisation of Wastewater Treatment
When plans are being made to introduce or update wastewater treatment for a large urban area or for a
number of towns and cities in a precisely defined region, a decision has to be taken as to whether
treatment should be centralised at one site or situated at several sites. Factors that must be taken into
account in such decisions include:
 the topography of the area involved, including the location of watercourses or coastal
sites suitable for the discharge of the treated effluents;
 the desirability of keeping pumping costs to a minimum by arranging for wastewater to
flow to treatment sites under gravity;
 lower unit costs of constructing and operating larger treatment works;
 the importance of taking into account public opinion, which can often be hostile to
living close to wastewater treatment facilities;
 protection of amenity;
 constraints arising from planning legislation, and the structure of local Government;
 medium and long term plans for the area, including new housing and industrial
expansion; availability of major roads and policy on the avoidance or relief of traffic
congestion.
Large works usually have facilities for receiving tanker loads of wastewater/sludge, known as septage,
from the emptying of septic tanks mentioned in 6.4.4 above.
In general, fewer and larger treatment works provide the basis for more costeffective construction and
operation but local circumstances may impose the need for more than one works and installations
serving only small populations.
6.5 Sludge disposal and Reuse
6.5.1 Treatment and Disposal of Byproducts
These byproducts have to be disposed of in a manner that is acceptable and economic. Public health
must not be adversely affected and the impact on the environment must be acceptable. To ensure this,
it is usually necessary to treat the sludge, the dissolved and suspended solids of which are
predominantly of organic matter (7080%). As in the case of wastewater treatment, the disposal outlet
or outlets should determine the methods used for sludge handling and treatment. More than one outlet
(i.e. agricultural land and reclaimed land) may be used to receive all the sludge generated at a given
wastewater treatment works. Other byproducts include screenings and grit from preliminary treatment
processes.
6.5.2 Sludge Utilisation, Disposal and Reusing
A wide range of types of sludge are produced at wastewater treatment works.
Fig. 6.3 Sludge stabilisation plant
Sludges can be in the following forms:
Moisture Content Solids Content
Liquid 9098% 210%
Thick, viscous slurry 8090% 1020%
“Cake” 6580% 2035%
Air Dried 3050% 5070%
Thermally Dried <10% > 90%
Although each or the above types or sludge can be disposed of treated or untreated, modern practice
generally requires that some degree of treatment be practised.
The ultimate product of the sludge treatment process may also be an ash or clinker (i.e. from an
incinerator process). Sludge can also be converted into compost using straw and other materials. The
main outlets for sludge are shown below.
6.5.3 Main Outlets for sludge:
Sludge disposal and utilisation have to be carefully controlled because sludges can give rise to the
following problems:
 Contamination, e.g. with heavy metals
 Infection of animals and humans with parasites such as tape worms contained in the
incoming wastewater.
 Contamination of watercourses and ground water.
 Unpleasant odours in the vicinity of their area of use.
The main sludge disposal options are:
 Agricultural Land, including pasture for grazing and arable land
 Nonagricultural land, including forestry, horticulture, amenity areas (playing fields,
golf courses, public gardens and spaces), landscaping including construction of road
 Landfill
 Sea disposal (prohibited after 1998).
 Certain esoteric uses of sludge have been developed in recent years including its
conversion to oil and its incorporation in a vitrified form in tiles and jewellery.
Sludge has for a long time been seen as a resource rather than merely as a byproduct for disposal,
owing to the fact that it contains valuable nutrients that promote the growth of crops. The nutrients
include nitrogen, phosporus, potassium and other minerals. The presence of organic matter and
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moisture is also of potential value. In combination these ingredients make the application of biosolids
to land highly beneficial, and its use on agricultural land is the most common outlet in a number of
countries. Biosolids can be applied to the surface of the land as a liquid, dewatered cake or dried
material, or injected as a liquid into soils. The nutrients are also valuable where biosolids are applied
to nonagricultural land. Although biosolids are regarded as a resource, where its treatment, transport
to the site of use and application to land represent an operational cost, only a modest proportion of
which can be recovered through a financial charge to the end user (e.g. farmer) for the supply of
biosolids. Frequently, no such charge is feasible. In most instances biosolids of domestic origin are
very unlikely to cause any problems. Greater care has to be exercised with biosolids of industrial
origin.
Where biosolids are to be used in agriculture, experience has shown that a clear and open practice
brings the benefits of greater public confidence. Good marketing techniques are needed constantly.
Managers must remember that however good the scheme and product may be, there is an natural
aversion to anything to do with faeces arising from the basic personal hygiene training of childhood
so constant marketing of the benefits of biosolids is essential. The greatest objections to biosolids are
often related to nuisance, e.g. smell, and great care should be taken on this issue.
6.5.4 Choice Utilisation Method/Disposal Outlet
The choice of disposal route is affected by a number of factors including:
 the physical characteristics of the sludge i.e. whether it is treated/untreated, liquid, cake,
dried etc.;
 the degree of contamination of the sludge, especially its content of potentially toxic
elements (e.g. cadmium, mercury, chromium, zinc, copper, nickel) and other toxic
substances that pass unaltered through the treatment processes;
 the availability of agricultural land and other disposal outlets possibility for composting;
 the demand or likely demand for sludge, which may depend on its effective marketing;
 the infrastructure (e.g. the availability of a good road network) and ready access to
disposal outlets;
 economics.
Special techniques involving the use of sophisticated computer programmes are available to help
determine the ideal strategy for the use of sludge or improving existing strategies and the use of outlets
currently available.
When biosolids are supplied for use on agricultural land, careful monitoring of soil must be performed
and the nutrient requirements of crops determined before a decision is taken on the quantity of sludge
to be applied over a given area of land. The farmer’s views on the latter must be sought and, when
necessary, advice given on fertiliser requirements.
6.6 Sludge treatment and disposal procedures
The removal of settleable matter during primary treatment and the use of microorganisms for
secondary treatment gives rise to substantial quantities of sludges. Occasionally these can be
accommodated on the site where they are generated but almost always there is inadequate space or
they give rise to a nuisance in the vicinity owing to the odour emitted or insects associated with their
storage, and they must be removed from the site. To minimise the cost of this and render them suitable
for utilisation or disposal, the sludges have to be dewatered and often subjected to other treatment
processes. At small wastewater treatment works they may be simply transported away for processing
at a larger works, or applied to nearby farm land either as a liquid or after drying in the open air. A
wide range of sludge handling and treatment processes have been developed over the last century, a
selection of which are nowadays often used in combination with one another at specific sites. The
phasing out of the use of the sea as a disposal outlet for sludge by the end of the century will lead, over
the coming decade, to the more extensive use of sludge treatment processes to render sludge suitable
for utilisation through terrestrial outlets including agricultural land, land reclamation and horticulture.
Fig. 6.4 Sludge dewatering
A list of sludge handling and treatment stages and disposal/reuse routes is set out in Figure 6.5.
Fig. 6.5 Principal sludge treatment and disposal routes
All wash waters and liquors produced in the course of cleaning (e.g. sand filter backwashing) and
dewatering (e.g. dewatering of sludges) must be returned to the works inlet; in no circumstances may
they be discharged into a nearby watercourse owing to the fact that they contain high concentrates of
polluting materials.
6.6.1 Classification of Sludge Treatment Processes
In a similar way to the Wastewater Treatment Process classification, Table 6.2 classifies sludge
treatment processes according to the sludge treatment stage for which they are used.
Table 6.2. Classification of sludge treatment stages.
SLUDGE PRINCIPAL SLUDGE SPECIFIC CLASSIFICATION

TREATMENT PURPOSE OF TREATMENT PURPOSE OF BY TYPE OF
STAGE SLUDGE PROCESS TREATMENT TREATMENT
TREATMENT PROCESS
STAGE
Thickening To thicken sludge to Gravity Physical

reduce volumetric thickening
capacity of subsequent
treatment and improve
performance of
stabilisation processes
Elutriation Improves Physical

gravity
thickening
Flotation Physical
Centrifuging Physical
Stabilisation To reduce organic Anaerobic Biological

solids content of sludge digestion
and thus reduce (unheated)
unpleasant odours when
sludge disposed of or
recycled; to reduce
pathogens; to render
sludge more readily
dewatered
Anaerobic Biological
digestion
(heated)
Secondary Biological
digestion
(unheated)
Aerobic Biological
digestion
Chemical Chemical
stabilisation
Pasteurisation Destroy Physical

pathogens
Composting Agricultural Biological/

reuse Physical
Dewatering To reduce volume of Drying beds Sludge solids Physical

sludge to be disposed more than 45%
of; to render sludge
easier to transport and
mechanically handle; to
reduce fuel used in
drying or incineration
processes
Belt presses Sludge solids Chemical/

1 to 25% Physical
Centrifuges Sludge solids Chemical

1 to 25% /Physical
Plate presses Sludge solids Chemical/

2 to 40% Physical
Vacuum filters Sludge solids Chemical/

1 to 20% Physical
Drying/Incineration To considerably reduce Thermal drying Sludge solids Physical

volume prior to disposal lower than 20%
Incineration Produces Physical

inorganic ash
Disposal Safe disposal if reuse Sanitary Physical

not possible landfill
Reuse/ Alternatives to disposal Agriculture Improves soil

Recycling of sludge by obtaining and
some beneficial use productivity
from sludge
Vitrification Inert end Physical

product
Oil from sludge Product with Physical

fuel value
Gasification Product with Physical

fuel value
6.7 Sludge treatment and disposal issues
It is a widespread practice to provide centralised facilities for sludge treatment at medium and large
works, and to transfer sludge produced at small sites to such sludge treatment centres by road tanker.
Where large volumes of industrial wastewater are generated, the option of treating them separately
from domestic wastewater may be considered as this may lead to more effective treatment. This
requires the provision of separate sewerage systems and treatment facilities for the two different types
of wastewater.
Other things being equal, a proliferation of treatment plants within a given area should be avoided,
since the centralisation of facilities tends to be considerably more economical.
A proliferation of treatment works can be avoided by the use of road tankers to convey non toxic
industrial wastewater to treatment centres; septic tank and cesspool wastewater is similarly transferred
to the works for treatment.
6.8 General issues
6.8.1 Extensions to Treatment Works and Modular Construction
As mentioned in Section 6.4.5, decisions on whether or not to centralise treatments should take
account of any building plans for new housing and industrial expansion in the area. The additional
flow arising from such developments may also require the extension of treatment facilities at a given
works by the provision of more primary, secondary, tertiary and sludge treatment plants. A simple way
of extending wastewater treatment works is to construct them as preconstructed modular units. As
additional flows arise in an area from the expansion of population and industry, so more treatment
modules are purchased and installed.
The question of whether to adopt the modular approach to the construction of works using such
preconstructed units has to be answered after thought has been given to the relative costs of
constructing the modules, which in some countries may have to be imported from abroad at
considerable expense and strain to the balance of payments, as compared with the more conventional
method of designing an extension to the existing works. The latter may often be achieved using local
materials and labour.
6.8.2 Power Supply for Works Operation
Most wastewater and sludge treatment processes need a supply of electricity to operate pumps, valves,
aeration equipment, control and monitoring systems. At small works, power is imported from the local
electricity supply or grid, except in those circumstances where the wastewater gravitates through the
works and sludge is transported off site without treatment on a regular basis.
Larger works often utilise a sludge digestion processes that produces gas, the major component of
which (methane) can be used to generate electricity on site and/or produce heat to maintain the
operation of the digesters. In practice it is possible by this means to supply all or most of the power to
operate modern works, and export some power to the local electricity utility. However, large works
usually have the means to take some electricity from the local supply, although in some cases they
may have standby generators, which normally produce power by consuming oil.
Fig. 6.6 Monitoring wastewater treatment operation
6.8.3 Monitoring and Analysis, Process Failure and Emergencies etc.
All treatment processes must be monitored to determine whether or not they are operating efficiently.
Monitoring entails a number of activities notably:
 Visual inspection of each treatment process and associated plant (e.g. pumps).
 The EU Directive requires the monitoring of composite samples (flowproportional or
timebased) or continuous sampling. The use of automatic sampling machines is desirable
for composite sampling and essential for continuous sampling.
 The use of automatic monitors at key locations to determine the parameters needed to
operate processes efficiently and safely, including suspended solids, ammonianitrogen,
nitrate, dissolved oxygen and methane.
 Automatic monitors, ideally connected to a control room where staff are present
24h/hours a day, 365 days/a year, can provide warning of:
Failure of treatment processes due to the arrival at the works of
contaminants discharged accidentally or intentionally into the sewerage
system or brought into the works by tanker.
Failure of key processes and plant due to malfunction, criminal activity
including vandalism, and occasionally terrorism.
Fig. 6.7 Training session
In certain treatment plants, during unmanned periods operators can monitor the plant performance on
the computer terminals in their homes, using modern communication technology. In case of
emergency, the personnel could be gathered using systems like paging systems.
Key operational data, such as that concerning the operation of pumps and data from automatic
monitors, may be transmitted back to the control room from remote works by telemetry.
Biological treatment processes used in secondary and sludge treatment are particularly vulnerable to
inhibition by certain chemical substances, which may be manufactured or used at industrial sites and
spilt or accidentally discharged into the sewers, or deliberately discharged from factories or dumped in
illegal flytipping activities. Inhibition of secondary treatment processes often results in failure to
maintain the required standard of effluent quality and, with anaerobic sludge digestion processes, in
loss of gas production and generation of sludge with a quality (odour) that is too poor for it to be
supplied to its normal disposal outlet (e.g. agricultural land).
Such accidental or deliberate discharges of toxic substances can also result in contaminated sludges
that are harmful to crop growth and to the food chain, if they are applied to agricultural land.
If such inhibition scenarios occur, a better control of industrial effluents has to be installed. This
requires special chemical analytical equipment and skilled personnel. Modern methods have been
devised to detect and locate the discharge of hazardous substances.
6.8.4 Sample Analysis and Laboratory Facilities
When samples are taken at a wastewater treatment works, they must be analysed for a range of
parameters appropriate to the process involved. This requires the provision of facilities for performing
analytical work. These can be at a laboratory on site. However, it is increasingly common for samples
to be transported to a central laboratory serving several or many works. The use of an independent
consultant analytical laboratory having the necessary expertise and equipment is also a possibility.
Often an arrangement is made for certain simple analytical procedures to be performed on site by
operators or technicians, sometimes involving the use of analytical kits, but more complex procedures
(e.g. that involving toxic metals) must be performed by the central laboratory. When a remote or
central laboratory is employed, careful organisation of sample collection and delivery is essential,
together with the arrangement of an effective means of notifying key managers and operators of the
results.
All samples must be clearly labelled to identify the location, time and date at which they were taken,
and the people performing the analyses must be carefully informed of the parameters that they are
required to determine.
6.8.5 Selection and Training of Managers and Operators
Modern wastewater and sludge treatment plants are often technically complex and sophisticated
equipment is installed that requires the availability of highly trained personnel to operate them
efficiently. The scope for the use of unskilled staff is increasingly limited owing to the degree of
mechanisation and automation that is involved. Managers and operators must have a theoretical
knowledge of the technology involved and practical experience of wastewater treatment and other
similar process industries. The support of maintenance staff (electricians, fitters and plumbers) is also
necessary, together with drivers licensed to handle heavy goods vehicles.
Fig. 6.8 Safety measures
A European Water Pollution Control Association (EWPCA) task force has formulated an European
Vocational Qualification scheme for wastewater treatment plant operators, which designates six levels.
Level one is reserved for the personnel who are new to the job, have no technical background, and
require continuous close supervision. The highest level, level six is reserved for the managers and it
requires academic qualifications.
Training of all managers and staff is necessary in:
 the basic principles of the wastewater and sludge treatment technology involved;
 essential monitoring and maintenance procedures;
 fault finding;
 communication skills and team work:
 safety precautions and procedures, and actions to be taken in the event of accidents and
emergencies.

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12/16/2019 6.

CLASSIFICATION PURPOSE OF SEWAGE PRINCIPAL CLASSIFICATION

Preliminary To protect Screening and Timber, stones; Physical

Grit Removal Sand and grit from Physical

Primary To produce Primary Settleable, Physical

Chemically­ Settleable, Physical­chemical

Septic tanks Settleable, Physical­biological

Secondary To produce Suspended Organic material Biological

Attached Organic material Biological

Anaerobic Organic material Biological

Processes shown Biological Organic material, Biological

Coagulation­ Suspended matter, Physical­Chemical

Combine Organic material, Chemical

Tertiary To produce Filtration Suspended solids Physical

Disinfection Pathogenic Chemical

­ gas stripping Nitrogen Physical

­ breakpoint Pathogenic Chemical/Physical

Advanced Removal of Other processes

­ Ion exchange Nitrogen; Chemical

­ Membrane Inorganic solids Physical

­ Adsorption Refractory organics Physical

­ Liquid 90­98% 2­10%

­ Thick, viscous slurry 80­90% 10­20%

­ “Cake” 65­80% 20­35%

­ Air Dried 30­50% 50­70%

­ Thermally Dried <10% > 90%

SLUDGE PRINCIPAL SLUDGE SPECIFIC CLASSIFICATION

Thickening To thicken sludge to Gravity Physical

Elutriation Improves Physical

Stabilisation To reduce organic Anaerobic Biological

Pasteurisation Destroy Physical

Composting Agricultural Biological/

Dewatering To reduce volume of Drying beds Sludge solids Physical

Belt presses Sludge solids ­ Chemical/

Centrifuges Sludge solids ­ Chemical

Plate presses Sludge solids ­ Chemical/

Vacuum filters Sludge solids ­ Chemical/

Drying/Incineration To considerably reduce Thermal drying Sludge solids Physical

Incineration Produces Physical

Disposal Safe disposal if reuse Sanitary Physical

Reuse/ Alternatives to disposal Agriculture Improves soil

Vitrification Inert end Physical

Oil from sludge Product with Physical

Gasification Product with Physical

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Adsorption Refractory organics Physical

Liquid 9098% 210%

Thick, viscous slurry 8090% 1020%

“Cake” 6580% 2035%

Air Dried 3050% 5070%

Thermally Dried <10% > 90%

Belt presses Sludge solids Chemical/

Centrifuges Sludge solids Chemical

Plate presses Sludge solids Chemical/

Vacuum filters Sludge solids Chemical/