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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Sports have been an enormous and essential part of world culture, especially in the

United States (Hartmann, Sullivan, & Nelson, 2012). This chapter will provide an overview of

the relationships that exist between the parents of student-athletes and the intense world of high

school sports recruiting. In order to get a clear perspective of the intense world of high school

sports recruiting we must identify the different components that exist within high school sports

recruiting. Discuss the important role that parents or legal guardians play in the lives of all

children. Parental influence is covered next including specific information from previous

research on how parents can directly impact their child’s overall performance in academics and

athletics.

Following the overview on the parent’s role in child development and athletics is a brief

discussion on the different components that exist within high school sports recruiting. Parents

who have cultivated a strong relationship between their team members (guidance counselors,

high school and club coach, etc.) can begin to lay down the groundwork to suggest specific roles

that each member will play in their student-athlete’s life and recruiting process (Kovic, 2009).

Many parents have already realized that finding your appropriate place in the recruiting process

is a delicate balance (Bernier, 2017). Using Ecological Systems Theory, (EST) as a theoretical

framework, will investigated the literature on how the roles of the following stakeholders can

directly impact the student-athlete recruiting process; guidance counselor, athletic coach, college

recruiter, student-athlete, community, academics parent and discussed how all these key
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stakeholders can directly impact the student-athletes transition from high school sports into

college-level sports.

Every year there are approximately 7.3 million Student-Athletes that successfully

graduate from high school with the hopes of playing their sport of focus on the collegiate level

(NCAA, 2017). The reality of this quest is that only 2.48 percent of these student-athletes are

provided with the opportunity to compete in their sport of focus at a four-year college that is

recognized by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) upon successfully

graduating from high school (ncaa.org). The graduating class of 2017 had only 181,306 student-

athletes that received an athletic scholarship to attend a four-year college upon successfully

graduating from high school (ncaa.org). There is a limited amount of research and information

available to properly guide student-athletes, their parents, or guardians in the transition from a

high school student-athlete to a collegiate athlete at a four-year university or college.

The Role of the Parent or Legal Guardian

During the transition to college, student-athletes had to be able to balance their sport,

academic, and social lives. Consistent parent involvement is an essential part that can either

make the transition from being a high school student-athlete to a college student-athlete either a

smooth transition or potentially problematic transition (NCAA, 2015). The role that many

parents play in their child’s life is seen as being influential in terms of guiding their overall

future development (Cullaty, 2011; Turman, 2007). It is essential for parents to be actively

involved in their child’s life on a consistent basis. Parental involvement is considered anytime a

parent is a part of their child’s life (Bradley-Geist et al., 2013; Ratelle et al., 2005). Parental

involvement can be viewed through how parents tend to communicate, motivate, and guide their
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child in making decisions, solving problems, or making life choices (Cullaty, 2011; Turman,

2007). Parents that are truly involved in their child’s lives make it a point to spend quality time

and pay attention to their child on a regular basis (Ratelle et al., 2005). Consistent parental

involvement is essential to future growth and development of children (Bradley-Geist et al.,

2013; Cullaty, 2011; Odenweller et al., 2014). Parents impact how their child socializes with

their others, by encouraging the behaviors and attitudes of their children that are socially

acceptable (Raj & Raval, 2013). Children learn how to act in society through emulating the

actions and behaviors of their parents. Cullaty (2011) stated that when student-athletes felt close

to their parents and supported by them, then they also felt that they could make great life

decisions on their own.

Parental Influence and Athletics

The parental influence is an essential component that must be closely examined when

studying student-athletes. Parents often are the main reason that children start participating in

sports (Keegan, et al., 2009; Wuerth, et al., 2004; Darling,1993). Knight, et al. (2009) stated that

“…parents play an integral role in youth sports programs,” (p. 377). Parental influence can

strongly predict how involved a child will be with a sport (Beets et al., 2010; Turman, 2007).

Most parent’s reasons for placing their kids in sports at an early age, was not because they hoped

to personally benefit from their kids' athletic success (Wuerth, et al., 2004; Darling, 01993). The

focus of many parents entering into youth sports for the first time is to provide their student-

athletes’ with the opportunity to learn the fundamentals of the sport, make new friends, and have

fun (Holt, 2014). If a parent is supportive or encouraging a child to be involved in a sport, the

child most likely will participate in that selected sport, and is especially true at the youth sports
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level. Bhalla et al., (2010) found that girls participated in sports when their parents expressed

positive attitudes or served as volunteer coaches.

Parental involvement in both youth and high school sports at times can be viewed

through a negative or positive perspective (Hoyle, 1997). The negative perspective which can

include a parent not being involved at all or having a parent who is overly-involved (Hoyle,

1997; Cox, 1996). Negative parental involvement in sports can be seen through the lens of a

parent pressuring their child to win at all costs or to perform at a high level in a sport based on

their parent’s personal expectations (Hoyle, 1997; Cox, 1996). The positive perspective of

parental involvement can range anywhere from supporting children through verbal

encouragement, presence at a game, allowing children to make their own decisions about what

sport to participate in, and providing financial and other resources that enable participation (Holt,

2014; Stein et al., 1999). Recent research has shed light on how impactful parental involvement

can be in the overall experience a child has during their journey as a student-athlete (Stein et al.,

1999). Many parents of current student-athletes wanted to expose their athletes to some form of

consistent structure and discipline outside the home (Myer, 2016). Parents of student-athletes

have shared their hopes that their child would learn a new skill and lastly have fun while

participating in that sport (Holt, 2014; Keegan, Harwood, Spray, & Lavallee, 2009; Wuerth, Lee,

& Alfermann, 2004).

Positive and supportive behaviors have more positive outcomes for children (Anderson et

al., 2003; Bhalla et al., 2010; Keller et al., 2008; Leff et al., 1995; Rogers et al., 2009). Keller

and Whiston (2008) stated that “It appears that students athletes need to know their parents are

interested in them as individuals, believe in their abilities, trust them to make good decisions, and
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are proud of them” (page 239). Parents help their children understand their experiences (Bhalla

and Weiss, 2010). This means that most children learn first-hand how to perform in sports and at

school from their parents. Parent’s that place high importance on education, then their child will

place the same value on education (Abar & Turrisi, 2008). Parents of most student-athletes often

promoted their child’s athletics over the focus on their child’s academics (Beamon, 2010).

Beamon (2010) found that parents that pushed for athletic success did not put a similar emphasis

on academics.

The emergence of sports parents is due to the recent changes in youth sports and high

school sports (Holt, 2014; Anderson et al., 2003). Youth sports are becoming increasingly adult

organized (Coakley, 2015). In order to ensure that their student-athletes continued to participate

in the family selected sport, the parent was no longer allowed to drop their child off at practice

(Myer, 2016). Many parents are forced to become more actively involved in their sports

activities, due to the intense training, time commitments, and potential exposure to sports-related

injuries (Myer, 2016). Coakley (2015) states that parents are also indirectly forced to invest in

their child’s athletics, due to the fact they are often judged by their peers based on their child’s

overall athletic success or failure.

The development programs for future champions involved intense and high-volume

training and rigorous coaching that was often endorsed with parental pressure for achievement

(Bornstein, 2011; Kiefer, 2000). Student-athletes are no longer being encouraged to participate in

multiple sports throughout the year, instead due to an increase in the level of competitiveness for

each organized sport many student-athletes spend more time focusing on just one sport (Coakley,

2015; Kiefer, 2000). By focusing on one sport from a young age, athletes have access to elite
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clubs and programs that attract top coaches (Duffek, 2018; Kiefer, 2000). These best-in-class

coaches have resources at their disposal to help players develop the skills they need to play their

sport at the highest level (Duffek, 2018). So in efforts to ensure that student-athletes are not

being exploited by coaches, trainers and schools parents are starting to take a more active and

informed role in their student athlete’s journey toward securing a free college education

(Coakley, 2015; McCormick, 2006; Swanson, 2013). But the pursuit of a college athletic

scholarship has “reshaped” the youth sports landscape. Which placed an earlier emphasis by

many student-athletes on winning and elite skill development that often forces children to select

one sport at an early age (Bogage, 2017; Miner, 2016). This clearly explains how many of our

student-athletes tend to go from being a multi-sport athlete during the first year of high school to

being a single sports student-athlete (Miner, 2016).

The Student-Athlete Experience

A student-athlete is a participant in an organized competitive sport sponsored by the

educational institution at which the student is enrolled. Student-athletes are not only full-time

students but also maintains their role as full-time athletes (Davies, 2017; McCormick, 2006). The

term student-athlete was coined in 1964 by Walter Byers and created by the NCAA to encourage

the idea that young adults in school were students first and athletes second (Davies, 2017). High

school student-athletes are students in grades 9-12 that currently participate in school-sponsored

sports activities. Nearly eight million students participate in high school athletics throughout the

entire United States every year, but only 495,000 of them will meet the eligibility requirements

to compete at any of the NCAA schools upon successfully graduating from high school (NCAA,

2018).
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Burrow’s research on the intersectionality of school culture and athletics has found that

participation in sports benefits students, receiving recognition, having fun, and balancing out the

academic demands of school (Burrows, et al., 2011). Through participation in athletics, positive

outcomes can be seen in student-athletes aspiring to have high-grade point averages, wanting to

attend college, begin to take on leadership roles, which ultimately helps many student-athletes

with character building (Ryska, 2003). On average, high school students that participate in

athletics perform better academically than those that do not (Fox et al, 2010, Rees & Sabia,

2010). Student-athletes have many reasons why they choose to participate in school athletics,

and the school environment can support or discourage students from using athletics as a way to

contribute to the greater school community (Davies, 2017). High school sports involvement has

the potential to enrich every student-athletes’ overall educational experience while ensuring that

their academic success is always viewed as the highest priority (Lumpkin, 2012).

In addition to a student’s individual reasons for participating in sports and to better

understand the complexity of being a student-athlete, it is also important to understand the role of

athletics in the school environment (Davies, 2017; Fuller, et al., 2017). There is a wide range of

sports culture in high schools across America; there are schools that do not offer sports, schools

that have minimal sports, and schools where sports dictate school life (MacQuarrie, et al., 2008).

The school environment can either promote or discourage athletics on campus (Fuller, et al.,

2017; MacQuarrie, et al., 2008). When athletic elitism is valued by the school, some educators

believe that a hierarchy is created where student-athletes receive additional privileges at school

due to their status as an athlete (Fuller, Lawrence, et al., 2017).

Elite Student-Athletes
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An elite athlete is an athlete that has decided to make a huge physical and mental

commitment to a particular sport and way of life (Swann, 2015). Elite athletes are focused on

accomplishing their end goal, which ultimately means to play their sport of focus on a

professional stage (Polman, 2012; Swann, 2015). Elite athletes give up their personal life and

free time in order to ensure they reach a certain level of mental and physical toughness (Swann,

2015). Elite athletes feel as if these outside elements will distract them from accomplishing their

life goal or dream of being a professional athlete (Swann, 2015). Many elite athletes spend a

great deal of time perfecting their craft via training five times a week or have participated in

those sports for more than fifteen years (Swann, 2015). This mental toughness is what gives elite

athletes the ability to perform at their very best on all occasions despite pressure from

teammates, coaches, media, and supporters (Polman, 2012).

Being a student-athlete comes with additional struggles that non-athletes do not have to

face (Parmer, 1994; Drum, 2014). The positives of participating in sports for youth, high school,

and college athletes include higher academic performance (Fox, Barr-Anderson, Neumark-

Sztainer, & Wall, 2010; Gayles, 2009; Rees & Sabia, 2010) and social skills (e.g. teamwork and

leadership; Holt, Kingsley, Tink, & Scherer, 2011). In addition to navigating the social aspect of

being a top student-athlete, many high school students have to be able to balance their academics

and extra-curricular activities on campus and off-campus (Gayles, 2009; Rees & Sabia, 2010).

Student-athletes who aspire to play at the professional level also have high aspirations to earn a

college degree (Athletics, 1989 & et. al). Student-athletes must be able to successfully balance

the academic expectations of their family and the academic requirements set forth by their

current school (Tink, & Scherer, 2011). Academic support services can help student-athletes

cope with challenges by teaching them how to approach school work, social life, and personal
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life with the skills they have learned being an athlete (Greer, 2006). These expectations and

regulations contribute to the adversity student-athletes must face and navigate through every day

(Greer, 2006). Athletes experience unique stressors related to their athletic status such as

extensive time demands; a loss of the star status that many had experienced as high school

athletes; injuries; the possibility of being benched during their freshman year, conflicts with their

coaches, and the increased academic demands of college life among other factors (Wilson et al.,

(2005).

Mental and Physical Health

Student-athletes are often faced with mental health and physical concerns due to their

continued participation in sports (Barnhouse, 2019). An important aspect of personal

development with student-athletes is the ability to recognize and manage stress (Finch et al.,

1996). For those aged 16 to 22, the march toward adulthood, with its academic and social

expectations, is further complicated by athlete expectations: when tired, overwhelmed or down,

fight through it (Barnhouse, 2019; Constantinou, 2019). Student-athletes need to understand that

it’s fine for them to feel lost and a bit unstable when dealing with balancing these following

areas in their day to day life: studying, selecting a college, maintain a certain grade point

average, practicing, and having a social life (Constantinou, 2019). Student-athletes are expected

to make daily life sacrifices in efforts to ensure they are able to perform well in their academics

and as a top athletic recruit (Constantinou, 2019). When these stressful situations start to

overwhelm the lives of these student-athletes they seek guidance from their parents to help them

find ways to cope with these stressful situations (Coakley, 2015).

The Role of the Guidance Counselor

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Counselors who are certified by the State Department of Education and work in the 9-12

grade schools provide academic, career, and personal/social guidance to students (Goldberg,

1995; Stone, 2009). The high school counselor has a unique role in the college recruiting process

as they have the ability to become the coordinator of the “athletic triangle” between the coach,

athlete, and parent (Goldberg, 1995; Brady, 1997). It is important for school counselors to have a

close relationship with the parents of the student-athletes as counselors can provide them

important information. Goldberg and Chandler (1995) recommend that counselors provide

workshops to parents that inform them of the importance of setting realistic academic and

athletic goals, among other topics. By doing this, counselors can be a knowledgeable figure

whose parents feel they can approach throughout the recruiting process (Goldberg et al., 1995;

Brady, 1997; Levitz, 2017). The relationship the counselor has with the coaches can also be

important as high school coaches play a large role in the lives of their student-athletes (Goldberg

et al., 1995; Brady, 1997).

This relationship may also allow school counselors and coaches to work together when

helping student-athletes and their parents choose the best college, thus creating an educational

environment that is truly beneficial for the student-athlete to be successful (Goldberg et al., 1995;

Brady, 1997). Research conducted by Levitz (2017) stated that it is important for the school

counselor to have a close professional relationship with the parents of the student-athlete because

the school counselor can provide them with access to important information about the college

admissions process and brief information on the sports recruiting process. When high school

counselors help high school athletes in their college search, their biggest challenges are lack of

knowledge about junior/small college opportunities, lack of familiarity with the recruiting

process, and the eligibility requirements surrounding college sports (Stone, 2009; Levitz, 2017).
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School counselors should partner with the school’s athletic director to provide parents of student-

athletes with the opportunity to attend workshops that focus is on sports recruited and academic

recruitment every year (Goldberg, 1995; Brady, 1997; Stone, 2009). It is the school counselor’s

responsibility to make sure that the school district and/or individual high school has an NCAA’s

List of Approved Core Courses list on file with the NCAA Eligibility Center and that this list

remains current as course offerings and regulations change over time (NCAA.org). In addition,

school counselors must submit online fee waivers for student-athletes who qualify and send

official transcripts at the end of the student-athletes junior year and after graduation from high

school (Guide for the college-bound student-athlete, 2012).

The counseling of prospective student-athletes is a specialized process, and the overburdening of

high school counselors may affect this aspect of school counseling in a greater way because

these counselors do not have ample time to research and help students navigate through this

process (Bremier, 2007). Previous research shows there is a large proportion of student-athletes

who are unable to transition from high school to college athletics successfully (Grimit, 2014;

Gayles et al., 2015). Student-athletes have the added challenge of balancing athletic demands

along with the similar challenges most students experience during the transition from high school

to college (Grimit, 2014; Gayles et al., 2015). It is important that the needs of prospective college

student-athletes and their parents are met, as it has been shown that when theses identified

student-athletes are provided with information about the college, their grades increased and they

were more prepared for the next stage of their life (Goldman, 1994; Grimit, 2014).

The Role of the High School Coach

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The NCAA Eligibility Center relies heavily on school personnel, including counselors

and coaches, to educate and assist student-athletes and their parents with the eligibility process

(NCAA, 2012). High school coaches serve as important mentors during a critical growth and

development stage when teenagers mature toward adulthood (Martens, 2004; Naylor, 2007).

High school and other youth sport coaches are in a position to play an important role in the lives

of the young people they instruct by helping shape their growth and development (Martens,

2004). High school coaches can serve as a link between the prospective student-athletes’ athletic

and academic life. In the role of a teacher, the high school coach is an educator with the

opportunity to nurture and empower their athletes (Naylor, 2007; NFHS, 2013) and is

responsible for ensuring that every student-athlete in their sports program is provided with access

to daily motivation, support, training, academic resources and athletic exposure that will assist

their student-athlete with successfully securing an athletic scholarship at a collegiate level. The

daily motivation often offered by many high school coaches tend to come in the form of weekly

team meetings where they review the game film with their student-athletes (Martens, 2004;

Naylor, 2007). These high school coaches have the luxury of providing assistance to the future

growth and development process of these student-athletes, which ultimately turns into the high

school coach taking on an advisory role during the intercollegiate athletics recruiting process for

these identified student-athletes. (NFHS, 2013)

High school coaches are in a position to greatly impact the lives and futures of the young

people they guide through interscholastic athletics (Martens, 2004 & Naylor, 2007). As these

student-athletes get closer to the end of their high school participation, many find themselves

trying to effectively navigate the intercollegiate athletics recruiting process, and other student-

athletes are being highly recruited by multiple collegiate sports programs (Klungseth, 2004).
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High school coaches are encouraged to initiate and remain in contact with college coaches,

respond to college questionnaires, provide additional athletic and academic information, and

counsel the athletes under their watch (Hurley & Hollibaugh, 1999; Klungseth, 2004; O’Donnell,

1997). High school coaches are given the opportunity to provide essential information to

students, parents, and college coaches. The high school coach can be the best resource that a

college coach has when it comes to gathering essential information about a prospective student-

athletes’ character, academic standing, work ethic, receptiveness to coaching, and physical skill

(Hurley & Hollibaugh, 1999). High school coaches can even serve as a buffer between college

coaches and the prospective student-athlete, including contacting the college coach on behalf of

the student-athlete when a decision has been made not to attend a specific institution (Hoch,

1999). High school campus visits by a college coach is often organized and managed by the high

school coach (Hoch, 1999). High school coaches are also encouraged to join their student-

athletes and their parents when making college visits (Hurley & Hollibaugh, 1999). As an

advisor to the prospective student-athlete, the high school coach should be familiar with both the

NCAA rules regarding recruiting and the standard calendar process of operation (Hoch, 1999).

Transitioning from High School to College

Research shows that 54% of college student-athletes are contacted by a college coach or

recruiter every year (Remillard, 2014; Sander, 2008). Student-athletes need to be knowledgeable

about the college recruiting process so that they can properly take advantage of recruiting

opportunities when they are presented or learn how to self-advocate their talents to prospective

colleges (Smith, 2009). It is essential when student-athletes are contacted by a college coach or

recruiter the student needs to be educated about the following aspects when responding to these
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college coaches or recruiters (Remillard, 2014; Sander, 2008; Smith, 2009). As a college-bound

student-athlete, you are responsible for your eligibility which means planning ahead, taking high

school classes seriously, and protecting your amateur status (NCAA, 2019). Student-athletes

need to first complete some basic research on the different colleges that have expressed interest

in offering them an athletic scholarship to play at their college upon successfully graduating from

high school (Montgomery, 2020). Through completing their research on each college of interest

it allows the student-athlete an opportunity to find answers to the following questions (NCSA,

2019): How many athletes in their same position have been provided access to the same athletic

scholarship? What is the graduation rate of student-athletes at this particular college? How does

the college program prepare their student-athletes for life beyond high school? Does this college

offer the student-athletes’ major of interest? How does the college support their student-athletes

on and off-campus?

It is important for high school student-athletes to understand how important it is for them

to take advantage of the many opportunities that are presented to them (Hart & Brooks, 2016;

Smith, 2009). These same student-athletes must not be afraid to ask their school counselors,

athletic coaches, and potential future college coach to answer any question that surrounds their

recruiting process (Hart & Brooks, 2016; Smith, 2009). Sander (2008) found that 37% of current

college student-athletes were responsible for initiating the start of their recruiting process with

their current college. When a student-athlete initiates their recruiting process it means that the

athlete is responsible for contacting the college coach to express interest in being a potential

collegiate athlete at their college by sending them an email, filling out a recruiting questionnaire,

sending them a link to their Hudl athletic highlights or game film (Remillard, 2014; Sander,

2008).
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Without having access to essential information concerning how to effectively navigate

the athletic recruiting process many student-athletes and their parents are often left clueless when

it comes to the specific surrounding the recruiting timeline for each collegiate sport and

collegiate division (Parham, 1993). Per the college guide for athletes, most student-athletes

should start their sports recruitment planning as early as their freshman year because there are

many details you will need to prepare for college (NCSA, 2019; SWHS, 2005). Establishing and

following a schedule will assist with the daunting task of preparing for college and breaking

those tasks down into manageable components (NCSA, 2019; SWHS, 2005). Unfortunately not

every high school has created a college guide for student-athletes, which explains why many

student-athletes and their parents are unaware of the academic and testing requirements needed

for their student-athletes to be successfully accepted into their dream college. Prior to COVID-19

pandemic navigating through the athletic recruiting process seemed quite difficult, but as a result

of this pandemic, many past recruiting practices have changed drastically for all key players

involved in this collegiate recruiting process (Winter, 2020).

Navigating the complexities of being a student-athlete along with meeting the academic

expectations of student-athletes can be difficult (Sander, 2008). Parham (1993) argued that

student-athletes face challenges that are in addition to and vastly different from the challenges of

their non-student-athlete peers. The external conditions that student-athletes must operate in

make academic success even more difficult (Tinsley, 1987). McCormick and Tinsley (1987)

said that sports are good for students: when they succeed in two areas that will spur the student-

athletes to greatness. Many of the daily struggles student-athletes go through, include the amount

of time they spend focuses on the sport of main interest or plays consistently, the physical toll the

sport has on the athlete’s body and mental health, the amount of travel to a different training or
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sporting events, and the emotional strain that is put on these athletes (Emma, 2014). Regulations

have been imposed at the school, state, and national levels to try to improve academic standards

for all student-athletes (Davies, 2017). The history of high school sports shows a need for

academic standards to prevent students from neglecting their classwork (Davies, 2017; Lumpkin

et al., 2012). When student-athletes were asked how much they care about athletics, they rated

their interest 8.5 on average, on a scale of 1 to 10. But when asked the value they place on

academics, the result was higher than 9 on average (Zocalo Public Square, 2015;

www.varsityedge.com ).

In addition to the difficulties associated with being a student-athlete, high schools,

colleges, and the California Interscholastic Federation place academic expectations upon every

athlete that wants to participate in team sports at their current school. CIF states that student-

athletes are expected to maintain a minimum grade point average of a 2.0 in order to be eligible

to participate in any school-sponsored sports or activities (cifcs.org). In order for the student-

athlete to maintain their eligibility to compete in any CIF sanctioned sports, the student-athlete

must continue to make minimum progress toward meeting the established high school graduation

requirements as prescribed by the governing board of the school district while maintaining a

minimum of a 2.0-grade point average on a 4.0 academic scale in all enrolled courses (cifcs.org).

Schools can also implement additional academic requirements to increase the academic level of

achievement expected of student-athletes (cifcs.org).

One requirement exercised by many competitive high school sports programs is the “pass

to play” philosophy where students need to have a minimum grade point average (GPA) or must

be passing a minimum number of core classes every semester (Lumpkin et al., 2012; Zaya,
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2018). Research has examined the academic performance of elite student-athletes in high school

and has discovered a positive relationship between their academic performance and athletic

participation (Lumpkin et al., 2012). High school student-athletes tend to have higher GPAs than

high school students who do not participate in sports (Broh, 2002; Fejgin, 1994; Lumpkin et al.,

2012). The recent nationwide epidemic Coronavirus-19 (COVID-19) has directly impacted

traditional sports recruiting on both the high school level and college level. COVID-19 has

changed the way coaches and athletes interact with one another during the recruiting process. As

a result of the entire nation being placed on a “Safer at Home “restriction, it directly forced every

learning institution to implement some form of distance learning educational platform. Through

distance learning, students and teachers switched from in-person learning to on-line learning. In

some ways, distant learning was able to keep many students on track with their current

coursework, but in some instances, distant learning became more of a challenge for some

students.

As a result of these conflicting end results, The Board of Education decided to not

penalize the students that were struggling to adjust to this new way of online learning

(calmatters.org). Every school site followed the instructions given by the Board of Education to

issue all students grades of credit (CR) or no credit (NC) for the spring 2020 semester. A

majority of the 102 school districts have stated that they will issue a credit/no credit grades,

taking advice from the California Department of Education (calmatters.org). This change of

grading procedures encouraged many colleges and universities to revisit how they would analyze

students' academic transcripts (calmatters.org). Another uncommon practice surfaced during

COVID-19, which was the elimination of college entrance exams (collegeboard.org), due to

testing sites closing all over the nation. In efforts to ensure everyone's safety CIF, Archdiocese,
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and the NCAA, suspended all forms of regular activity between students and coaches for at least

five months (ncaa.org). This suspension of direct contact between student-athletes, parents, and

college coaches has brought on a new way to recruit student-athletes (ncaa.org). College

Coaches had to become more creative in how they presented a day in the life of a future student-

athlete on their campus (ncaa.org). Many Universities began creating and using virtual tours

when they meet with their recruits via hour-long zoom conferences with future recruits (NCSA,

2020). On the other hand, the impacts from restrictions placed on our nation by COVID-19 has

provided current graduating seniors with the opportunity to successfully secure an athletic

scholarship with only meeting the minimum academic GPA of 2.3, which is an academic grade

of a solid C in 10 NCAA-approved core courses (NCAA, 2020).

Each high school has specific core courses that have been approved by the NCAA, the

typically approved core courses are as follows four years of English, 3 years of Math, two years

of science, two years of a Social Science (History) course, a year of a college preparatory

elective (foreign language, music, psychology, drama) and a Religion course (NCAA, 2020).

Students seeking an athletic scholarship must successfully pass each of the listed NCAA

approved core courses with an academic grade of a C or higher each semester (NCAA, 2020).

Students that fail to meet the minimum requirements of successfully passing 7 of the NCAA

approved core courses with a grade of a C or better by the end of their junior year will find it

difficult to clear the NCAA Eligibility Criteria in order to secure an athletic scholarship to play

college-level sports (ncaa.org). COVID-19 allowed the NCAA the opportunity to lower the

number of required NCAA approved core courses for the current graduating seniors from 16 to

11 approved core courses (Schlabach, 2020; Wilson, 2020). As a result of college entrance

exams (SAT and ACT) being canceled throughout the nation, many student-athletes were unable
 Kirkwood/19

to successfully secure the required SAT or ACT scores they needed to clear the NCAA eligibility

portal (Schlabach, 2020; Wilson, 2020).

As a result of these unforeseen circumstances, NCAA put in place an athletic waiver for

these students in the graduating class of 2020 (NCAA, 2020). This athletic waiver allowed these

select group of students the opportunity to accept their athletic scholarship under certain

guidelines (NCAA, 2020). “The NCAA said the new requirements will be considered automatic

waivers for both Divisions I and II, meaning those students meeting these criteria will be

academically eligible to receive an athletic scholarship and practice and compete in their first

year” (Schlabach, 2020). With all these sudden changes in the world of sports recruiting a parent

has no choice but to rely on the knowledge from blogs, internet, sports groups, and sports agents.

Typically most parents feel that their best plan of action is to seek the advice of the professionals

at their child’s current high school (Brown, 2013). In many cases, the guidance counselor,

athletic coach, and athletic director knowledge in this area is sometimes limited. Parents are

unaware that there is a limited amount of training on the collegiate recruiting process being

provided to educational professionals on the high school level.

NCAA Recruitment Guidelines for Student-Athletes

Jason Belzer (2013) stated, “the term student-athlete was crafted by the NCAA to refer to

the young men and women participating in intercollegiate athletics in order to preserve the

principle of amateurism and strengthen the public perception that such individuals were students

of the university and not employees” (para.6). According to Bylaw 12.02.12, the NCAA (1990)

defines a prospective student-athlete as a student who has started classes for the ninth grade or a

student that has not started classes for the 9th grade but has received any financial assistance or
 Kirkwood/20

other benefits not provided to prospective students in general. An individual remains a

prospective student-athlete until they officially register for and attend classes in a full-time

program of study in the regular academic year at a four-year collegiate institution, they

participate in a squad practice or competition at a four-year collegiate institution before the

beginning of any term or they register for and attend classes during the summer prior to initial

enrollment (NCAA, 1990; Winters, 2020).

Defining the Role of the College Coach/Recruiter

In past high school coaches have been viewed by college coaches and recruiters as being

the primary contacts for high school student-athletes during the recruiting process. As crazy as it

sounds, college recruiting can begin as early as 8th grade for the truly top-tier players (youth

national team and national ODP, for example.) (TotalVol, 2016). High school coaches would

provide standard recruiting information to college coaches, such as a player’s size and physical

abilities, as well as serve as a liaison between the college coach and the recruit (Pennington,

2005). The growth of non-scholastic competitive opportunities in sports such as soccer,

basketball, and volleyball, has influenced changes in the NCAA recruiting calendar and shifted

prospect evaluation emphasis to times of the year that are non-traditional for high school sports

competition (Canale, Dunlap, Brin, & Donahue, 1996).

These recent changes have started to lessen the importance of prospective student-

athletes to compete during their senior season and increased the need for students to participate

in privatized sport to better expose themselves and their abilities to college coaches. Pennington

(2005) reported that some coaches rarely recruit prospective student-athletes during their senior

seasons. Reasons for the decreased importance of recruiting by some college coaches of a
 Kirkwood/21

prospective student-athletes’ senior year of competition are due to scholarships that have already

been secured by other prospective senior student-athletes and not having enough time to qualify

these athletes to clear the NCAA (Pennington, 2005). The NCAA, through the National Letter of

Intent (NLI) program managed by the College Commissioners Association (CCA), establishes

specific periods of time when colleges are allowed to sign prospective student-athletes and

contractually bind them to their programs (NLI.org). The NLI applies only to prospective

student-athletes who will be entering four-year institutions for the first time as full-time students

(NLI.org). In sports other than football and soccer, there are two signing periods for high school

prospects, one in the fall and one in the spring (ncsa.org). With these strict guidelines for college

coaches to follow it makes it very important for these coaches to effectively communicate to

their prospects why it would be in the recruit’s best interest to attend their university (Canale,

Dunlap, Brin, & Donahue, 1996).

During the recruitment process, college coaches are actively seeking young prospective

student-athletes who meet appropriate physical and academic standards to fill institutional sports

rosters and either build or perpetuate the success of their programs (Canale, Dunlap, Brin, &

Donahue, 1996). When the recruiting coach presents the qualities, beliefs, and philosophy of the

program and university, it is the recruit who makes the decision on whether he feels comfortable

at that particular college environment that has expressed interest in the student-athlete (NCAA,

2014). The college coaches have to sell the ideas and beliefs of the program to the parents and

supply them with a solid road map of success (Richter, 2009). In this increasingly professional

market, intercollegiate athletics coaches face growing pressure to recruit a student-athlete that

will lead to success on the field or in the gymnasium (Richter, 2009). There are over 1,000

member schools in the NCAA (NCAA, 2007). In addition, hundreds more colleges and
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universities participate in athletics ranging from the National Association of Intercollegiate

Athletics (NAIA) institutions to a vast array of junior colleges (NCAA. 2007).

Recruiting Process

One great accomplishment that a student-athlete can receive is an athletic scholarship to

attend a university, with tuition assistance from the athletic department (Brown, 2008). College

football recruits choose their schools partly for the opportunity to play for a specific coach, a

prestigious university, or for academics (Gabert et al. 1999). One of the most common questions

families ask is when college coaches can start contacting their athletes (NCSA, 2020). For most

sports, coaches can begin reaching out to athletes starting June 15 after a sophomore year or

September 1 of their junior year of high school (NCSA, 2020). The coach is asking for the

recruit to send a film for evaluation by the coaching staff (Gabert et al. 1999; NCSA, 2020). The

next step in the process is that the prospective athlete will have the opportunity to take an

unofficial visit to the campus (ncsa.org). Football recruits are asked to attend home games of the

team so that they can see firsthand the experience of the game day within the program (Dumond

et al. 2008). Official visits play a large part in any recruiting class (Gabert et al. 1999; NCSA,

2020). Official visits show the prospective student-athletes that the university is serious in giving

them a scholarship and wanting them to be a member of the team (Gabert et al. 1999; NCSA,

2020). Official visits allow the recruits and opportunity to tour the campus, meet current players,

and talk extensively with the coaching staff (Gabert et al. 1999).

This is a great time for prospective student-athletes to seek answers to any questions that

they may have (Dumond et. al., 2008). As a result of COVID-19, many recruits did not get the

opportunity to take their five official visits to the different colleges that were actively recruiting
 Kirkwood/23

them during the last few years of high school (NCAA, 2020). College coaches should be meeting

with high school athletes now, but the coronavirus requires separation, which means the high

school athlete should start recruiting the college (abc7.com). The novel coronavirus pandemic

has changed lives, but it is also changing the future for high school athletes across the country,

especially in how college recruiting is done (abc7.com). COVID-19 has emptied venues

everywhere and high school athletes might feel the virus is threatening their future as much as

their lives (NCSA, 2020). While college coaches might not be able to see a player in person,

social media has become the new commonplace for college coaches to get in contact with

student-athletes as well as review any posted sports highlights (abc7.com). COVID-19 has

shifted the responsibility of students getting recruited back into the hands of parents, student-

athletes, current high school coach, and lastly their off-season sports travel coach (NCSA, 2020

& NCAA, 2020). With this drastic shift in how our society functions every day, it quickly

reminds you of how important it is to build and establish positive relationships with everyone

within your immediate and surrounding circle (Brown, 2013). The reality of high sports

recruiting is that only a small percentage of student-athletes who play high school sports are

provided with the opportunity to receive an athletic scholarship to play at the college level in one

of the three divisions in NCAA due to strict athletic eligibility guidelines, access to limited

resources, and various challenges within their surrounding environment (ncaa.org).

Transitioning to Collegiate Athletics

There are many reasons why many graduating high school students find it challenging to

successfully transition from high school to collegiate athletics (Davies, 2017; Fuller, et al.,

2017). Student-athletes struggle to keep their day to day life balanced. Many student-athletes
 Kirkwood/24

tend to struggle with balancing what comes first; being the student or being the athlete (Zocalo,

2015; Constantinou, 2019). Many student-athletes are more concerned about following the best-

established path that will eventually lead them to accomplish their dream of going professional

(Fertman, 2009). Many student-athletes fall into the trap of forgetting the ‘student’ part and

neglect their studying, causing them to perform poorly and not fulfilling the minimum

requirements (Zocalo, 2015). Student-athletes must also contend with health problems, including

chronic pain, injury, tiredness, and burnout, which can affect their academic performance (Allen,

Harris, & Howard-Hamilton & Sina, 2006). Student-athletes are viewed within their school

environment as being student leaders both on campus and within their local community (Greer &

Robinson, 2006).

The NCAA and many educational sites consistently strive for their student-athlete to demonstrate

integrity in academics (NCAA, 2004). In efforts to ensure that their student-athletes remain

eligible, they provide them access to tutoring and mandatory study hall. Fertman (2009) stated

that "today success in the classroom is equal in importance to the success on the playing field"

(p.39). Students and school administration at many school sites look for the student-athletes to

serve as the face of the school (Greer & Robinson, 2006). Which explains why it is so important

for all student-athletes to maintain good grades, demonstrate a good work ethic, and always

display a positive self-image on and off the court (Fertman, 2009). Academic support services

can help student-athletes cope with challenges by teaching them how to approach school work,

social life, and personal life with the skills they have learned being an athlete (Greer &

Robinson, 2006).
 Kirkwood/25

Theoretical Framework

Urie Bronfenbrenner’s (1994) ecological system theory states that a student athlete’s

development and life choices are directly affected by everything in their surrounding

environment throughout their lifespan. Bronfenbrenner ecological system theory covers the

student athlete’s surrounding environment using these four different environmental systems: the

microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, and the macrosystem (Mae, 2010). In order to get

a clear understanding as to why the recruiting process is different for many student-athletes and

families one has to closely analyze how the interactions between these different environmental

systems directly impact the development and life choices made by the student-athlete and their

parents (Bron, 1994). There is a huge positive benefit that can be gained through establishing a

sound partnership and regular communication between student-athletes’, their parents, teachers,

coaches, counselors, community, and college coaches as they enter into the recruiting world of

high school sports (Ryan, 2001).

The Micro System

The microsystem is the most influential system because the child has direct interaction

with these individuals; that interaction occurs on a consistent basis over an extended period of

time (Bron, 1994). Family is the most important significant relationship of the microsystem; they

play an essential part in the ecological human development (Blažević, 2016). Our family,

friends, classmates, teachers, neighbors, coaches, and other people who we tend to have direct

contact with on a regular basis are considered part of this microsystem (Blažević, 2016). The

microsystem is what establishes the core of the ecological model and helps to define every

individual’s unique process of human development (Bron, 1994). The majority of a child’s
 Kirkwood/26

developmental time is spent at home with their family; because this is where they receive shelter,

safety, and is also provided with some form of emotional support (Ratelle et al., 2005). The

parent, for example, interacts with the child on a daily basis, they provide a safe and healthy

relationship and an environment for them to grow and prosper (Ratelle et al., 2005). The way the

parent plays with the child teaches them, and communicates with them has a lot of influence on

their development (Ratelle et al., 2005).

The Mesosystem

The second system that influences the student athlete’s development is the mesosystem.

The mesosystem is described as being the actual link that connects the first two systems in

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory (Bron, 1994). They consist of connections and inter-

relationships that exist between two or more of the individuals within the microsystems

(Feldman, 2008). These inter-relationships involve a variety of settings that the child is

immersed in; the influences that “bind us together” (Feldman, 2008). Examples of this system

may be the linkage between family and peers, family and school, school and community, and etc.

(Blažević, 2016). The individuals that exist within our microsystem tend to have more of a direct

influence on how we see ourselves, especially in terms of socially, mentally, academically and

physically (Paquette & Ryan, 2001). The home environment plays a very essential role in how

any individual interacts with others outside the home (Blažević, 2016). If a student is subjected

to a very traumatic home life they are less likely to be motivated to develop positive relationships

with their teachers, peers, coaches or counselors as a result of past negative experiences

(Paquette, 2001). This information is key when considering all the dynamics that exist within the

actual high school recruiting process (ncsa.org). Many student-athletes and their parents place all
 Kirkwood/27

their trust in the coaches, teachers, and counselors in order to provide them with the necessary

guidance they need to ensure their student-athlete gets recruited to play on the collegiate level.

The Exosystem

The exosystem is the third system of Bronfenbrenner’s theory of human development

(Bron, 1994). These influences are indirect; the child may not play an active role in the

exosystem, but what takes place in this third system can have a direct impact on this child’s

future (Chen, 2018 & Neubourg 2018). Exosystems have an indirect effect on the child through

career, educational background, socioeconomic status, or the government (Chen, 2018 &

Neubourg 2018). Bronfenbrenner’s theory directly implies how a parent’s socioeconomic status

can affect the way the child views their self-image (Barajas, 2008).

A parent’s inability to purchase materials for school, pay for specialized training or live

in a nice home can cause some children to develop low self-esteem and are less likely to excel in

school (Evans, Brooks-Gunn, and Klebanov 2011). Although some change in children’s lives is

normal and anticipated, sudden and dramatic disruptions can be extremely stressful and affect

children’s feeling of security (Evans, Brooks-Gunn, and Klebanov 2011). Children with low self-

esteem tend to be more likely to drop out of school, and are more easily influenced to lead a life

of violence and crime (Anthony, 2005 & Barajas, 2008). On the other hand, the parent’s

educational background and career choices can directly impact the overall focus for the child at

school and as well as future aspirations (Chen, 2018). Parents with a limited amount of

knowledge on educational resources find it challenging to motivate their children to excel

academically (Hammond, 2019). Children born into poverty statistically have lower self-esteem,
 Kirkwood/28

are less likely to excel in school, or are more likely to drop out, and they are more susceptible to

violence and crime (all4kids.org, 2019).

Conclusion

This study will provide insight into how student’s athletes and their parents must partner

with the individuals within their microsystem settings in order to successfully navigate the high

school sports recruiting process. This study will point out why it is essential that we all have a

better understanding of the roles we must take in order to ensure that we effectively

communicate the right information to these college coaches during the recruiting process. This

study will clearly explain why the recruiting process is not always the same for every student-

athlete and their families, which is generally based on the different interactions, academic,

attitude of the athlete, and circumstances that tend to take place during the actual recruiting

process. There is a huge positive benefit that can be gained through establishing a sound

partnership and regular communication between student-athletes’, their parents, teachers,

coaches, counselors, community, and college coaches as they enter into the recruiting world of

high school sports.

 Kirkwood/29

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