This article was downloaded by: [Isabel Rots]

On: 24 October 2013, At: 01:34

Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered
office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

European Journal of Teacher Education

Publication details, including instructions for authors and
subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/cete20

Teacher education graduates’ choice

(not) to enter the teaching profession:
does teacher education matter?
a a a
Isabel Rots , Antonia Aelterman & Geert Devos
a
Department of Educational Studies, Ghent University, Ghent,
Belgium
Published online: 22 Oct 2013.

To cite this article: Isabel Rots, Antonia Aelterman & Geert Devos , European Journal of
Teacher Education (2013): Teacher education graduates’ choice (not) to enter the teaching
profession: does teacher education matter?, European Journal of Teacher Education, DOI:
10.1080/02619768.2013.845164

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2013.845164

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the
“Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis,
our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to
the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions
and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors,
and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content
should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources
of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims,
proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or
howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising
out of the use of the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any
substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing,
systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms &
Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-
and-conditions
 European Journal of Teacher Education, 2013
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2013.845164

Teacher education graduates’ choice (not) to enter the teaching

profession: does teacher education matter?
Isabel Rots*, Antonia Aelterman and Geert Devos

Department of Educational Studies, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium

In an era of recurring teacher shortages, Flanders struggles with a considerable

proportion of teacher education graduates who do not enter the teaching
profession. This study identifies the predictors of teacher education graduates’
choice on job entry (teaching profession or not). A prospective research design
with two data collection phases is adopted. Student teachers (subsequently
Downloaded by [Isabel Rots] at 01:34 24 October 2013

graduates) (N = 217) of integrated teacher training for secondary education were

surveyed shortly before as well as shortly after graduation. Results of
chi-squared and t-tests indicate that gender, initial motivation for teaching, men-
tor support, teacher education preparation, teacher efficacy, learner-oriented
beliefs, performance in teacher education, and employment opportunities show
differences (at 1% level) between graduates who entered and those who did not
enter the teaching profession. Results of the subsequent logistic regression
validate the importance of teacher education (i.e. mentor support) – beside initial
motivation and labour market factors – to explain graduates’ decision on job
entry.
Keywords: pre-service teacher education; teaching profession; mentors

Introduction
Over the past few decades researchers, practitioners, and policy makers in many
countries have addressed problems in relation to recruiting and retaining beginning
teachers in the teaching profession (Borman and Dowling 2008; Guarino,
Santibañez, and Daley 2006; Schleicher 2012). The main problems under discussion
concern: too few candidates entering teacher education (recruitment problem), too
many teachers leaving the teaching profession after a short period (attrition
problem), and a considerable proportion of teacher education graduates not entering
the teaching profession (job entry problem). In this article we focus on the last
problem.
National reports of several countries indicate that a considerable percentage of
teacher education graduates do not enter the teaching profession (OECD 2005).
There are differences in job entry according to education level as well as fluctuations
over time. In Flanders (Belgium), the country of research of this study, the most
recent labour market report of the Ministry of the Flemish Community in Belgium
(2011) presents statistics until 2009. Between 2005 and 2009 the percentage of
newly qualified teachers who actually entered the teaching profession ranged

*Corresponding author. Email: Isabel.Rots@gmail.com

© 2013 Association for Teacher Education in Europe

 2 I. Rots et al.

between 70% and 89% for pre-school education, between 69% and 95% for primary
education, between 64% and 78% for lower secondary education, and between 21%
and 46% for upper secondary education (academic teacher education).
Some authors attempt to explain the phenomenon of graduates not entering the
teaching profession in terms of supply and demand or macroeconomic and market
factors (Gilpin 2011; Guarino, Santibañez, and Daley 2006). The teaching profession
competes with other potential first jobs, particularly for graduates who are qualified
to teach at secondary schools. From a labour market perspective, the proportion of
newly qualified teachers who do not enter the teaching profession is considered a
key area of ‘wastage’ (Purcell et al. 2005), especially in an era of recurring teacher
shortages in Flanders (Ministry of the Flemish Community 2011) and in other coun-
tries (Schleicher 2012).
Yet, also from an educational perspective, this ‘job entry issue’ constitutes an
important concern. Since teacher education is professional training, it can be
assumed that most student teachers enter teacher education with the motivation to
Downloaded by [Isabel Rots] at 01:34 24 October 2013

actually become teachers (Manuel and Hughes 2006; Thomson, Turner, and Nietfeld
2012). It is therefore plausible to assume that experiences during teacher education
are partly responsible for graduates’ choice not to enter the teaching profession.
However, while the issues of teacher recruitment and (beginning) teacher retention
have received much research attention (Beltman, Mansfield, and Price 2011; Borman
and Dowling 2008; Guarino, Santibañez, and Daley 2006), surprisingly little atten-
tion has been paid to graduates’ choice (not) to enter the teaching profession once
their teacher education is complete (Sinclair 2008; Watt and Richardson 2008).
The present study aims to identify the predictors of teacher education graduates’
choice on job entry (teaching profession or not) using data from a prospective sur-
vey of student teachers (subsequently graduates) in Flanders (Belgium). Building on
the well-established social learning theory of career decision making (Krumboltz
1979; Mitchell and Krumboltz 1996), the focus is on the relationship between stu-
dent teachers’ perception of their experiences during teacher education and their
choice whether or not to enter the teaching profession upon graduation.

Theoretical framework
The theoretical framework for this study is based on the social learning theory of
career decision making (Krumboltz 1979; Mitchell and Krumboltz 1996). This the-
ory identifies the interaction between genetic factors, environmental conditions,
learning experiences, cognitive and emotional responses, and performance skills that
lead to certain career decisions. Based on Chapman’s (1983) application of this the-
ory to the teaching profession, Rots et al. (2010) have developed a model to explain
teacher education graduates’ choice on job entry. This model was developed by
incorporating recurring themes (variables) from the teacher retention literature and
by locating these themes within the framework of the social learning theory of
career decision making as applied in the model of Chapman (1983). Building on
Rots et al. (2010), the current study identifies the predictive (teacher education)
variables that are related to graduates’ choice whether or not to enter the teaching
profession. Five categories of predictors were distinguished: (1) personal characteris-
tics, (2) initial motivation for teaching, (3) teacher education, (4) integration into
teaching, and (5) external influences.
 European Journal of Teacher Education 3

First, personal characteristics are an essential component of the social learning

theory of career decision making (Krumboltz 1979; Mitchell and Krumboltz 1996).
In this study, gender and age are included.
Secondly, research on students’ reasons to opt for teacher education indicates
that student teachers differ in their motivation to finally enter the teaching profession
upon graduation (Jarvis and Woodrow 2005; Roness and Smith 2009; Thomson,
Turner, and Nietfeld 2012). Most student teachers start their teacher education with
a more or less explicit motivation to become teachers. Nonetheless, a minority of
students primarily regard teacher education as a way to earn a degree that offers a
wide variety of job opportunities, including those outside teaching. It is likely that
students’ initial motivation to study teacher education is related to their entry into
the teaching profession after graduation.
Thirdly, three prominent teacher education variables emerge in recent research
on teacher retention. An important teacher education variable in the teacher retention
literature is the adequacy of the support or supervision provided by the faculty of
Downloaded by [Isabel Rots] at 01:34 24 October 2013

the training institute (‘faculty support’). Several scholars have argued that
supervision represents a key element in student teachers’ personal and professional
development (Caires, Almeida, and Vieira 2012). Moreover, research has shown that
faculty support is positively related to graduates’ perception of teacher education
preparation, their teaching commitment (Rots et al. 2007), and their entry into the
teaching profession (Stokking et al. 2003).
Furthermore, there is a growing body of empirical evidence to suggest that men-
tor support can promote increased retention of novice teachers (Hobson et al. 2009;
Ingersoll and Strong 2011). Support from mentors during practical training in tea-
cher education may have a comparable effect on graduates’ choice on job entry
(Rots et al. 2007).
Another prominent variable in the teacher retention literature is the extent to
which (nearly graduated) student teachers feel that their teacher education
programme has prepared them for the demands of teaching. Building on studies of
teacher retention (Darling-Hammond, Chung, and Frelow 2002; Zientek 2007), we
expected respondents’ perceived preparation for the teaching profession (‘teacher
education preparation’) to be an antecedent of their entry into teaching.
Fourthly, an important element in the model of Chapman (1983) is the profes-
sional and social integration of teachers into the teaching profession. This refers to
people’s self-perceived values, competencies, and accomplishments as a teacher. In
this study, integration into teaching comprises student teachers’ self-rated skills and
abilities as a teacher (‘teacher efficacy’), their professional orientation, as well as
their general educational beliefs.
Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk Hoy (2001, 783) defined a teacher’s efficacy
belief as ‘a judgment of his/her capabilities to bring about desired outcomes of stu-
dent engagement and learning, even among those students who may be difficult or
unmotivated’. Teacher efficacy has been related to teachers’ perception of the rele-
vance of their teacher preparation (Darling-Hammond, Chung, and Frelow 2002) as
well as to enthusiasm for teaching, teaching commitment, and retention in teaching
(Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk Hoy 2007).
Another aspect of integration into teaching refers to student teachers’
professional orientation. Hoyle (1980) distinguished between a restricted
professional orientation and an extended professional orientation. The restricted
professional orientation has its focus on the classroom. These teachers are mainly
 4 I. Rots et al.

concerned with teaching methods, their own didactic behaviours, and the subject
matter. The extended professionals, however, are concerned with professional collab-
oration and locate their classroom teaching in a broader educational context. They
also aim to function as members of a school team. In Flanders, the educational gov-
ernment imposes teacher education to pursue the development of basic competencies
(initial competencies of graduates), which refer to an extended view of professional-
ism (Aelterman 1998; Aelterman et al. 2008). Furthermore, Collie, Shapka, and
Perry (2011) observed that collaboration, which is an essential feature of the
extended professional orientation, affects the level of commitment among teachers.
Therefore, we assumed that student teachers with a more extended professional ori-
entation show higher teaching commitment and may be more inclined to enter the
teaching profession.
The last aspect of integration into teaching has to do with student teachers’ gen-
eral educational beliefs. Educational beliefs are generally described on the basis of
two prototypical ideologies: (1) teacher- or subject-matter-oriented beliefs, and (2)
learner-oriented beliefs. The first orientation places a strong emphasis on imparting
Downloaded by [Isabel Rots] at 01:34 24 October 2013

knowledge of the subject matter and on the qualification of students; the latter
emphasises the process of student learning and the personal development of students
(Hermans, van Braak, and Van Keer 2008; Meirink et al. 2009). Currently, scholars,
as well as governmental policies and reforms, advocate education that promotes
students’ active and self-regulated learning and that is oriented towards broad and
harmonious development (Hermans, van Braak, and Van Keer 2008; Lunenberg,
Korthagen, and Swennen 2007; Meirink et al. 2009). Accordingly, (student) teachers
are expected to endorse a learner-oriented approach to teaching and learning. For
instance, the basic competences as set out by the Flemish government reflect an
extended view of professionalism and a learner-oriented approach to teaching and
learning (Aelterman 1998; Aelterman et al. 2008). Hence, as educational policies (in
Flanders) emphasise a learner-oriented education, we assumed a positive relationship
between the level of student teachers’ learner-oriented beliefs and their choice to
enter the teaching profession upon graduation.
Fifthly, some potential external influences on graduates’ choice on job entry are
included in this study. Research suggests that when the general economy is strong
and graduate unemployment is low, fewer graduates choose a teaching career
because they perceive attractive job opportunities outside teaching (OECD 2005).
Correspondingly, when general economic conditions worsen, teaching becomes a
more attractive job choice. Therefore, student teachers’ perception of ‘employment
opportunities outside teaching’ was included in this study.
Another external variable proposed in previous research concerns the influence
of significant others (i.e. family members or close friends) who are teachers
(Malderez et al. 2007; Sinclair 2008). In this study, we explored the potential effect
of ‘having significant others who work(ed) in education’ on graduates’ choice on
job entry.
In previous research (Rots et al. 2010), a hypothetical pattern of interrelation-
ships between the above-mentioned variables and student teachers’ intention to enter
the teaching profession was tested through path analysis. Data were collected at one
time-point, shortly before graduation from teacher education. Results show an
indirect relationship between teacher education variables (faculty support, mentor
support, and teacher education preparation) and nearly graduated student teachers’
intention to enter the teaching profession.
 European Journal of Teacher Education 5

Whereas Rots et al. (2010) focused on the indirect relationships of teacher

education variables with nearly graduated students’ intended entry in the teaching
profession, the purpose of the current study is to test the direct predictive relation-
ships between the above-mentioned variables and graduates’ actual job entry. More
specifically, the aim is to examine whether the two groups of graduates (choice for
the teaching profession or not) differ with regard to personal characteristics, initial
motivation for teaching, teacher education variables, integration into teaching, and
external influences (see above). A key contribution is that a prospective research
design was adopted that builds on two data collection phases: one before and one
after graduation. This allowed us to test the predictive relationships between the
predictor variables (measured at T1) and graduates’ actual job choice (measured at
T2).

Method
Downloaded by [Isabel Rots] at 01:34 24 October 2013

Sample
A prospective research design with two data collection phases was adopted. Data
were collected among student teachers (subsequently graduates) of the ‘integrated
teacher training’ for secondary education in Flanders. This is a three-year
programme organised as a professional bachelor’s course by university colleges.
Graduates are qualified to teach two subjects in lower secondary education. Subject
matter training, pedagogy, and practical training in different schools are distributed
throughout the teacher education programme. University colleges organise the
practical component in cooperation with schools in the form of pre-service training.
During practical training, student teachers are supervised by mentors (cooperating
teachers).
In the first phase of data collection (T1), 436 student teachers (response rate
63.74%) from six teacher training institutes completed a pen-and-paper questionnaire
at the end of their teacher education programme. In the second phase of data collec-
tion (T2), all 413 successfully graduated T1 participants were invited by email to
complete a second online questionnaire. The time interval between the two data col-
lections varied between three and six months. The T1 and the T2 questionnaire each
took about 30 minutes to complete. In both phases of data collection, respondents
were informed about the purpose of the research and were asked to give their
informed consent to participate in the study.
Participants at T2 (N = 217; 52.54% response rate) comprised 69.12% women;
the mean age was 21.93 years (SD = 1.74). Of the participants at T2, 72.35% had
chosen the teaching profession (n = 157). This means that they worked as a teacher
or, if still unemployed (n = 13), were looking for a teaching job.
Assuming that there is always dropout in prospective studies, the critical issue is
whether this dropout results in bias. But, after comparing participants who
completed both T1 and T2 questionnaires with those who dropped out, the only
significant difference that could be observed concerned respondents’ subject speciali-
sation (classification based on van Veen et al. 2001): a significantly larger number of
graduates qualified to teach one or more subject(s) related to social studies (i.e.
geography, history, economics, social studies, or moral/religious education)
participated at T2 (chi-square = 15.42, p < .001) while significantly fewer graduates
qualified to teach at least one expression subject (i.e. physical education or arts)
 6 I. Rots et al.

participated at T2 (chi-square = 21.13, p < .001). Therefore, the dropout bias

appears to be limited.

Instruments
To obtain measures related to the specific variables in the study, either a new
instrument was developed or an existing instrument was translated into Dutch.
Confirmatory factor analyses were conducted to investigate the factor structure of
each instrument. Results indicated an acceptable to good fit of the different (factor)
models with the data (Table 1).
Initial motivation for teaching (T1). To measure the level of initial motivation
for teaching, student teachers were asked to indicate the extent to which the purpose
of becoming a teacher had influenced their decision to enter teacher education. This
scale was based on an instrument of Derriks and De Kat (1993). Each of the items
(e.g. ‘[I entered teacher education] because I wanted to be a teacher’) was scored on
Downloaded by [Isabel Rots] at 01:34 24 October 2013

a six-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (no influence at all) to 6 (very great
influence).
Teacher education preparation (T1). In Flanders, teacher training institutes have
to prove that they pursue and attain the basic competencies as set out by the Flemish
government. Therefore, in order to measure respondents’ perception of teacher
Table 1. Overview of the instruments: number of items, Cronbach’s alpha and the results of
the confirmatory factor analysesa (N = 436).
Measures at T1 Items α χ² (df, p-value) CFI SRMR
Initial motivation for teaching 4 .86 4.249 (2, .119) .997 .014
Teacher education preparation: 15 .87 194.223 (89, < .001) .939 .046
Responsibility towards learners 8 .80
Responsibility towards 7 .79
educational community &
society
Faculty support: 16 .93 356.973 (103, < .001) .926 .050
Psychological support 8 .90
Functional support 8 .85
Mentor support: 15 .90 274.860 (86, < .001) .924 .053
Coach & evaluator 3 .70
Information source 3 .79
Promoter of self-reflection & 6 .80
self-regulated learning
Introducing student to school 3 .75
life
Teacher efficacy: 11 .79 125.302 (42, < .001) .921 .058
In student engagement 3 .67
In instructional strategies 4 .63
In classroom management 4 .76
Professional orientation 10 .82 105.777 (35, < .001) .935 .048
General educational beliefs: 208.180 (103, < .001) .937 .054
Subject-matter-oriented beliefs 6 .74
Learner-oriented beliefs 10 .81
Employment opportunities 4 .63 11.817 (2, .003) .968 .035
Note: A small, non-significant chi-square value is expected if a factor model provides adequate fit to
a

the data. Because χ² is highly sensitive to sample size, alternative fit indices have to be adopted. Recom-
mended values of the comparative fit index (CFI) are those above .90 whereas the value of the standard-
ised root mean square residual (SRMR) should be below .08 (Kline 2005).
 European Journal of Teacher Education 7

education preparation, a scale was constructed based on the basic competencies of

teacher training for secondary education. Respondents were asked to indicate the
degree to which they felt that teacher education prepared them to perform a set of
tasks central to teaching. The items were scored on a five-point Likert scale ranging
from 1 (not at all prepared) to 5 (very well prepared). In accordance with the theo-
retical classification of basic competencies (Aelterman 1998), this instrument
assesses preparation for responsibility towards the learners (i.e. ability to act as a
coach of learning and developmental processes, as an educator, as a content expert,
as an organiser, and as an innovator–researcher) as well as preparation for responsi-
bility towards the educational community (i.e. ability to act as partner of parents, as
a member of a school team, as a partner of external bodies, and as a member of the
educational community) and towards society (i.e. ability to act as a participant in
culture).
Faculty support (T1). Student teachers’ perception of the support received from
the faculty in their teacher education programme was measured by the Perceived
Downloaded by [Isabel Rots] at 01:34 24 October 2013

Faculty Support Scale (Shelton 2003). Shelton (2003) distinguished between support
directed towards promoting a sense of competency and self-worth (i.e. psychological
faculty support) and support directed towards the achievement of tasks in order to
reach the goals of academic success (i.e. functional faculty support).
Mentor support (T1). Based on the work of Zanting, Verloop, and Vermunt
(2001), a perceived mentor support scale was developed. Respondents were asked to
indicate on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 5 (a lot) how well
different roles and tasks were reflected by their mentors during practical training.
Zanting, Verloop, and Vermunt (2001) theoretically identified six mentor roles: (1)
coach, (2) information source, (3) evaluator, (4) promoter of a student teacher’s self-
reflection, (5) introducing the student teacher to school life, and (6) promoter of the
student teacher’s self-regulated learning. Since the factor analysis indicated a
considerable overlap between theoretically distinct mentor roles, some roles were
combined (see Table 1).
Teacher efficacy (T1). To gauge respondents’ teacher efficacy, we used the
Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale (Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk Hoy 2001). The
reliability and validity of this instrument have been demonstrated in earlier research
(Klassen et al. 2009). This scale assesses a broad range of capabilities (across con-
text, levels, and subjects) considered important in good teaching. The scale measures
efficacy in student engagement, efficacy in instructional strategies, and efficacy in
classroom management.
Professional orientation (T1). Professional orientation was measured using a
scale developed by Jongmans and Beijaard (1997), which is based on Hoyle’s
(1980) distinction between a restricted and an extended professional orientation.
Respondents were asked to indicate the extent to which they agreed with each
statement (e.g. ‘Cooperation with other teachers is necessary to carry out teaching
tasks in an adequate way’) on a seven-point scale ranging from 1 (totally disagree)
to 7 (totally agree).
Learner-oriented beliefs (T1). The General Educational Beliefs instrument of
Denessen, Michels, and Felling (2000) was used to investigate the level of student
teachers’ learner-oriented beliefs. This instrument focuses on two factors, mirroring
two independent ideologies: (1) subject-matter-oriented beliefs (characterised by an
orientation towards qualification, a focus on discipline, and an emphasis on
achievement and good marks), and (2) learner-oriented beliefs (characterised by an
 8 I. Rots et al.

orientation towards personal and social development, an acknowledgment of

students’ opinions and desires, and an emphasis on the importance of the learning
process, for instance, in autonomous and cooperative settings).
Employment opportunities (T1). A scale composed of four items was constructed
to measure student teachers’ perception of their employment opportunities outside
teaching. Respondents were asked to indicate the extent to which they agreed with
each statement (e.g. ‘I have many attractive job opportunities outside the teaching
profession’) on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (totally disagree) to 5
(totally agree).
Personal and contextual characteristics. Several personal and contextual charac-
teristics were included. Most of these were gathered at T1: age, gender, the subject
specialisation in teacher education, and whether or not significant others (parents,
siblings, and/or partner) work or have ever worked in education. Besides, the partic-
ular teacher training institute was included as a control variable. Furthermore, in
order to include data on student performance in teacher education, classification of
Downloaded by [Isabel Rots] at 01:34 24 October 2013

graduates’ bachelor’s degree in teacher education (pass mark, distinction, great dis-
tinction or the greatest distinction) was obtained from the teacher training institute.
The subject specialisation in teacher education was grouped as follows (van Veen
et al. 2001): languages (Dutch, English, French, German, and Latin), mathematics
and science (mathematics, chemistry, physics, and biology), social studies (geogra-
phy, history, economics, social studies, and moral/religious education), expression
(physical education or arts), and vocational and technical (e.g. bio-aesthetics,
commerce–office skills, metallurgy, electronics, construction, hairdressing, and
technology).

Data analysis
Building on the results of the confirmatory factor analyses, composite scale scores
were calculated to obtain overall measures for the different constructs. Using factor
score weights, scale scores were derived as weighted sums of items and then were
converted to five-point scales ranging from 0 to 4.
Based on the choice for their first job, teacher education graduates were divided
into two groups: teaching profession (n = 157) versus not the teaching profession
(n = 60). Using chi-squared and t-tests, statistical differences were tested between
the two groups of graduates in relation to the predictor variables (see above). Next,
logistic regression analysis was conducted to explain graduates’ job entry from a set
of the statistically significant (at the 1% level) predictors.

Results
The results of chi-squared and t-tests indicated that gender, initial motivation for
teaching, mentor support, teacher education preparation, teacher efficacy, learner-
oriented beliefs, and employment opportunities showed differences (at the 1% level)
between graduates who have chosen versus those who have not chosen to enter the
teaching profession (Tables 2 and 3). Females were more likely to enter the teaching
profession: almost 79% of the female graduates have chosen the teaching profession,
whereas for male graduates this is only 58%.
 European Journal of Teacher Education 9

Table 2. Results of the chi-squared tests (N = 217).

Predictor variable Teaching job Non-teaching job Chi-square
Gender 9.689**
Male 39 (58.2) 28 (41.8)
Female 118 (78.7) 32 (21.3)
Classification of bachelor’s degree: 4.257*
Pass mark 100 (68.0) 47 (32.0)
(Great or greatest) distinction 57 (81.4) 13 (18.6)
Significant others in education: .128
Yes 67 (73.6) 24 (26.4)
No 90 (71.4) 36 (28.6)
Subject specialisation – languages: .035
At least one language subject 65 (73.0) 24 (27.0)
No language subject 92 (71.9) 36 (28.1)
Subject specialisation – social studies: .036
At least one subject related to social 71 (71.7) 28 (28.3)
studies
Downloaded by [Isabel Rots] at 01:34 24 October 2013

No subject related to social studies 86 (72.9) 32 (27.1)

Subject specialisation – mathematics– 1.149
science:
At least one subject mathematics– 51 (77.3) 15 (22.7)
science
No subject mathematics–science 106 (70.2) 45 (29.8)
Subject specialisation – expression: 1.339
At least one expression subject 40 (66.7) 20 (33.3)
No expression subject 117 (74.5) 40 (25.5)
Subject specialisation – vocational and .145
technical:
At least one vocational/technical 54 (74.0) 19 (26.0)
subject
No vocational/technical subject 103 (71.5) 41 (28.5)
Teacher training institute 10.063
* **
Note: Data are shown as n (%). p < .05, p < .01.

Moreover, graduates with better performance in teacher education (higher

classification of bachelor’s degree) showed a significantly higher tendency to choose
the teaching profession.
As expected, student teachers who started teacher education with a strong initial
motivation for teaching were more likely to choose the teaching profession upon
graduation. Apparent in Table 3 is the high initial motivation for the teaching
profession (mean = 3.12, SD = .75) in the group of graduates who have chosen the
teaching profession. In the group who have not chosen teaching, the initial
motivation is significantly lower (mean = 2.30, SD = .98).
Furthermore, graduates who have chosen to enter the teaching profession report
a higher level of mentor support. This applies to all mentor roles: the mentor as
coach/evaluator, the mentor as an information source, the mentor as someone who
promotes the student teacher’s self-reflection and self-regulated learning, and the
mentor as someone who introduces the student teacher to school life. Nonetheless,
the extent to which mentors promote student teachers’ self-reflection and
self-regulated learning has the most significant impact on their choice on job entry
upon graduation.
 10 I. Rots et al.

Table 3. Results of the t-tests (significant at 1% level).

Predictor variablea Teaching job Non-teaching job t
Age 21.94 (1.91) 21.92 (1.20) −.07
Initial motivation for teaching 3.12 (.75) 2.30 (.98) −6.64***
Teacher education preparation 2.39 (.55) 2.18 (.54) −2.52**
Responsibility towards learners 2.65 (.55) 2.42 (.55) −2.71**
Responsibility towards 2.11 (.66) 1.92 (.65) −1.90
educational community &
society
Faculty support 2.57 (.58) 2.46 (.53) −1.28
Psychological support 2.69 (.59) 2.60 (.59) −1.04
Functional support 2.44 (.65) 2.31 (.57) −1.36
Mentor support 2.44 (.60) 2.18 (.52) −2.90**
Coach & evaluator 2.85 (.56) 2.66 (.64) −2.12*
Information source 2.21 (.86) 1.98 (.71) −2.02*
Promoter of self-reflection & 2.53 (.60) 2.26 (.58) −3.00**
self-regulated learning
Downloaded by [Isabel Rots] at 01:34 24 October 2013

Introducing student to school 2.11 (.94) 1.81 (.83) −2.21*

life
Teacher efficacy 2.77 (.36) 2.63 (.35) −2.57**
In student engagement 2.71 (.48) 2.60 (.54) −1.49
In instructional strategies 2.82 (.51) 2.67 (.44) −2.07*
In classroom management 2.79 (.49) 2.64 (.51) −2.02*
Professional orientation 2.85 (.46) 2.73 (.49) −1.67
General educational beliefs:
Subject-matter-oriented beliefs 2.93 (.72) 2.89 (.85) −.40
Learner-oriented beliefs 3.29 (.39) 3.11 (.46) −2.90**
Employment opportunities 2.04 (.70) 2.50 (.89) 4.06***
Note: Data are shown as mean (SD).aAll scales were transformed to a five-point scale ranging from 0 to
4. Teaching profession: n = 157; not the teaching profession: n = 60. *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.

Compared to the group who did not enter the teaching profession, graduates who
did choose teaching felt better prepared for this profession (as indicated shortly
before graduation), particularly regarding teachers’ responsibility towards the
learners.
Next, also consistent with our theoretical assumptions, student teachers with a
higher level of teacher efficacy (in instructional strategies and class management), as
well as those with stronger learner-oriented beliefs, were more likely to choose
teaching upon graduation.
The anticipated (negative) relationship between employment opportunities out-
side teaching and the choice for the teaching profession is also confirmed. This is in
line with evidence that a strong labour market may decrease the motivation to opt
for a teaching job (OECD 2005).
Lastly, our results indicate that student teachers’ age, perceived faculty support,
and professional orientation are not significantly associated with their choice on job
entry upon graduation. Besides, the teacher training institute, subject specialisation
and having significant others who work(ed) in education do not show a significant
relationship with the choice for the teaching profession (Table 2).
In a subsequent analysis all statistically significant predictors (at the 1% level)
(Tables 2 and 3) were entered in a multivariate logistic regression analysis to
 European Journal of Teacher Education 11

Table 4. Results of the logistic regression analysis (N = 217).

Variable B SE Wald df p
Initial motivation for teaching .997 .215 21.60 1 .000
Mentor support .761 .316 5.79 1 .016
Employment opportunities −.855 .238 12.910 1 .000
Constant −1.619 .952 2.891 1 .089
Note: B = regression coefficient; SE = standard error; Wald = Wald statistic. Model chi-square = 54.029,
p < .001; –2 log likelihood = 201.864; Hosmer–Lemeshow goodness-of-fit test = 6.439, p = .598; Nage-
lkerke R2 = 0.32.

explain graduates’ job entry from a simultaneous analysis of significant predictors.

To avoid multicollinearity, for scales with different subfactors (i.e. teacher education
preparation, mentor support, and teacher efficacy) only the overall scales were
included in the logistic regression analysis. Table 4 shows that the logistic regression
analysis provided a parsimonious statistical model predicting graduates’ choice on
Downloaded by [Isabel Rots] at 01:34 24 October 2013

job entry (teaching profession or not) (chi-square = 54.029, p < .001; Nagelkerke
R² = 0.32).
As expected, student teachers’ initial motivation to study teacher education
clearly predicts their choice for the teaching profession upon graduation (p < .001).
Furthermore, student teachers’ perception of employment opportunities appears neg-
atively related to their choice for teaching upon graduation (p < .001).
Most noteworthy, even with initial motivation and employment opportunities
included in the regression model, we find a positive statistically significant relation-
ship between student teachers’ perception of mentor support (as measured shortly
before graduation) and their choice for teaching upon graduation (p = .016).

Discussion
Grounded in the social learning theory of career decision making (Krumboltz 1979;
Mitchell and Krumboltz 1996), this study is a response to the lack of theoretically
based empirical research on teacher education graduates’ choice on job entry
(teaching profession or not) (Purcell et al. 2005; Sinclair 2008; Watt and Richardson
2008).
Building on the model of Rots et al. (2010), which integrates recent empirical
findings on the entry and retention in the teaching profession, this study aimed to
distinguish the two groups of teacher education graduates (entry into teaching or
not) based on five categories of predictor variables: (1) personal characteristics, (2)
initial motivation for teaching, (3) teacher education, (4) integration into teaching,
and (5) external influences.
A key contribution of this study to previous research based on the model of
Chapman (1983) is the fact that a prospective research design was adopted that
builds on two data collection phases, one before and one after graduation. This
allowed us to test the predictive relationships between the identified predictor
variables (measured before graduation) and graduates’ actual job choice (measured
after graduation).
The data analysis outlines the characteristics of teacher education graduates who
have chosen versus not chosen to enter the teaching profession. In line with previous
research (Guarino, Santibañez, and Daley 2006), our results indicate that women are
more inclined to enter the teaching profession. Yet, except for ‘gender’ as a
 12 I. Rots et al.

significant predictor of the choice for the teaching profession, the results of this
study indicate a relative unimportance of personal and contextual characteristics
(e.g. subject specialisation, whether or not significant others work in education)
compared to initial motivation for teaching, perception of employment opportunities,
integration into teaching and – most apparent – teacher education.
Initial motivation for teaching is the strongest predictor of graduates’ choice on
job entry. As expected, student teachers who entered teacher education with a strong
ambition to become a teacher were more likely to actually choose this profession
upon graduation. This finding corroborates studies showing that initial motivation
for teaching is strongly related to commitment to the teaching profession and conse-
quently to the choice for this profession (Day et al. 2007).
In line with evidence that in a strong labour market fewer teacher education
graduates choose to enter teaching (Guarino, Santibañez, and Daley 2006; OECD
2005), this study shows a negative relationship between nearly graduated student
teachers’ perception of employment opportunities and their actual entry into the
Downloaded by [Isabel Rots] at 01:34 24 October 2013

teaching profession. This indicates that student teachers’ (perceived) employability

may decrease their motivation for teaching.
Considering the quality of education, it is a good sign that graduates with better
performance in teacher education (higher classification of bachelor’s degree) more
frequently choose to enter the teaching profession. Correspondingly, teacher efficacy
appears to be another significant predictor of the student teachers’ choice on job
entry upon graduation. So, this study supports the results of previous research that
shows a positive impact of teacher efficacy on teachers’ enthusiasm, commitment to
teaching, and retention in teaching (Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk Hoy 2001).
Next, our study indicates that student teachers with stronger learner-oriented beliefs
significantly more often choose to enter the teaching profession. This finding sug-
gests that a correspondence between one’s own educational beliefs and the demands
of the teacher education programme (i.e. the basic competencies in Flanders that
refer to a learner-oriented approach to teaching) strengthens student teachers in their
choice for the teaching profession.
However, the most noteworthy result of our study concerns the importance of
the teacher education variables. The findings show that the extent to which nearly
graduated student teachers feel prepared for the teaching profession is a significant
predictor of their choice on job entry upon graduation. The role of the mentor is
particularly emphasised by this study. We found a positive statistically significant
relationship between the extent to which student teachers feel supported by their
mentors during practical training and their choice for teaching upon graduation. A
crucial finding is that this relationship occurs even when the variables initial motiva-
tion for teaching and employment opportunities are included in the regression
model. The extent to which mentors promote student teacher’s self-reflection and
self-regulated learning appears particularly important. It is widely acknowledged that
for most student teachers the period of practical training is characterised by intense
emotions, challenges, concerns, and crises, but also possibilities (Bullough and
Draper 2004; Meijer 2011). The results of our study suggest that support by
mentors, especially regarding self-reflection and self-regulated learning, may help
students to overcome the so-called ‘praxis shock’ (Cole and Knowles 1993; Sinclair
2008) during practical training. Several scholars argue that student teachers with a
meaning-oriented reflection and a self-regulated approach to learning are better able
 European Journal of Teacher Education 13

to integrate theory and practice (Mutton, Burn, and Hagger 2010) and to deal with
the challenges of the teaching profession (Bronkhorst et al. 2011).
Previous research has shown that mentor support can promote novice teachers’
retention in the profession (Hobson et al. 2009; Ingersoll and Strong 2011). Our
study extends these results by showing that also for student teachers, support by
mentors plays a crucial role in their choice to enter the teaching profession upon
graduation.
The results of the present study must, however, be considered in the light of a
number of limitations to be addressed in future research. First, although the response
rate at T1 (63.74%) and the retention rate between the two periods of data collection
(49.77%) were adequate and the dropout bias seems limited, it is not clear why a
proportion of respondents declined to (re)participate. It could be that the length of
the questionnaire(s) and the required time commitment to participate (about 30 min-
utes) influenced the response rate. Secondly, undoubtedly, there are factors outside
the teacher education setting that also affect the (intended) entry into the teaching
Downloaded by [Isabel Rots] at 01:34 24 October 2013

profession. Certain decisive factors may go beyond the influence of teacher educa-
tion (e.g. job search behaviour, working conditions of available jobs, and geographi-
cal influences). Thirdly, following Rinke (2008), it is recommended that these
quantitative findings are deepened and elaborated with in-depth qualitative research
(e.g. case studies of teacher education graduates who have chosen versus not chosen
to enter the teaching profession) in order to question and contextualise the factors
identified as important. Fourthly, this study is limited to the integrated teacher train-
ing for secondary education in Flanders. Future research should seek to replicate this
prospective study with student teachers (subsequently graduates) in other types of
teacher training in Flanders as well as in other countries.
Despite these limitations, the present study contributes to a better theoretically
grounded insight in teacher education graduates’ choice whether or not to enter the
teaching profession. The most important conclusion of this study is that graduates’
choice on job entry cannot be understood only from their initial motivation for
teaching at the start of teacher education, or from (perceived) employment
opportunities. Our study indicated that graduates’ choice whether or not to enter the
teaching profession also has to do with their experiences in teacher education.
Lortie’s (1975) frequently cited work on the ‘apprenticeship of observation’
indicates that many years of observing teachers and teaching provides a powerful
initial lens through which student teachers approach teaching. And yet, this study
shows the enormous power that derives from practice. Through experiences in
teacher education (particularly field experiences), student teachers’ conceptions of
the teaching profession and of themselves as teachers are challenged (Rots 2010). In
line with the study of Watt and Richardson (2008), our research reveals that student
teachers enter teacher education with more or less motivation for teaching and more
or less intention to actually enter the teaching profession. Yet, these motivations and
intentions are further shaped or modified in teacher education. In particular, our
results point to the importance of the relationships with mentors during practical
training in schools. Crucial is the extent to which mentors promote student teachers’
self-reflection and self-regulated learning. Mentor support has a positive influence
on graduates’ choice for a career in teaching, even when initial motivation for
becoming a teacher and employment opportunities are taken into account. Hence,
the findings of our study have important implications for (the policy of) teacher edu-
cation. They lend further support to calls for the effective selection, preparation, and
 14 I. Rots et al.

formal recognition of mentors, as well as for a close collaboration between teacher

education and schools where student teachers perform their practical training. In this
respect, the value of partnership between teacher education institutions and school is
often emphasised (Moran and Clark 2012). Partnership arrangements characterised
by formal and profound collaboration and negotiation between mentors and the fac-
ulty of the teacher education institute, by shared power, transparent responsibilities,
and professional development of all participants, can have a positive impact on
student teachers’ preparation for teaching and their positive attitude towards the
teaching profession (Castle, Fox and O’Hanlon Souder 2006; Hagger and McIntyre
2006; Schepens and Aelterman 2007).

Notes on contributors
Isabel Rots has been a postdoctoral researcher in the department of Educational Studies at
Ghent University. She is currently working in the Study Department of the Christian Tea-
chers’ Union in Flanders, Belgium.
Downloaded by [Isabel Rots] at 01:34 24 October 2013

Antonia Aelterman is a professor at the rank of senior lecturer in the Department of Educa-
tional Studies at Ghent University.

Geert Devos is a professor at the rank of senior lecturer in the Department of Educational
Studies at Ghent University.

References
Aelterman, A. 1998. The Professional Profile of the Teacher: An Instrument in the Govern-
ment’s Search for Quality. [In Dutch.] Tijdschrift Voor Onderwijsrecht en -Beleid 3-4:
170–176.
Aelterman, A., H. Meysman, F. Troch, O. Vanlaer, and A. Verkens. 2008. Een Nieuw Profiel
Voor De Leraar Secundair Onderwijs. Hoe Worden Leraren Daartoe Gevormd? Informa-
tiebrochure over De Invoering Van Het Nieuwe Beroepsprofiel En De Basiscompetenties
Voor Leraren. [A new profile of the teacher secondary education. How are teachers edu-
cated for that? Information brochure about the implementation of the new professional
profile and basic competences for teachers]. Brussels: Ministry of the Flemish Commu-
nity, Department of Education and Training.
Beltman, S., C. Mansfield, and A. Price. 2011. “Thriving Not Just Surviving: A Review of
Research on Teacher Resilience.” Educational Research Review 6: 185–207.
Borman, G. D., and N. M. Dowling. 2008. “Teacher Attrition and Retention: A Meta-Ana-
lytic and Narrative Review of the Research.” Review of Educational Research 78: 367–
408.
Bronkhorst, L., P. C. Meijer, B. Koster, and J. D. Vermunt. 2011. “Stimulating Meaning-Oriented
Learning and Deliberate Practice in Teacher Education.” Teaching and Teacher Education
27: 1120–1130.
Bullough Jr, R. V., and R. J. Draper. 2004. “Mentoring and the Emotions.” Journal of Educa-
tion for Teaching 30: 271–288.
Caires, S., L. Almeida, and D. Vieira. 2012. “Becoming a Teacher: Student Teachers’ Experi-
ences and Perceptions about Teaching Practice.” European Journal of Teacher Education
35: 163–178.
Castle, S., R. Fox, and K. O’Hanlon Souder. 2006. “Do Professional Development Schools
(PDSs) Make a Difference? A Comparative Study of PDS and Non-PDS Teacher Candi-
dates.” Journal of Teacher Education 57: 65–80.
Chapman, D. W. 1983. “A Model of the Influences on Teacher Retention.” Journal of Tea-
cher Education 34: 43–49.
Cole, A. L., and J. G. Knowles. 1993. “Shattered Images: Understanding Expectations and
Realities of Field Experiences.” Teaching and Teacher Education 9: 457–471.
 European Journal of Teacher Education 15

Collie, R. J., J. D. Shapka, and N. E. Perry. 2011. “Predicting Teacher Commitment: The
Impact of School Climate and Social-Emotional Learning.” Psychology in the Schools
48: 1034–1048.
Darling-Hammond, L., R. Chung, and F. Frelow. 2002. “Variation in Teacher Preparation:
How Well Do Different Pathways Prepare Teachers to Teach?” Journal of Teacher
Education 53: 286–302.
Day, C., P. Sammons, G. Stobart, A. Kington, and Q. Gu. 2007. Teachers Matter: Connecting
Work, Lives and Effectiveness. Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Denessen, E., C. Michels, and A. Felling. 2000. The Content and Dimensional Structure of
Attitudes towards Education. [In Dutch.] Pedagogische Studiën 77: 193–205.
Derriks, M., and E. De Kat. 1993. Ignoble Motives for a Noble Profession? A Study of the
Motives to Choose for a Higher Pedagogical Training. [In Dutch.] Pedagogische Studiën
70: 17–27.
Gilpin, G. 2011. “Reevaluating the Effect of Non-Teaching Wages on Teacher Attrition.”
Economics of Education Review 30: 598–616.
Guarino, C. M., L. Santibañez, and G. A. Daley. 2006. “Teacher Recruitment and Retention:
A Review of the Recent Empirical Literature.” Review of Educational Research 76:
173–208.
Downloaded by [Isabel Rots] at 01:34 24 October 2013

Hagger, H., and D. McIntyre. 2006. Learning Teaching from Teachers: Realising the Poten-
tial of School Based Teacher Education. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Hermans, R., J. van Braak, and H. Van Keer. 2008. “Development of the Beliefs about
Primary Education Scale: Distinguishing a Developmental and Transmissive Dimension.”
Teaching and Teacher Education 24: 127–139.
Hobson, A. J., P. Ashby, A. Malderez, and P. D. Tomlinson. 2009. “Mentoring Beginning Teach-
ers: What We Know and What We Don’t.” Teaching and Teacher Education 25: 207–216.
Hoyle, E. 1980. “Professionalization and Deprofessionalization in Education.” In World
Yearbook of Education 1980: Professional Development of Teachers, edited by E. Hoyle
and J. Megarry, 42–54. London: Kogan Page.
Ingersoll, R. M., and M. Strong. 2011. “The Impact of Induction and Mentoring Programs
for Beginning Teachers: A Critical Review of the Research.” Review of Educational
Research 81: 201–233.
Jarvis, J., and D. Woodrow. 2005. “Reasons for Choosing a Teacher Training Course.”
Research in Education. 73: 29–35.
Jongmans, C. T., and D. Beijaard. 1997. Teachers’ Professional Orientation and Their Involve-
ment in School Policy-Making. [In Dutch.] Pedagogische Studiën 74: 97–107.
Klassen, R. M., M. Bong, E. L. Usher, W. H. Chong, V. S. Huan, I. Y. F. Wong,
and T. Georgiou. 2009. “Exploring the Validity of a Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Scale in Five
Countries.” Contemporary Educational Psychology 34: 67–76.
Kline, R. B. 2005. Principles and Practices of Structural Equation Modelling. New York:
The Guilford Press.
Krumboltz, J. D. 1979. “A Social Learning Theory of Career Choice.” In Social Learning The-
ory and Career Decision Making, edited by M. Mitchell, G. B. Jones and J. D. Krumboltz,
19–49. Cranston, RI: Carroll Press.
Lortie, D. C. 1975. Schoolteacher: A Sociological Study. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
Lunenberg, M., F. Korthagen, and A. Swennen. 2007. “The Teacher Educator as a Role
Model.” Teaching and Teacher Education 23: 586–601.
Malderez, A., A. J. Hobson, L. Tracey, and K. Kerr. 2007. “Becoming a Student Teacher:
Core Features of the Experience.” European Journal of Teacher Education 30: 225–248.
Manuel, J., and J. Hughes. 2006. “‘It Has Always Been My Dream’: Exploring Pre-Service
Teachers’ Motivations for Choosing to Teach.” Teacher Development 10: 5–24.
Meijer, P. C. 2011. “The Role of Crisis in the Development of Student Teachers’ Professional
Identity.” In Navigating in Educational Contexts: Identities and Cultures in Dialogue,
edited by A. Lauriala, R. Rajala, H. Ruokamo and O. Ylitapio-Mäntylä, 41–54. Rotter-
dam: Sense Publishers.
Meirink, J. A., P. C. Meijer, N. Verloop, and T. C. M. Bergen. 2009. “Understanding Teacher
Learning in Secondary Education: The Relations of Teacher Activities to Changed Beliefs
about Teaching and Learning.” Teaching and Teacher Education 25: 89–100.
 16 I. Rots et al.

Ministry of the Flemish Community. 2011. Arbeidsmarktrapport: Basisonderwijs En Secundair

Onderwijs [Labour Market Report: Primary Education and Secondary Education].
Brussels: Ministry of the Flemish Community, Department of Education and Training.
Mitchell, L. K., and J. D. Krumboltz. 1996. “Krumboltz’s Theory of Career Choice and
Counseling.” In Career Choice and Development, edited by D. Brown and L. Brooks,
233–280. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Moran, A., and L. Clarke. 2012. “Back to the Future: Do Lessons from Finland Point the
Way to a Return to Model Schools for Northern Ireland?” European Journal of Teacher
Education 35: 275–288.
Mutton, T., K. Burn, and H. Hagger. 2010. “Making Sense of Learning to Teach: Learners in
Context.” Research Papers in Education 25: 1–18.
OECD. 2005. Teachers Matter: Attracting, Developing and Retraining Effective Teachers.
Paris: OECD Publishing.
Purcell, K., N. Wilton, R. Davies, and P. Elias. 2005. Education as a Career: Entry and Exit
from Teaching as a Profession. London: Department for Education and Skills.
Rinke, C. R. 2008. “Understanding Teachers’ Careers: Linking Professional Life to Profes-
sional Path.” Educational Research Review 3: 1–13.
Roness, D., and K. Smith. 2009. “Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) and Student
Downloaded by [Isabel Rots] at 01:34 24 October 2013

Motivation.” European Journal of Teacher Education 32: 111–134.

Rots, I. 2010. Teacher Education and the Choice for the Teaching Profession. PhD diss.,
Ghent University.
Rots, I., A. Aelterman, G. Devos, and P. Vlerick. 2010. “Teacher Education and the Choice
to Enter the Teaching Profession: A Prospective Study.” Teaching and Teacher Education
26: 1619–1629.
Rots, I., A. Aelterman, P. Vlerick, and K. Vermeulen. 2007. “Teacher Education, Graduates’
Teaching Commitment and Entrance into the Teaching Profession.” Teaching and
Teacher Education 23: 543–556.
Schepens, A., and A. Aelterman. 2007. The Surplus Value of Partnerships in Teacher Educa-
tion [In Dutch.] Pedagogische Studiën 84: 433–447
Schleicher, A. 2012. Preparing Teachers and Developing School Leaders for the 21st Cen-
tury – Lessons from around the World. Paris: OECD Publishing.
Shelton, E. N. 2003. “Faculty Support and Student Retention.” Journal of Nursing Education
42: 68–76.
Sinclair, C. 2008. “Initial and Changing Student Teacher Motivation and Commitment to
Teaching.” Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education 36: 79–104.
Stokking, K., F. Leenders, J. De Jong, and J. Van Tartwijk. 2003. “From Student to Teacher:
Reducing Practice Shock and Early Dropout in the Teaching Profession.” European Jour-
nal of Teacher Education 26: 329–350.
Thomson, M. M., J. E. Turner, and J. L. Nietfeld. 2012. “A Typological Approach to Investi-
gate the Teaching Career Decision: Motivations and Beliefs about Teaching of Prospec-
tive Teacher Candidates.” Teaching and Teacher Education 28: 324–335.
Tschannen-Moran, M., and A. Woolfolk Hoy. 2001. “Teacher Efficacy: Capturing an Elusive
Construct.” Teaching and Teacher Education 17: 783–805.
Tschannen-Moran, M., and A. Woolfolk Hoy. 2007. “The Differential Antecedents of Self-
Efficacy Beliefs of Novice and Experienced Teachers.” Teaching and Teacher Education
23: 944–956.
van Veen, K., P. Sleegers, T. Bergen, and C. Klaassen. 2001. “Professional Orientations of
Secondary School Teachers towards Their Work.” Teaching and Teacher Education 17:
175–194.
Watt, H. M. G., and P. W. Richardson. 2008. “Motivations, Perceptions, and Aspirations con-
cerning Teaching as a Career for Different Types of Beginning Teachers.” Learning and
Instruction 18: 408–428.
Zanting, A., N. Verloop, and J. D. Vermunt. 2001. “Student Teachers’ Beliefs about
Mentoring and Learning to Teach during Teaching Practice.” British Journal of
Educational Psychology 71: 57–80.
Zientek, L. R. 2007. “Preparing High-Quality Teachers: Views from the Classroom.” Ameri-
can Educational Research Journal 44: 959–1001.