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Teacher education and the choice to enter the teaching profession: A

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DOI: 10.1016/j.tate.2010.06.013

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 Teaching and Teacher Education 26 (2010) 1619e1629

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Teaching and Teacher Education

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tate

Teacher education and the choice to enter the teaching profession:

A prospective study
Isabel Rots a, *, Antonia Aelterman a, Geert Devos a, Peter Vlerick b
a
Department of Educational Studies, Ghent University, Henri Dunantlaan 2, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
b
Department of Personnel Management, Work & Organizational Psychology, Ghent University, Henri Dunantlaan 2, 9000 Ghent, Belgium

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This two-wave survey study aimed at testing a hypothetical model of teacher education graduates’
Received 14 October 2009 decisions about whether or not to take a teaching position upon graduation. The model focuses on the
Received in revised form relationship between teacher education and graduates’ choice on job entrance. Using path analysis and
15 March 2010
logistic regression, this model was tested in a sample of student teachers (n ¼ 436), subsequently
Accepted 4 June 2010
graduates (n ¼ 251) of teacher training for secondary education. The results validate the relationship
between teacher education variables and nearly graduates’ intention to enter the teaching profession.
Keywords:
Furthermore, this intention proves an imperative predictor of graduates’ actual entrance.
Teaching profession
Pre-service teacher education
Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Path analysis
Teaching commitment
Entrance into the teaching profession

1. Introduction complexity of a classroom during their practical training. For some

Several Western countries show a recurring shortage of teachers
(Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
[OECD], 2005). It is believed that this shortage is caused by three
main factors: too few candidates are entering teacher education
(recruitment problem), too many teachers are leaving the teaching
profession after a short period of time (attrition problem), and
a considerable proportion of teacher education graduates do not
enter the teaching profession (job entrance problem). In this article
we focus on the problem of job entrance. Some authors attempt to
explain the phenomenon of graduates not entering the teaching
profession in terms of the labour market and the economy
(Guarino, Santibañez, & Daley, 2006; OECD, 2005). The teaching
profession competes with other potential first jobs, particularly for
graduates who are qualified to teach at secondary schools. This is
surprising, as it can be assumed that most student teachers start
their teacher education with a more or less explicit motivation to
become teachers. It is possible that experiences during teacher
education are partly responsible for a graduate’s choice not to enter
the profession. Indeed, research indicates that most student
teachers experience a praxis/reality shock when they encounter the
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ32 9 264 62 58; fax: þ32 9 264 86 88.
E-mail addresses: Isabel.Rots@UGent.be (I. Rots), Antonia.Aelterman@UGent.be
(A. Aelterman), Geert.Devos@UGent.be (G. Devos), Peter.Vlerick@UGent.be
(P. Vlerick).
student teachers, this praxis/reality shock is sufficiently severe to
terminate their teaching career aspirations before graduation
(Brouwer & Korthagen, 2005; Cole & Knowles, 1993; Sinclair, 2008).
However, empirical research on the relationship between teacher
education and (nearly) graduates’ choice whether or not to enter
the teaching profession is scarce. This study presents a hypothetical
model to explain this aspect of career decision making and subse-
quently summarises the design and results of an empirical study to
test this model in a sample of student teachers (subsequently
graduates) in Flanders (Belgium).
2. Theoretical framework
The theoretical framework for this study is based on the social
learning theory of career decision making (Krumboltz, 1979; Mitchell
& Krumboltz, 1996). This theory identifies the interaction between
genetic factors, environmental conditions, learning experiences,
cognitive and emotional responses, and performance skills that lead
to certain career decisions. Chapman (1983) applied Krumboltz’s
social learning theory of career decision making to the teaching
profession in order to describe and explain the retention/attrition of
beginning teachers. According to this model, teacher retention (i.-
e., teacher education graduates who enter and remain in the teaching
profession) is a function of (a) teachers’ personal characteristics (e.g.,
gender, age), (b) educational preparation (e.g., the adequacy of the
teacher preparation programme and student performance in the

0742-051X/$ e see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tate.2010.06.013
1620 I. Rots et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 26 (2010) 1619e1629
teacher education programme), (c) initial commitment to teaching,
(d) the quality of the first employment experience, (e) professional
and social integration into teaching (e.g., a person’s values, compe-
tencies, and accomplishments), and (f) external influences (e.g.,
employment climate). Empirical validation of this model (Chapman,
1984; Chapman & Green, 1986; Grady, 1990; Ruhland, 2001, 2002)
suggests that early teacher attrition is not only related to the school
context or employment climate: the roots of teacher attrition are to
be found in variables such as initial commitment to teaching and the
quality of first teaching experiences.
Recent research building on Chapman’s model focused on the
particular relationship between teacher education variables and
graduates’ choice (not) to enter the teaching profession. Rots and
Aelterman (2008, 2009) have observed that this relationship
persists even when other antecedents of teacher education grad-
uates’ intention (not) to enter the teaching profession are included
in the model (i.e., motivation for teaching when starting teacher
education and employment opportunities). These findings hold
across different types of teacher training and suggest that teacher
education can have a meaningful impact on graduates’ entrance
into the teaching profession by reinforcing teaching commitment.
More specifically, faculty supervision and mentor support during
practical experiences in schools were found to be positively related
to graduates’ teaching commitment and their intention to enter the
teaching profession. However, the post hoc nature of these studies
may have invoked response bias, as the data were collected shortly
after graduates completed their teacher education. Moreover, the
cross-sectional research design did not test time-ordered rela-
tionships among variables.
Based on these limitations, the present study extends the
research of Rots and Aelterman (2008, 2009) in three ways:
(1) A prospective study design is adopted building on two data
collection phases e one before and one after graduation e to
strengthen the construct validity of the variables measured.
(2) With this prospective research design, the predictive rela-
tionship between nearly graduated student teachers’ intention
to enter the teaching profession and their actual entrance into
the profession is tested.
(3) A larger sample of student teachers from one type of teacher
training is used (i.e., teacher training for lower secondary
education in Flanders). The larger sample enables us to control
for personal and contextual factors and to use split-sample
cross-validation methods.
However, the present study does not aim to investigate the
effects of specific teacher education programmes on graduates’
choice on job entrance. Rather, in keeping with Krumboltz (1979)
theory, we examine the relationship between (nearly graduated)
student teachers’ perception of their experiences during teacher
education and their choice whether or not to enter the teaching
profession upon graduation. In accordance with the social learning
theory of career decision making, student teachers interpret their
(learning) experiences in teacher education in various ways,
leading them to make unique generalisations about themselves and
their teacher education. These so-called “self-observation gener-
alisations” (perceptions, which can be more or less accurate) are
considered to be the key to understanding their choice whether or
not to enter the teaching profession.
Fig. 1 represents the hypothetical model for the present study,
which integrates findings of previous research on the direct and
indirect relationship between teacher education and teacher
retention. This model is grounded in the social learning theory of
career decision making (Krumboltz, 1979; Mitchell & Krumboltz,
1996) and the model of Chapman (1983). However, our model
offers a more specific application of Chapman’s (1983) model as it
focuses on the importance of teacher education for graduates’
entrance into the teaching profession. The core of the model
connects learning experiences related to teacher education and the
resulting cognitive and emotional responses and performance skills
(see Krumboltz, 1979; Mitchell & Krumboltz, 1996) that lead to the
intention (not) to enter the teaching profession. It is acknowledged
that a number of variables influencing job entrance are not repre-
sented in this model (e.g., job search behaviour, perceived working
conditions of available jobs). However, the effect of these variables
is beyond the scope of the present study.
Building on the model of Chapman (1983), a distinction was
made between (1) initial motivation for teaching, (2) teacher
education, (3) integration into teaching, (4) teaching commitment,
and (5) external influences. Furthermore, intention to enter
teaching was included in the model.
2.1. Initial motivation for teaching
Research on students’ reasons to opt for teacher education
indicates that student teachers differ in their motivation to finally
enter the teaching profession upon graduation (Jarvis & Woodrow,
2005; Kyriacou, Hultgren, & Stephens, 1999; Roness & Smith, 2009).
Most student teachers start their teacher education with a more or
less explicit motivation to become teachers. Nonetheless,
a minority of students primarily regard teacher education as a way
to earn a degree that offers a wide variety of job opportunities,
including those outside teaching. It is likely that students’ initial
motivation to study teacher education is related to their entrance
into the teaching profession after graduation.
2.2. Teacher education
2.2.1. Faculty support
The first teacher education variable is the adequacy of the
support or supervision provided by the faculty of the training
institute (‘faculty support’). Several scholars have argued that
supervision represents a key-element in student teachers’ personal
and professional development (see Caires & Almeida, 2007).
Moreover, research has shown that faculty support is positively
related to graduates’ perception of teacher education preparation,
their teaching commitment (Rots, Aelterman, Vlerick, & Vermeulen,
2007), and their entrance into the teaching profession (Stokking,
Leenders, De Jong, & Van Tartwijk, 2003).
2.2.2. Mentor support
Next, newly certified teachers usually perceive practical expe-
riences in schools as the most powerful component of teacher
preparation (Wilson, Floden, & Ferrini-Mundy, 2002). To facilitate
learning during these field experiences, student teachers are
supervised by mentor teachers. There is a growing body of empir-
ical evidence to suggest that mentoring practices can promote
increased retention of novice teachers (Hobson, Ashby, Malderez, &
Tomlinson, 2009; Smith & Ingersoll, 2004; Wang & Odell, 2002).
Since support from mentors during student teaching might have
a comparable effect (Rots et al., 2007), the variable ‘mentor support’
was included in the hypothetical model.
2.2.3. Teacher education preparation
Another teacher education variable is the extent to which
(nearly graduated) student teachers feel their teacher education
programme has prepared them for the demands of teaching.
Several researchers have observed a positive correlation between
teacher education graduates’ feelings about their preparation for
the teaching profession and their plans to remain in teaching
 I. Rots et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 26 (2010) 1619e1629
teacher education
(learning experiences)
mentor support
teacher
education
preparation
faculty support
initial motivation for
teaching
(learning experiences)
(environmental conditions)
Note: Italicized words in parentheses indicate the relationship of components of the model to the more general tenets
of the Social Learning Theory of Career Decision Making (Mitchell & Krumboltz, 1996).
Fig. 1. Hypothetical model to explain graduates’ entrance into the teaching profession.
(Darling-Hammond, Chung, & Frelow, 2002; LaTurner, 2002;
Zientek, 2007). Hence, the variable ‘teacher education prepara-
tion’ was included in the hypothetical model.
2.3. Integration into teaching
An important element in the model of Chapman (1983) is the
professional and social integration of teachers into the teaching
profession. This refers to people’s self-perceived values, compe-
tencies, and accomplishments as a teacher. In this study, integration
into teaching comprises student teachers’ self-rated skills and
abilities as a teacher (‘teacher efficacy’), their professional orien-
tation, as well as their general educational beliefs.
2.3.1. Teacher efficacy
Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk Hoy (2001) defined a teacher’s
efficacy belief as “a judgment of his/her capabilities to bring about
desired outcomes of student engagement and learning, even
among those students who may be difficult or unmotivated”
(p. 783). Teacher efficacy has been related to teachers’ perception of
the relevance of their teacher preparation (Darling-Hammond
et al., 2002) as well as to enthusiasm for teaching, teaching
commitment, and retention in teaching (see Tschannen-Moran &
Woolfolk Hoy, 2007; Woolfolk Hoy & Burke Spero, 2005).
2.3.2. Professional orientation
In the hypothetical model, we incorporated a second aspect of
integration into teaching: student teachers’ professional orienta-
tion. Hoyle (1980) distinguished between a restricted professional
orientation and an extended professional orientation. The
restricted professional orientation has its focus on the classroom.
These teachers are mainly concerned with teaching methods, their
1621
integration into teaching
(performance skills)
teacher efficacy
teaching commitment
professional
orientation
(cognitive &
emotional response)
learner-oriented
beliefs
external influences
intention to enter the
teaching profession
employment
opportunities (career decision)
significant others in
education
job alternatives entrance into the
(for actual first job) teaching profession
(career decision)
own didactic behaviours, and the subject matter. The extended
professionals, however, are concerned with professional collabo-
ration and locate their classroom teaching in a broader educational
context. They also aim to function as members of a school team. van
Veen, Sleegers, Bergen, and Klaassen (2001) stated that contem-
porary educational reforms, innovations, and governmental poli-
cies carry the underlying assumption that students’ learning goes
beyond the responsibility of individual teachers. This implies that
a restricted professional orientation is no longer relevant. In Flan-
ders, for instance, the educational government imposes teacher
education to pursue the development of basic competencies (initial
competencies of graduates) which refer to an extended view of
professionalism (Aelterman, 1998). Furthermore, van Veen et al.
(2001) observed that collaboration, which is an essential feature
of the extended professional orientation, affects the level of moti-
vation and job satisfaction among teachers. Therefore, we assumed
that student teachers with a more extended professional orienta-
tion show higher teaching commitment and may be more inclined
to enter the teaching profession.
2.3.3. General educational beliefs
The third aspect of integration into teaching refers to student
teachers’ general educational beliefs. Educational beliefs are
generally described on the basis of two prototypical ideologies: (1)
teacher- or subject-matter-oriented beliefs, and (2) learner-
oriented beliefs. The first orientation places a strong emphasis on
imparting knowledge of the subject matter and on the qualification
of students; the latter emphasises the process of student learning
and the personal development of students (see e.g., Hermans, van
Braak, & Van Keer, 2008; Meirink, Meijer, Verloop, & Bergen,
2009). Currently, scholars, as well as governmental policies and
reforms, advocate education that promotes students’ active
1622 I. Rots et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 26 (2010) 1619e1629
and self-regulated learning and that is oriented towards broad and
harmonious development (Hermans et al., 2008; Lunenberg,
Korthagen, & Swennen, 2007; Meirink et al., 2009). Accordingly,
(student) teachers are expected to endorse a learner-oriented
approach to teaching and learning. For instance, the basic compe-
tences as set out by the Flemish government reflect an extended
view of professionalism and a learner-oriented approach to
teaching and learning (Aelterman, 1998). Hence, as educational
policies (in Flanders) emphasise a learner-oriented education, we
assumed a positive relationship between the level of student
teachers’ learner-oriented beliefs and their choice to enter the
teaching profession upon graduation.
2.4. Teaching commitment
In line with Coladarci (1992), teaching commitment was defined
as a student teacher’s degree of psychological attachment to the
teaching profession. In line with the social learning theory of career
decision making (Krumboltz, 1979; Mitchell & Krumboltz, 1996),
teaching commitment is considered to be a cognitive and
emotional reaction to student teachers’ learning experiences in
teacher education and the resulting (self-perceived) values,
competencies, and accomplishments as a teacher. The expression of
high teaching commitment is found in nearly qualified teachers
who are motivated, willing to learn, have a passion for the job, and
a sense that teaching is a worthwhile and positive career choice in
which they can have an impact on the lives of students
(Day, Sammons, Stobart, Kington, & Gu, 2007). Several studies have
confirmed the importance of teaching commitment for beginning
teacher retention (e.g., Billingsley, 2004; Day, Elliot, & Kington,
2005; Tait, 2008; Weiss, 1999).
2.5. External influences
2.5.1. Employment opportunities and job alternatives
Research suggests that when the general economy is strong and
graduate unemployment is low, fewer graduates choose for
a teaching career (OECD, 2005). Correspondingly, when general
economic conditions worsen, teaching becomes a more attractive
job choice. Therefore, student teachers’ perception of ‘employment
opportunities’ (measured shortly before graduation) and graduates’
perception of readily available ‘job alternatives’ for their actual first
job (measured shortly after their job entry) were included in the
hypothetical model.
2.5.2. Significant others who work(ed) in education
Another external variable proposed in previous research
concerns the influence of significant others (i.e., family members or
close friends) who are teachers (Malderez, Hobson, Tracey, & Kerr,
2007; Manuel & Hughes, 2006; Sinclair, 2008). In order to
explore the potential effect of this variable, ‘(not) having significant
others who work(ed) in education’ was included in the hypothet-
ical model.
2.6. Intention to enter teaching
The intention to leave or stay in the teaching profession is
a frequently used variable in research on teacher retention. It is
considered a valid predictor of subsequent choices and actions
(e.g., Billingsley, Carlson, & Klein, 2004; Singh & Billingsley, 1996;
Weisberg & Sagie, 1999). This is in line with the behavioural
intention models (e.g., Theory of Reasoned Action; Theory of
Planned Behaviour) which assume that a person’s specific behav-
iour is partly predicted by his/her intentions (Ajzen, 1991; Ajzen &
Fishbein, 1980).
To conclude, the purpose of the present study is to test the
hypothetical model depicted in Fig.1. The aim of this study is twofold:
(1) testing the hypothesised relationships explaining nearly gradu-
ated student teachers’ intention to enter the teaching profession, and
(2) testing the predictive relationship between nearly graduates’
intention to enter the teaching profession and their actual job
entrance upon graduation (teaching profession or not).
3. Method
3.1. Sample and procedure
In the present study, a prospective research design with two
data collection phases was adopted. Data were collected among
student teachers (subsequently graduates) of teacher training for
lower secondary education in Flanders. This is a three-year pro-
gramme organised as a professional bachelor course by institutes of
higher education. It is a so-called ‘integrated teacher training’:
subject matter training, didactics, and practical training in different
schools are distributed throughout the three-year programme.
Institutes of higher education organise the practical component in
co-operation with schools in the form of pre-service training.
During practical training, student teachers are supervised by
mentors (cooperating teachers). Since the practical training is
organised in different phases throughout the programme, student
teachers are gradually introduced to the complexities of the job and
to the corresponding responsibilities. Graduates are qualified to
teach two or three subjects in secondary education.
In the first phase of data collection (T1), 684 student teachers
from six teacher training institutes were administered a question-
naire at the end of their teacher education programme. In total, 443
student teachers (response rate 64.77%) completed this question-
naire.1 Of this sample, 63.3% of the responding student teachers
were female. Participants were on average 21.6 years old (SD ¼ 2.1).
In the second phase of data collection (T2), all successfully
graduated T1-participants were invited to complete a second
(brief) questionnaire (time interval between data collections pha-
ses varied between three to six months). Participants in T2 were
66.9% women; the mean age was 22.0 years (SD ¼ 1.7). Of this
sample 62.2% (n ¼ 156) had entered the teaching profession
whereas 22.7% (n ¼ 57) had entered a non-teaching job and 15.1%
(n ¼ 38) were (still) unemployed (e.g., job searching, further study).
The retention rate between T1 (n ¼ 436) and T2 (n ¼ 251) was
57.57%. Assuming there is always drop-out in prospective studies,
the critical issue is whether this drop-out results in bias. But after
comparing participants who completed both T1 and T2 question-
naires to those who dropped out, the only significant difference
that could be observed concerns respondents’ subject specialisa-
tion (classification based on van Veen et al., 2001): a significantly
larger number of graduates qualified to teach one or more subject
(s) related to social studies (i.e., geography, history, economics,
social studies, or moral/religious education) participated at T2 (Chi-
square ¼ 11.87, p ¼ .001) while significantly fewer graduates
qualified to teach at least one expression subject (i.e., physical
education or arts) participated at T2 (Chi-square ¼ 15.97, p < .001).
Therefore the drop-out bias appears to be limited.
3.2. Research instruments
To obtain measures related to the specific variables in the
hypothetical model, either a new instrument was developed or an
existing instrument was translated into Dutch.
1
An additional 7 students were excluded because of non-random missing data.
 I. Rots et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 26 (2010) 1619e1629
In order to investigate the psychometric quality of each of these
instruments, confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) were conducted. CFA
allows for comparison of the data to a pre-specified model (factor
structure) to determine the goodness of fit. In a CFA analysis, subjects’
responses to the items are analysed to see whether the sets of items
could be grouped according to their originally intended structure to
form their respective factors. For each of the instruments in this study,
a separate CFA was conducted to validate the a priori factor structure of
the specific instrument. Specific criteria were used to evaluate and
modify the different (factor) models. Special attention was paid to the
cross-loading of items on multiple factors, the regression coefficient of
individual items, and the consistency with the theoretical framework
underlying each instrument. For several instruments, items were
deleted as a result of this process. Several fit indices were used to
evaluate model fit: the c2 test, the comparative fit index (CFI), the non-
normed fit index (NNFI), the standardised root-mean-square residual
(SRMR), and the root-mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA).2
The results of the different CFAs (see Table 1) indicated an acceptable to
good fit of the obtained (factor) models with the data.
3.2.1. Initial motivation for teaching (T1)
To measure the level of initial motivation for teaching, student
teachers were asked to indicate the extent to which the purpose of
becoming a teacher had influenced their decision to enter teacher
education. This scale was based on an instrument of Derriks and De
Kat (1993). Each of the items (e.g., “[I entered teacher education]
because I wanted to be a teacher.”) was scored on a six-point Likert
scale ranging from 1 (no influence at all) to 6 (very much influence).
3.2.2. Teacher education preparation (T1)
In Flanders, teacher training is not directed by a detailed
national curriculum. Teacher training institutes have to prove that
they pursue and attain the basic competencies as set out by the
Flemish government. Therefore, in order to measure respondents’
perception of teacher education preparation, a scale was con-
structed based on the basic competencies of teacher training for
lower secondary education. Respondents were asked to indicate
the degree to which they felt teacher education has prepared them
to perform a set of tasks central to teaching. The items were scored
on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all prepared) to 5
(very well prepared). In accordance with the theoretical classifica-
tion of basic competencies (Aelterman, 1995), this instrument
assesses preparation for responsibility towards the learners (i.e.,
ability to act as a coach of learning and developmental processes, as
educator, as content expert, as organiser, and as innovator-
researcher) as well as preparation for responsibility towards the
educational community (i.e., ability to act as partner of parents, as
a member of a school team, as a partner of external bodies, and as
a member of the educational community) and towards society (i.e.,
ability to act as a participant in culture).
3.2.3. Faculty support (T1)
Student teachers’ perception of the support received from the
faculty in their teacher education programme was measured by the
Perceived Faculty Support Scale (Shelton, 2003). Shelton (2003)
distinguished between support directed towards promoting
a sense of competency and self-worth (i.e., psychological faculty
2
A small, non-significant chi-square value is expected if a model provides
adequate fit to the data. Because c2 is highly sensitive to sample size, alternative fit
indices have to be adopted. Recommended values of CFI and NNFI are those above
.90 whereas the value of SRMR should be below .08. Furthermore, the value of
RMSEA should be lower than .05 to demonstrate a close fit; values between .05 and
.08 indicate a fair fit; values larger than .10 indicate a poor fit (Hu & Bentler, 1999;
Kline, 2005).
1623
support) and support directed towards the achievement of tasks in
order to reach the goals of academic success (i.e., functional faculty
support).
3.2.4. Mentor support (T1)
Based on the work of Zanting, Verloop, and Vermunt (2001) and
Väisänen (2003), a perceived mentor support scale was developed.
Respondents were asked to indicate on a five-point Likert scale
ranging from 1 (not at all) to 5 (a lot) how well different roles and
tasks were reflected by their mentors during practical training.
Zanting et al. (2001) theoretically identified six mentor roles: (1)
coach, (2) information source, (3) evaluator, (4) promoter of
a student teacher’s self-reflection, (5) introducing the student
teacher to school life, and (6) promoter of the student teacher’s self-
regulated learning. Since the factor analysis indicated a consider-
able overlap between theoretically distinct mentor roles, some
roles were combined (see Table 1).
3.2.5. Teacher efficacy (T1)
To gauge respondents’ teacher efficacy, we used the Teachers’
Sense of Efficacy Scale (Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2001).
Reliability and validity of this instrument have been demonstrated
in earlier research (Klassen et al., 2009). This scale assesses a broad
range of capabilities (across context, levels, and subjects) consid-
ered important in good teaching. The scale measures efficacy in
student engagement, efficacy in instructional strategies, and effi-
cacy in classroom management.
3.2.6. Professional orientation (T1)
Professional orientation was measured using a scale developed
by Jongmans and Beijaard (1997) which is based on Hoyle’s (1980)
distinction between a restricted versus an extended professional
orientation. Respondents were asked to indicate the extent to
which they agreed with each statement (e.g., “Cooperation with
other teachers is necessary to carry out teaching tasks in an
adequate way.”) on a seven-point scale ranging from 1 (totally
disagree) to 7 (totally agree).
3.2.7. Learner-oriented beliefs (T1)
The ‘General Educational Beliefs’ instrument of Denessen,
Michels, and Felling (2000) was used to investigate the level of
student teachers’ learner-oriented beliefs. This instrument
focuses on two factors, mirroring two independent ideologies:
(1) subject-matter-oriented beliefs (characterised by an orien-
tation towards qualification, a focus on discipline, and an
emphasis on achievement and good marks), and (2) learner-
oriented beliefs (characterised by an orientation towards
personal and social development, an acknowledgment of
students’ opinions and desires, and an emphasis on the impor-
tance of the learning process, for instance, in autonomous and
co-operative settings).
3.2.8. Teaching commitment (T1)
In accordance with the study of van Huizen (2000), we used
a Dutch language scale to measure respondents’ teaching
commitment. Respondents were asked to indicate their level of
agreement with individual statements (e.g., “Working as a teacher
provides satisfaction.”), on a six-point Likert scale ranging from 1
(strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree).
3.2.9. Employment opportunities (T1)
A scale composed of four items was constructed to measure
student teachers’ perception of their employment opportunities.
Respondents were asked to indicate the extent to which they
agreed with each statement (e.g., “I am optimistic that I will find
1624 I. Rots et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 26 (2010) 1619e1629

Table 1
Overview of instruments and scales: number of items, Cronbach’s Alpha, and results of the confirmatory factor analyses (n ¼ 436).

Measure Items a c2 (df, p-value) CFI NNFI SRMR RMSEA

Initial motivation for teaching 4 .86 4.249 (2, .119) .997 .992 .014 .051

Teacher education preparation: 15 .87 194.223 (89, <.001) .939 .928 .046 .052
responsibility towards learners 8 .80
responsibility towards educational community & society 7 .79

Faculty support: 16 .93 356.973 (103, <.001) .926 .914 .050 .075
psychological support 8 .90
functional support 8 .85

Mentor support: 15 .90 274.860 (86, <.001) .924 .907 .053 .071
coach & evaluator 3 .70
information source 3 .79
promoter of self-reflection & self-regulated learning 6 .80
introducing student to school life 3 .75

Teacher efficacy: 11 .79 125.302 (42, <.001) .921 .897 .058 .068
in student engagement 3 .67
in instructional strategies 4 .63
in classroom management 4 .76

Professional orientation 10 .82 105.777 (35, <.001) .935 .917 .048 .068

General educational beliefs: 208.180 (103, < .001) .937 .926 .054 .048
subject-matter-oriented beliefs 6 .74
learner-oriented beliefs 10 .81

Teaching commitment 6 .84 34.774 (9, <.001) .971 .951 .032 .081

Employment opportunities 4 .63 11.817 (2, .003) .968 .904 .035 .106

Intention to enter the teaching profession 4 .94 9.320 (2, .009) .995 .986 .011 .092

a good job after graduation.”) on a five-point Likert scale ranging
from 1 (totally disagree) to 5 (totally agree).
3.2.10. Significant others who work(ed) in education (T1)
Student teachers were asked to indicate whether their parents,
siblings, and/or partner work or have ever worked in education.
3.2.11. Intention to enter the teaching profession (T1)
In order to assess student teachers’ current intention for job
entrance, the items of the scale ‘initial motivation for teaching’
(based on Derriks and De Kat (1993), see above) were rephrased
(e.g., “I entered teacher education because I wanted to be a teacher.”
was rephrased as “I want to be a teacher.”). Each of the items was
scored on a six-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (totally disagree)
to 6 (totally agree).
3.2.12. Entrance into the teaching profession (T2)
This was operationalised as the respondent’s first official job
after graduation (teaching profession or not).
3.2.13. Job alternatives (T2)
In line with the study of van Dam (2005), three items (a ¼ .79) in
the T2-questionnaire referred to the perceived availability of
alternative jobs for the respondent’s actual first job (e.g., “I could
have easily gotten another job of equal value if I had wanted to.”). A
four-point Likert scale was used ranging from 1 (totally disagree) to
4 (totally agree).
3.2.14. Control variables
Several personal and contextual characteristics were included as
control variables. Most of these were gathered at T1: age, gender,
the education type attended during secondary education (i.e.,
general, technical, arts, or vocational secondary education), having
obtained other degrees or diplomas in higher education, having
started but not completed another training prior to entering
teacher education, the subject specialisation in teacher education,
and the particular teacher training institute. Furthermore, student
performance data were obtained from the teacher training
institute.
3.3. Data analysis
3.3.1. Path analysis
In a first phase of data-analysis, structural equation modelling
(path analysis) was used. Path analysis is a statistical method to test
a priori structures and relations between variables. A theoretical or
hypothesised model is tested statistically to determine the extent to
which it is consistent with the data or how well it fits the data. If the
goodness of fit is adequate, the plausibility of the postulated rela-
tions among the variables is strengthened; if the fit is inadequate,
the tenability of the postulated relations is rejected (Byrne, 2001).
To address our first research aim, path analysis was applied to
test the pattern of hypothesised relationships between the vari-
ables measured at the first phase of data collection. The initial
model being tested reflected the relationships presented in Fig. 1
(yet with ‘intention to enter the teaching profession’ as the
dependent variable). Based on the model of Chapman (1983), this
initial model was rather restricted. It focused on the straightfor-
ward relationships between the different variables and intention to
enter teaching without taking into account all meaningful inter-
relationships between mediating variables or correlations between
exogenous (independent) variables.
A three step procedure was followed to carry out the path
analysis with the AMOS 17.0 software. First, the data were
randomly split into two subsets to obtain a calibration and a vali-
dation sample. Deletion of one multivariate outlier resulted in
a calibration sample size of 217 and a validation sample size of 218.
Second, using path analysis, the calibration sample was assessed for
goodness-of-fit to the hypothesised model. The above mentioned
well-established indices (the c2 test, the CFI, the NNFI, the SRMR,
and the RMSEA) were used to assess model fit. Given inadequate fit,
the model was respecified by including additional paths as
 I. Rots et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 26 (2010) 1619e1629
suggested by the AMOS-generated modification indices. Only
theoretically meaningful paths were included in the respecified
model. All non-significant predictors were deleted from the model.
This resulted in a final model reflecting optimal goodness-of-fit
indices. Third, this final model was tested for its replication across
the validation sample. The focus of this cross-validation was to test
for the invariance of all specified paths across the two independent
subsamples.
3.3.2. Logistic regression analysis
Based on the hypothetical model (see Fig. 1) and in accordance
with our second research aim, in the second phase of data-analysis
logistic regression analysis was used. This statistical technique
allows to predict dichotomous categorical outcomes. In this study,
it is used to determine the extent to which teaching graduates’
actual entrance into the teaching profession (dichotomous ‘first job’
factor: teaching profession or not) can be predicted from their
intention to enter the teaching profession (as reported shortly
before graduation), their perceived job alternatives, and the pres-
ence of significant others who work(ed) in education. Gender, age,
the subject specialisation, and student performance in teacher
education were included as control variables. A backward stepwise
method was used to perform the logistic regression analysis. This
approach starts with a complex model containing all variables of
interest and sequentially removes non-significant variables. In the
final multivariate model only variables with a p-value less than .05
were retained.
4. Results
To obtain overall measures for the different constructs,
composite scale scores were calculated. Using factor score weights,
scale scores were derived as weighted sums of items and then were
converted to 100 point scales. Each scale is a separate set of items;
items do not overlap between scales. Table 2 summarises the
descriptive statistics and Pearson correlation coefficients among all
Likert scale variables in the study.
4.1. Path analysis
Path analysis of the initial model in the calibration sample
indicated that all paths were statistically significant, except for the
paths between ‘significant others who work(ed) in education’ and
‘intention to enter the teaching profession’. Given the restricted
nature of the initial model, the unsatisfactory goodness-of-fit-
indices (see Table 3) were not surprising.
The incorporation of seven additional paths resulted in a clear
improvement of the fit indices (i.e., initial motivation for
teaching 4 faculty support; initial motivation for teaching 4 mentor
support; learner-oriented beliefs / professional orientation; learner-
oriented beliefs / teacher efficacy; faculty support / learner-
oriented beliefs; mentor support / teacher efficacy; teacher
efficacy / professional orientation). After deletion of the non-signif-
icant predictor ‘significant others who work(ed) in education’, the final
model was obtained (see Fig. 2). This model showed acceptable model
fit in the calibration sample and explained 56% of the variance in nearly
graduated student teachers’ intention to enter teaching. Although this
final path model shows significant relations between the variables, it is
possible that one or more confounding variables (e.g., personal or
contextual factors) may account for these results. To test for this
possibility, the final path model was recomputed, including several
personal and contextual factors as control variables (see above).
Categorical control variables (e.g., gender, subject specialisation,
particular training institute) were included as dummy variables. None
of the control variables substantially affected the relationships
1625
between the variables in the final model. All path coefficients in the
path model (see Fig. 2) remained statistically significant after
controlling for these variables.
Next, the final model that was developed on a random
subsample of the data (calibration sample) was validated on the
other mutually exclusive subsample (validation sample). Following
a procedure outline by Byrne (2001), we conducted a multiple
group analysis to test for the invariance of the final path model
across the two independent subsamples.3 The results revealed that
there were no significant differences in the path coefficients across
samples (Chi-square ¼ 24.349, df ¼ 30, ns). Therefore, the causal
structure of the final path model is shown to be statistically
invariant across the two independent samples.
4.2. Logistic regression analysis
In the second phase of data-analysis, backward stepwise logistic
regression analysis was performed. One case was identified as an
outlier and removed from the final analysis. Table 4 summarises the
results of the final regression model. Three of the variables entered
in the logistic regression analysis appeared to be significant
predictors of actual entrance into the teaching profession.
As expected, student teachers’ intention to enter the teaching
profession (reported shortly before graduation) was the most
powerful predictor of actual entrance (Wald (1) ¼ 32.996, p < .001).
Also in line with our expectations, as respondents’ job alternatives
increased, they were significantly less likely to enter teaching
(Wald (1) ¼ 4.511, p ¼ .034). The subject specialisation in teacher
education appeared to be another powerful predictor of actual
entrance. Graduates qualified to teach at least one expression
subject (i.e., physical education or arts) were less likely to enter the
teaching profession (Wald (1) ¼ 14.511, p < .001). The odds were
approximately 4.76 times lower. Interpretation of the odds ratio
indicates that graduates qualified to teach expression subject(s)
were 79% (1.0  .210 ¼ .79) less likely to enter the teaching
profession than other graduates (see the OR in Table 4).
The regression model proved to be both parsimonious and
robust. The fit of the model was clearly better than the fit of a model
containing no predictors (null model: c2 (3) ¼ 61.062, p < .001),
indicating that the variables as set (i.e., intention to enter teaching,
job alternatives, and subject specialisation) improved the accurate
prediction of graduates’ actual first job (teaching profession or not).
The fit was not worse than a model containing all variables (c2
(8) ¼ 9.609, ns). Furthermore, the HosmereLemeshow statistic
reflected a non-significant value (p ¼ .653), indicating that the
model had an acceptable fit. The robustness of our model was
further investigated using two strategies. First, a forward stepwise
strategy was conducted. This strategy yielded identical results.
Second, the model was cross-validated using several random
subsamples. The results for each analysis were largely comparable.
3
This procedure is outlined by Byrne (2001). From an omnibus test, which
determined the goodness of fit for the two groups (samples) simultaneously, the fit
was adequate (c2 (50) ¼ 122.807; CFI ¼ .947; NNFI ¼ .905; SRMR ¼ .074; RMSEA ¼ .
058). The fit of this initial multi group model provides the baseline value against
which we compare a subsequent model in which equality constraints are specified.
The change in chi-square value provides the basis for this comparison. Accordingly,
to test for invariance of the final path model across the samples, we constrained all
parameters in this model to be equal across groups (samples). Results revealed the
constrained model to be well-fitting (c2 (80) ¼ 147.156; CFI ¼ .951; NNFI ¼ .945;
SRMR ¼ .071; RMSEA ¼ .044). The difference in chi-square values between this test
and the omnibus test (no equality constraints imposed) is 24.349, with 30 degrees
of freedom. Since this test statistic is not statistically significant, the causal structure
of the final path model is shown to be statistically invariant across the two inde-
pendent samples.
1626 I. Rots et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 26 (2010) 1619e1629

Table 2
Means, standard deviations and Pearson correlation coefficients among the Likert scale variables (n ¼ 436).

Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1. Initial motivation for teaching e
2. Mentor support .21** e
3. Faculty support .29** .30** e
4. Teacher education preparation .29** .49** .50** e
5. Professional orientation .33** .22** .39** .42** e
6. Teacher efficacy .28** .39** .36** .52** .44** e
7. Learner-oriented beliefs .25** .15** .34** .30** .51** .40** e
8. Teaching commitment .40** .27** .37** .40** .48** .44** .53** e
9. Employment opportunities .02 .21** .14** .10* .09 .12* .01 .05 e
10. Intention to enter teaching profession .63** .20** .26** .26** .31** .35** .28** .56** .19** e
11. Job alternativesa .04 .01 .05 .00 .09 .01 .09 .06 .29** .18** e

M 69.43 60.09 62.43 58.75 69.58 68.87 80.01 75.54 53.48 72.76 52.95
SD 22.76 15.54 14.68 14.20 12.84 10.25 11.21 13.59 19.39 23.73 22.63

*p < .05; **p < .01.

a
n ¼ 213.

5. Discussion substantially affected the relationships between the variables in

Using a prospective research design based on two phases of data
collection, the present study extends previous research on the
relationship between teacher education and graduates’ entrance
into the teaching profession. Building on the theory of Krumboltz
(1979), Mitchell and Krumboltz (1996), and the model of
Chapman (1983), a hypothetical model was constructed to describe
graduates’ intended and actual entrance into the teaching profes-
sion. A distinction was made between initial motivation for
teaching, teacher education, integration into teaching, teaching
commitment, and external influences. This model is an extension of
the model developed in the study of Rots and Aelterman (2008,
2009) with three additional variables, i.e., ‘learner-oriented
educational beliefs’ (as a component of integration into teaching) as
well as ‘(not) having significant others who work(ed) in education’
and ‘job alternatives’ (as external influences). The present study
aimed to test this hypothetical model in two phases: (1) testing the
hypothesised relationships explaining nearly graduated student
teachers’ intention to enter the teaching profession, and subse-
quently (2) testing the predictive relationship between nearly
graduates’ intention to enter the teaching profession and their
actual job entrance upon graduation. A combination of structural
equation modelling (path analysis) and logistic regression analysis
was used to test our hypothetical model in a sample of student
teachers (subsequently graduates) of teacher training for lower
secondary education in Flanders.
Regarding our first research aim, multiple fit indices as well as
the results of the cross-validation procedure revealed that, after
some modifications, the path model reflected a good fit. More than
half of the variance in intention to enter teaching (i.e., the teaching
profession) could be explained (56%). None of the control variables
Table 3
Goodness of fit indices of the models in the calibration sample (n ¼ 217).
Model c2 (df, p-value) CFI NNFI SRMR RMSEA
Initial model 163.066 (41, <.001) .812 .747 .136 .117
Modified modela 61.904(34, .002) .957 .930 .070 .062
Final modelb 55.664 (25, <.001) .953 .915 .074 .075
a
Addition of 7 significant paths: initial motivation for teaching 4 faculty
support; initial motivation for teaching 4 mentor support; learner-oriented
beliefs / professional orientation; learner-oriented beliefs / teacher efficacy;
faculty support / learner-oriented beliefs; mentor support / teacher efficacy;
teacher efficacy / professional orientation.
b
Deletion of 1 non-significant path: significant others who work(ed) in
education / intention to enter the teaching profession.
this final model.
A comparison between the hypothetical model (see Fig. 1) and
the final path model (see Fig. 2) of intention to enter teaching
demonstrated notable consistency. Except for the relationship
between ‘significant others who work(ed) in education’ and
‘intention to enter teaching’, all paths specified in the hypothetical
model are statistically significant. Furthermore, next to allowing
two pairs of exogenous variables to covary (initial motivation for
teaching 4 faculty support; initial motivation for
teaching 4 mentor support), five paths initially not specified in the
hypothetical model proved to be meaningful and were added to the
model (learner-oriented beliefs / professional orientation;
learner-oriented beliefs / teacher efficacy; faculty
support / learner-oriented beliefs; mentor support / teacher
efficacy; teacher efficacy / professional orientation). The modifi-
cation of the initial model mainly reflected the addition of rela-
tionships between mediating variables.
Below we elucidate the most important relationships in the final
path model. We describe the main findings with regard to the
different categories of variables: (1) initial motivation for teaching
and teaching commitment, (2) integration into teaching variables,
(3) teacher education variables, and (4) employment opportunities.
First, as expected, initial motivation for teaching and teaching
commitment are clearly related to intention to enter teaching.
Student teachers who started teacher education because they
wanted to work as a teacher and those who report higher teaching
commitment at the end of teacher education, are more likely to
show higher intention to enter teaching at the time of their grad-
uation. Moreover, consistent with the findings of Day et al. (2007),
initial motivation for teaching is positively related to teaching
commitment. Accordingly, initial motivation for teaching also
shows an indirect association with intention to enter teaching, with
teaching commitment as the mediating variable.
Second, also the relationship between integration into teaching
(as indicated by teacher efficacy, professional orientation, and
learner-oriented beliefs) and intention to enter teaching was
mediated by teaching commitment. Nearly graduated student
teachers with a higher level of teacher efficacy, as well as those with
a more extended professional orientation and those with stronger
learner-oriented beliefs are more likely to show higher teaching
commitment and subsequently a stronger intention to enter
teaching. These findings suggest that a correspondence between
one’s self-rated teaching abilities (i.e., sense of teacher efficacy),
professional orientation, and educational beliefs with the demands
of the teacher education programme (i.e., the basic competencies,
 I. Rots et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 26 (2010) 1619e1629 1627

.20
R² =.37 R² =.33 R² =.37
.34 .35 teacher efficacy .20
mentor support
.19 R² =.34
.31 teacher education .18 professional .17
preparation orientation
.42 .22 teaching
faculty support .39 R² =.10
commitment
.18 .18 learner-oriented .26
beliefs
.24
.19
.31

initial motivation .35

R² =.56
for teaching
.53
intention to enter
the teaching
employment -.15
profession
opportunities

Note: Solid arrows indicate initially hypothesized relationships. Broken arrows indicate relationships that

were added to the final model. All depicted relationships are significant at p < 0.05. Values represent standardised

estimates as well as the explained variance for the endogenous variables (R 2) (n = 217).

Fig. 2. Final model: results of the path analysis.

such as the extended view of professionalism and the learner-
oriented approach to teaching), strengthens graduating teachers in
their choice for the teaching profession. Furthermore, teacher
efficacy, professional orientation, and learner-oriented beliefs are
regarded as components of integration into teaching. Therefore
their interrelationship is obvious and justified a modification of our
initial model by including theoretically (and statistically) mean-
ingful relationships between these variables. The association
between teacher efficacy and professional orientation suggests that
nearly qualified teachers who feel more confident about their
ability to promote students’ learning, are better able to focus on
a more extended interpretation of their task as a teacher which in
turn enhances their teaching commitment. Moreover, the rela-
tionship between learner-oriented beliefs and professional orien-
tation seems theoretically justified (Bartlett, 2004; van Veen &
Sleegers, 2006). Given their desire to provide the best possible
educational opportunities for students, nearly qualified teachers
with strong learner-oriented beliefs may be more concerned with
professional collaboration and locating their classroom teaching in
a broader educational context. Acknowledging a joint responsibility
to implement learner-centered education, they aim to function as
members of a school team. In line with Woolfolk Hoy, Hoy, and Kurz
(2008), we also added a relationship between learner-oriented
beliefs and teacher efficacy. We assumed that student teachers
holding learner-oriented beliefs feel more confident in engaging
student interest, using appropriate instructional strategies, and
managing students (reflected in a higher sense of teacher efficacy).
Third, consistent with our hypothetical model (see Fig. 1), faculty
support, mentor support, and teacher education preparation
showed a positive indirect association with intention to enter
teaching. For each of these variables, the relationship is mediated by
integration into teaching and by teaching commitment. Moreover,
teacher education preparation appeared to be a mediating variable
for the relationships of both faculty and mentor support with
integration into teaching, teaching commitment, and ultimately
intention to enter teaching. These results confirm the importance of
adequate and sufficiently intensive supervision by the faculty of the
training institute as well as support provided by mentors during
practical training in schools. Both forms of support contribute to
student teachers’ positive perception of teacher education prepa-
ration and consequently enhance their sense of teacher efficacy,
extended professional orientation, and learner-oriented beliefs.
Furthermore, our study suggests that faculty support in teacher
education can serve as a role model for student teachers’ learner-
oriented beliefs. Moreover, the direct relationship between mentor
support and teacher efficacy corresponds with research indicating
the importance of interpersonal support for student/novice
teachers’ efficacy beliefs (Fives, Hamman, & Olivarez, 2007;
Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2007). This finding suggests
that support from mentors helps student teachers to experience
“mastery” (i.e., teaching accomplishments with students), “verbal
persuasion” (e.g., encouraging feedback), and “vicarious experi-
ences” (e.g., mentor as positive role model); all of which are potent
sources of teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs (Bandura, 1997).

Table 4
Predicting graduates’ actual entrance into the teaching profession. Results of the logistic regression analysis (n ¼ 212).

Variable B SE Wald df p OR OR1 95% CI

Qualified to teach expression subject(s) 1.563 .410 14.511 1 .000 .210 4.762 .094e.468
Job alternatives .408 .192 4.511 1 .034 .665 1.504 .456e.969
Intention to enter the teaching profession 1.231 .214 32.996 1 .000 3.425 2.250e5.212
Constant 1.643 .257 40.945 1 .000

Note. B ¼ regression coefficient; SE ¼ standard error; Wald ¼ Wald statistic; OR ¼ odds ratio; OR1 ¼ inverse odds ratio; 95% CI ¼ 95% confidence interval for the odds ratio.
Model Chi-square ¼ 61.062, p < .001; 2 Log likelihood ¼ 185.761; HosmereLemeshow Goodness-of-fit test ¼ 5.950, p ¼ .653; Nagelkerke R2 ¼ .36.
1628 I. Rots et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 26 (2010) 1619e1629
Fourth, the anticipated (negative) relationship between
employment opportunities and intention to enter teaching is also
confirmed. This is in line with evidence that a strong labour market
may decrease the motivation to opt for a teaching job (OECD, 2005).
Regarding our second research aim, logistic regression analysis
was performed. We were able to identify and develop a parsimo-
nious and robust statistical model predicting graduates’ actual job
entrance (teaching profession or not). As expected, student
teachers’ intention to enter teaching (reported shortly before
graduation) clearly predicts their actual entrance upon graduation.
Next, the presence of job alternatives appears to be negatively
related to graduates’ entrance into teaching. Finally, qualifying to
teach an expression subject (i.e., physical education or arts) reduces
the odds of entrance into teaching by almost a fifth. This may be due
to the fact that there are fewer teaching jobs available in physical
and arts education.
6. Conclusion
To conclude, the present study underpins our hypothetical
model regarding teacher education graduates’ intended and actual
entrance into the teaching profession. A key contribution of this
study to current literature is the fact that a prospective research
design was adopted that builds on two data collection phases. This
helped us guarantee construct validity of the variables measured
and allowed us to test the predictive relationship between nearly
graduates’ intention to enter the teaching profession and their
actual job entrance. Moreover, the consideration of several control
variables as well as cross-validation procedures verified the
robustness of the results.
However, there are some limitations to this study. First,
although the response rate at T1 (63.74%) and the retention rate
between the two time periods of data collection (57.57%) were
adequate and drop-out bias seems limited, it is not clear why
a proportion of respondents declined to (re)participate. Second,
there are factors outside the teacher education setting that addi-
tionally affect the (intended) entrance into the teaching profession.
Certain decisive factors might go beyond the influence of teacher
education institutes (e.g., job search behaviour, working conditions
of available jobs, and geographical influences). Third, path analysis
was based on cross-sectional data and therefore limits the ability to
make causal inferences. In accordance with our research aim and
driven by both theoretical predictions and the results of recent
empirical research, in this study the relationships between initial
motivation for teaching, teacher education, nearly graduates’ inte-
gration into teaching, teaching commitment, and intention to enter
teaching were approached in a unidirectional way, from the former
to the latter. We estimated a specific hypothetical model which
provided an acceptable fit to the data. Nevertheless, because our
study relies on cross-sectional data, we warn against rigid causal
interpretations. Particularly, the interpretation of the relationship
between ‘initial motivation for teaching’ (when starting teacher
education) and both ‘teaching commitment’ and ‘intention to enter
teaching’ (shortly before graduation) requires caution. Since these
questions were asked at the same time, it is possible that current
teaching commitment and intention to enter teaching affect
recollections about prior motivation for teaching. Future longitu-
dinal research is needed to further explore the direction of the
relationships found in this study. Fourth, since this study does not
include differences candidates bring to their teacher education
programme (e.g., in teaching skill or in general feelings of efficacy)
we cannot distinguish programme effects. However, this study does
show that student teachers’ (perception of) experiences during
teacher education (e.g., faculty support, mentor support, and
teacher education preparation) is positively related to their
teaching commitment and intention to enter the teaching profes-
sion as reported shortly before graduation. By controlling for the
training institute (included in the analysis as five dummy variables)
we ensured that these relationships in our final path model were
not an artefact of the specific teacher education programme.
Despite these limitations, the present study adds to previous
research by validating the relationship between teacher education
variables and (nearly graduated) student teachers’ teaching
commitment and intention to enter the teaching profession, even
when initial motivation and labour market factors are taken into
account. Moreover, our results offer empirical evidence that
student teachers’ intention to enter the teaching profession
(as reported shortly before graduation) is an imperative predictor of
their actual entrance.
Certainly, it is not only important to support student teachers in
acquiring the ‘technical’ knowledge and skills of teaching.
Becoming a teacher is also an emotional experience (Bullough &
Young, 2002; Hayes, 2003; Zembylas, 2003). During teacher
education, and particularly during the practical training, student
teachers’ sense of self as teacher is challenged (Bullough & Young,
2002). The guidance, support, follow-up, and feedback from
teacher educators and mentors are particularly important in order
to help student teachers “navigate the inevitably emotionally-
charged process of becoming a teacher” (Malderez et al., 2007,
p. 242) and to maintain their confidence, self-efficacy, and teaching
commitment. Therefore, these findings have important implica-
tions for teacher education and lend further support to calls for the
effective selection, preparation, and formal recognition of mentors,
and for the consistent professional development opportunities for
teacher educators.
Finally, following Rinke (2008), an elaboration of these quanti-
tative findings with in-depth qualitative research is recommended
(e.g., case studies of student teachers with both low and high
intention to enter the teaching profession) in order to contextualise
the factors identified as important. It would be particularly inter-
esting to develop a better understanding of student teachers’
sense-making of experiences and interactions during teacher
education and how this affects their motivation for the teaching
profession and their intention to enter this profession.
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