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Playwrights: Sophocles and Euripides created enduring theatrical b) The Second Triumvirate (43-33 BCE): primarily to
works. avenge Julius Caesar's assassination and eradicate his
- The Parthenon, a temple dedicated to the goddess enemies and to restore stability and eliminate opposition
Athena- iconic symbol of classical architecture. from the conspirators led by Brutus and Cassius.
- Literature and Drama: Homer, Aeschylus, Sophocles, - Octavian (later known as Augustus): Adopted son and
and Euripides heir of Julius Caesar, an astute statesman and military
leader.
Aeschylus: his works explored themes of divine retribution, - Mark Antony: A brilliant general and staunch supporter
justice, and the complexities of human nature, leaving a lasting of Caesar. (Lover of Cleopatra of Egypt)
impact on Greek drama. - Marcus Aemilius Lepidus: A skilled general and politician
- “The Persians" (472 BCE) - The only surviving Greek who initially aligned with Octavian and Antony
tragedy based on recent historical events, it explores the 3. Roman Law:
Persian defeat in the Battle of Salamis. - The Twelve Tables (450 BCE): The first written law code,
- "The Oresteia" (458 BCE) - A trilogy consisting of providing equal protection under the law for all Roman
"Agamemnon," "The Libation Bearers," and "The citizens.
Eumenides," focusing on the curse of the House of - The Corpus Juris Civilis: Compiled under Emperor
Atreus and the development of justice and law. Justinian I in the 6th century CE, it remained a foundation
Sophocles: introduced painted scenery and stage decorations, of European legal systems.
enhancing the visual aspects of Greek theater. 4. Roman Government:
- "Oedipus Rex" (c. 429 BCE) - The tragic tale of King - Senate: A governing body of aristocrats that advised and
Oedipus, who unknowingly fulfills a prophecy by killing influenced Roman leaders.
his father and marrying his mother. - Consuls: Two elected officials serving as the highest
- "Antigone" (c. 441 BCE) - The play deals with the conflict authority in the Roman Republic.
between civil obedience and familial duty when Antigone 5. Roman Engineering and Architecture
defies a decree to bury her brother. - Aqueducts: The Romans constructed extensive
Euripides: he emphasized the psychology and emotional turmoil networks of aqueducts to supply water to cities, ensuring
of his characters, paving the way for psychological realism in their growth and prosperity.
drama. - Roads and Highways: Roman roads were renowned for
- "Medea" (431 BCE) - A gripping tragedy that explores their durability and efficient transportation, facilitating
the revenge of Medea, the scorned wife of Jason. trade and military movement.
- "The Bacchae" (c. 405 BCE) - A play focusing on the 6. Architecture:
clash between Dionysus, the god of wine, and the - The Colosseum: An iconic amphitheater known for its
rational King Pentheus of Thebes. grandeur and capacity to hold thousands of spectators
Homer during gladiator games and other public spectacles.
- The Iliad: story of the Trojan War, a mythical conflict - The Pantheon: A magnificent temple known for its
between the Greeks and Trojans. impressive dome and lasting influence on later
- The Odyssey: the adventures of Odysseus, a Greek architectural styles.
hero, on his journey back home from the Trojan War. - Arch and Dome Construction:
Ancient Rome: 7. Roman Contributions to Language and Culture
-Founded by Romulus and Remus - Latin Language: became the official language of the
1. The Roman Republic: Roman Republic and later the Roman Empire.
• Rome transitioned from a monarchy to a republic around 8. Literature and Philosophy:
509 BCE. - Roman writers, such as Cicero, Virgil, and Ovid,
• The Roman Republic was governed by elected officials, produced enduring works that influenced Western
including consuls, senators, and assemblies. literature and thought.
2. The Triumvirates 9. Roman Mythology and Religion: Roman pantheon of
a) The First Triumvirate (60-53 BCE): The primary motives gods and goddesses heavily influenced religious
were to consolidate personal power, protect mutual practices in the Roman Empire.
interests, and bypass Senate resistance. 10. Roman Innovations and Technology
- Gaius Julius Caesar: A military general and ambitious - The Roman numeral system, which we still use today for
politician who aimed to strengthen his influence in certain purposes, was a significant contribution to
Roman politics. mathematics.
- Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey): An esteemed - Influence on Christianity: Rome's embrace of Christianity
military leader, renowned for his victories in the East. under Emperor Constantine significantly impacted the
spread and development of the religion.
Central and South American Civilizations: - Golden Age of India
a) Maya - Scholars like Aryabhata and Varahamihira made
- Located in the tropical lowlands of present-day Mexico, substantial strides in astronomy, and mathematical
Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador. innovations.
- Utilized slash-and-burn farming, along with advanced d) Aryabhata
irrigation techniques. - "Aryabhatiya," a comprehensive treatise written in verse
- Practiced bloodletting and human sacrifice as rituals to form. This work is divided into four chapters, covering
appease gods. various aspects of mathematics and astronomy.
b) Aztec - Introduced the concepts of sine (jya), cosine (kojya), and
- Thrived in the Valley of Mexico, with their capital city versine (utkrama-jya).
Tenochtitlan situated on an island in Lake Texcoco. - the use of zero as a placeholder and the decimal system
- Created chinampas (floating gardens) to maximize - Calculates the Earth's circumference, diameter, and the
agricultural output. duration of a day.
- Worshiped gods like Huitzilopochtli and Quetzalcoatl. - Developed a "siddhanta- a 60-year cycle known as the,"
c) Inca crucial for the prediction of eclipses.
- Occupied the Andean region of South America, spanning e) Varahamihira
present-day Peru, Ecuador, Chile, and parts of - Brihat Samhita: an encyclopedic treatise that covers a
Colombia, Bolivia, and Argentina. wide range of subjects, including astronomy, astrology,
- Mastered terrace farming on steep mountain slopes to geography, architecture, weather prediction, and more
grow crops like maize and potatoes. - Studied planetary movements, eclipses, and various
- Worshiped deities like Inti, the Sun God, and Viracocha, celestial phenomena, making accurate predictions
the Creator God. based on astronomical observations.
b. Religion and Philosophy: Hinduism, Buddhism, and
Ancient African Civilization: Jainism
Western African Empires a) Hinduism:
a) Ghana Empire - Emphasizes the concept of dharma (moral duty) and
- Soninke- first inhabitants in Ghana karma (law of cause and effect).
- Timbuktu- center of trade; Kumbu- capital city of Ghana - Believes in the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth
- Decline: Due to invasions (samsara).
b) Songhai Empire - Sacred texts include the Vedas, Upanishads, and
- Sonni Ali- founder of Songhai Empire Bhagavad Gita.
c) Mali Empire - Yoga and Meditation
- Sundiata Keita- founded Mali Empire
- Musa I- thoughts to be the richest person on earth b) Buddhism:
Eastern African Empires - Founded by Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha) in the 6th
a) Kush Empire century BCE.
- Meroe- the capital of Kush, thrived as a trade and iron- - Rejects the authority of the Vedas and the caste system.
smelting center. - Four Noble Truths: existence of suffering, its causes,
b) Aksum Empire- The empire is famous for its impressive cessation, and the path to end suffering (Eightfold Path).
obelisks - Emphasizes compassion, non-violence, and the Middle
Ancient India: Way.
a. The Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300–1300 BCE): c) Jainism:
- Harappan Civilization, was one of the world's earliest a) Founded by Mahavira in the 6th century BCE.
urban societies b) Emphasizes non-violence (ahimsa) and respect for all
- Pakistan and northwest India forms of life.
a) The Vedic Period (c. 1500–600 BCE): c) Believes in karma, rebirth, and liberation from the cycle
- An era when Indo-Aryans migrated to the Indian of birth and death (moksha).
subcontinent d) Five vows for ethical living: non-violence, truthfulness,
- Composed in the form of hymns and rituals, the Vedas, non-stealing, chastity, and non-possession.
the sacred texts of Hinduism
- Birth of the caste system: Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas D. The Medieval Period
(warriors), Vaishyas (merchants), and Shudras
(laborers) 1. Fall of the Western Roman Empire:
b) The Maurya Empire (c. 322–185 BCE): - Rome was sacked by barbaric Germans (Visigoths) led
- Chandragupta Maurya, the Maurya Empire became one by Odoacer
of the most powerful ancient Indian empires. - Mongol Empire: Genghis Khan, largest contiguous
empire, cultural exchange.
c) Gupta Empire (c. 320–550 CE): - Roman Empire is divided:
- Eastern Roman Empire- “Byzantine Empire” b) Michelangelo (1475-1564) Sistine Chapel
- Byzantine Empire: Ceiling,David, St. Peter's Basilica's dome in Vatican City
- Justinian- built the Hagia Sophia c) Raphael (1483-1520) The School of Athens, Madonna
- Emperor Constantine the Great (r. 306-337) founded del Granduca
Constantinople in 330 AD, which became the new capital 3. Science and Invention:
of the Eastern Roman Empire. (Modern day- Istanbul) a) Nicolaus Copernicus -Heliocentric model of the solar
- Invaded by the Seljuk Turks system
b) Galileo Galilei - astronomical observations and
Islamic Civilization supported the heliocentric model.
- Al Razi-greatest doctor in the Muslim world from 500 to c) Johannes Gutenberg- invention of the printing press
15000 AD 4. Literature and Language
- Al- Khwarizimi- father of Algebra - Dante Alighieri (1265-1321): The Divine Comedy
- One Thousand and One Nights- collection of Middle - Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1343-1400): The Canterbury Tales
Eastern folk tales. "Father of English Literature"
- William Shakespeare (1564-1616): "Romeo and Juliet,"
- Western Roman Empire- “Holy Roman Empire” "Hamlet," "Macbeth," and "A Midsummer Night's
c. Feudalism and the Rise of Kingdoms: Dream."
- Feudalism- Kings granted land to nobles in exchange for 5. Age of Exploration:
military service and loyalty. a) Christopher Columbus (1451-1506)
- kings, lords, knights, and peasants - Columbus reached the Caribbean islands, initially
d. Social Structure: The Three Estates: believing he had found a western route to Asia.
- The clergy- consisting of priests and monks, held b) Vasco da Gama (1460s-1524)
religious and intellectual authority. - Led the first successful sea route from Europe to India,
- The nobility- comprising lords and knights, controlled rounding the Cape of Good Hope.
land and exercised military power. - Finding a direct maritime route to India, Vasco da Gama
- The commoners- including peasants and artisans revolutionized the spice trade.
e. Architecture and Art: Romanesque and Gothic c) Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521)
architecture flourished, with magnificent cathedrals and - Led the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe
castles being built.
- Illuminated manuscripts and religious artwork, such as The Reformation: Challenging Religious Authority
stained-glass windows - Martin Luther and the Ninety-Five Theses
f. Literature and Philosophy: Epic poems like "Beowulf" - Spread of Protestantism and the formation of new
and literary works like Geoffrey Chaucer's "Canterbury Christian denominations
Tales" - The Thirty Years' War: A devastating conflict in Europe
- The works of philosophers like Thomas Aquinas merged - Peace of Westphalia and the emergence of the modern
classical thought with Christian theology. nation-state system
- The Crusades- a series of military campaigns aimed at
capturing the Holy Land from Muslim control. F. Enlightenment and Revolution
E. Renaissance and Reformation: The Enlightenment and Revolution period laid the groundwork for
modern democratic societies and challenged the traditional
- Renaissance as a rebirth of knowledge and cultural authority.
achievements 1. Rationalism: Emphasis on reason and critical thinking to
- The Reformation as a transformative movement solve societal problems.
challenging religious authority 2. Empiricism: A reliance on observation and evidence-
1. Humanism and the Arts based knowledge.
- Humanism and its focus on human potential, secularism, 3. Individualism: Valuing the rights and freedoms of
and classical learning individuals.
- Artistic achievements and the revival of classical 4. Secularism: Encouraging a separation of church and
aesthetics state.
- Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael 5. Progressivism: Belief in human progress through
Humanism: education and scientific advancements.
- Prominent humanists such as Petrarch and Erasmus laid Enlightenment Thinkers
the groundwork for the humanist movement. a. John Locke: Advocated for natural rights (life, liberty, and
2. Art and Artists property) and the idea of a social contract between the
a) Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) Mona Lisa,The Last government and the governed.
Supper
b. Voltaire: Championed freedom of speech and religious 3. Social Changes: The transformation of society, including
tolerance, and criticized religious intolerance and the rise of the middle class and the decline of agrarian-
superstition. based economies.
c. Montesquieu: Proposed the separation of powers within 4. Global Trade: Increased international trade due to
government to prevent abuses of power. surplus production and the need for resources.
d. Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Argued for direct democracy 5. Environmental Impact: Negative consequences, such as
and emphasized the importance of the "general will" of pollution and resource depletion, due to industrial
the people. activities.
e. Mary Wollstonecraft: Pioneered the feminist movement II. Imperialism is the policy of extending a nation's power
and advocated for women's rights and education. and influence through diplomatic, economic, or military
means to gain control over other territories or countries.
Influence on Politics: a. Causes of Imperialism:
- American Revolution (1775-1783): Inspired by 1. Economic Interests: Seeking new markets for goods and
Enlightenment ideals, the American colonies sought sources of cheap raw materials to fuel industrial growth.
independence from British rule. 2. Nationalism: Belief in the superiority of one's nation and
- French Revolution (1789-1799): Sparked by a desire the desire for expansion and dominance.
for liberty, equality, and fraternity, the French Revolution 3. Strategic Interests: Securing military bases and trade
led to significant social and political changes. routes for national security purposes.
4. Cultural Factors: Spreading cultural values, religion, and
G. Industrialization and Imperialism civilization to "less developed" regions.
I. Industrialization refers to the process of developing an 5. Rivalry and Competition: Nations vying for supremacy
economy based on the extensive use of machinery, and prestige in the international arena.
technological advancements, and the growth of b. Forms of Imperialism:
manufacturing industries. 1. Colonialism: Establishment and maintenance of colonies
for economic and strategic benefits.
Key Features of Industrialization: 2. Protectorates: Controlling a country's foreign policy while
leaving internal affairs to local rulers.
1. Mechanization: Introduction of machinery and 3. Spheres of Influence: Regions where a dominant nation
automation to replace manual labor in various industries, exerts significant economic and political influence
leading to increased production efficiency. without direct control.
2. Urbanization: Large numbers of people moving from 4. Economic Imperialism: Dominating another nation's
rural areas to cities in search of better job opportunities economy through investments and trade.
in factories and industries. c. Impact of Imperialism:
3. Division of Labor: Specialization of tasks, enabling 1. Exploitation: Colonized regions often faced economic
workers to become more efficient in their specific roles, exploitation, leading to the extraction of resources and
contributing to higher productivity. forced labor.
4. Mass Production: Techniques that allow the rapid 2. Cultural Exchange: Imperial powers brought their
production of goods in large quantities, reducing costs culture, language, and customs to the colonies, resulting
and making products more affordable for consumers. in cultural hybridization.
5. Infrastructure Development: Construction of 3. Globalization: Imperialism played a role in the
transportation networks, such as railways and roads, to interconnectedness of nations and the emergence of a
facilitate the movement of goods and raw materials. global economy.
Factors Driving Industrialization:
1. Technological Innovations: Inventions such as the steam H. World Wars and the Cold War
engine, spinning jenny, and power loom revolutionized
the manufacturing process. I. World War I (1914-1918)
2. Access to Raw Materials: Colonies and global trade Causes
provided access to abundant resources needed for - Long-term causes: Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism,
industrial production. Nationalism (MAIN).
3. Capital Investment: Accumulation of wealth and - The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of
investment in industries by entrepreneurs and capitalists. Austria triggered the war in 1914.
4. Skilled Labor Force: A growing population with skilled Major Events
workers willing to work in factories. - Trench warfare: Stalemate on the Western Front, with
Impact of Industrialization: heavy casualties.
1. Economic Growth: Led to increased production, higher - The United States entered the war in 1917, tilting the
GDP, and improved standards of living for many people. balance in favor of the Allies.
2. Urban Growth: The rise of industrial centers resulted in - Outcomes
urbanization and the growth of cities.
- The Treaty of Versailles: Imposed harsh penalties on The Modern Era has been a period of immense change, featuring
Germany, leading to long-term resentment. significant technological advancements, social transformations,
- The League of Nations was established to prevent future and geopolitical shifts.
conflicts, but its effectiveness was limited. - Decolonization: End of European empires,
independence movements.
II. World War II (1939-1945) - Civil Rights Movement: Fight against racial segregation
Causes and discrimination.
- Treaty of Versailles: The punitive terms contributed to
Germany's economic hardships and dissatisfaction.
- Expansionist policies of totalitarian regimes: Nazi
Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan sought
territorial gains.
Major Events
- German blitzkrieg tactics led to rapid territorial expansion
in Europe.
- The Holocaust: The systematic genocide of millions of
Jews and other minorities by the Nazis.
- The United States' entry into the war after the attack on
Pearl Harbor in 1941.
d. Outcomes
- The establishment of the United Nations, aiming for
international cooperation and peace.
- The division of Europe into the Eastern Bloc (led by the
Soviet Union) and the Western Bloc (led by the United
States).
I. Modern Era