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Dissolved Gas Analysis and its interpretation
techniques for Power Transformers
Adam Junid, Simin Li, Lingfeng Ni

October 21, 2008

Abstract
This report is an investigation on Dissolved Gas Analysis and its interpre-

tation techniques for power transformers. Aspects covered in this report

include sampling method guidelines, interpretation techniques and stan-

dards, results-based guidelines and recommendations. A case study is

used to demonstrate interpretation.

1
Acknowledgements:

We thank:

ˆ Dr Toan Phung for his help and explanations on ELEC9712 (High Voltage
System) topics

ˆ Zulkarnain Muhamad and Ahmad Zarir Makhtar from Petronas Gas Berhad
(CUF-Kerteh) for sharing practical DGA data and photos with us

ˆ Yee Yen Fu and Nor Azhar Saad from Asean Bintulu Fertilizer for sharing
DGA reports with us

2
Acronyms and Abbreviations

ANSI

American National Standards Institute, www.ansi.org

AS

Australian Standard, www.standards.org.au

ASTM

American Society for Testing and Materials

BS

British Standards

H2
Hydrogen

C 2 H2
Acetylene

C 2 H4
Ethylene

CH4
Methane

C 2 H6
Ethane

CM

Condition Monitoring

DG

Dissolved Gas

DGA

Dissolved Gas Analysis

3
HPLC

High Performance Liquid Chromatography [Duval et al, 1977]

LTC

Load Tap Changer

OLTC

On-Load Tap Changer

PD

Partial Discharge

ppm

Parts per million

TCG

Total Combustible Gas

TDCG

Total Dissolved Combustible Gas

4
Glossary

Condition Monitoring

The monitoring a parameter of condition in machinery, such that a signicant

change is indicative of a developing failure. It is a component of predictive
maintenance [Wikipedia, 2008b]

Dissolved Gas Analysis

A method of measuring dissolved gases in transformer oil in order to:

1. Deduce the operating condition of the transformer

2. Estimate a transformer's future safe operating range

3. Estimate probability of transformer failure

Fault Gases

Hydrogen, Methane, Ethane, Ethylene, Acetylene, Carbon Monoxide, Carbon

Dioxide; which are used in DGA to diagnose transformer faults. The degree
of hydrogen unsaturation of the molecule correlates to the amount of energy
released by the fault [Duval, 1989]

Fuller's Earth

A nonplastic clay or claylike earthy material used to purify mineral oil [Wikipedia, 2008d]

Furan

A colorless, ammable, highly volatile liquid with a boiling point of about 31.4
o
C; produced by thermal decomposition of cellulose [Wikipedia, 2008g]

Hot Metal Gases

Ethylene(C2 H4 ), Ethane (C2 H6 ), Methane (CH4 ); produced when transformer

oil contacts hot metal [Jakob et al, 2003]

On-Load Tap Changer

A Tap Changer that can be adjusted either manually or automatically while the
transformer is supplying power to loads

Pyrolysis

Thermal Decomposition [Wikipedia, 2008f]

5
(Beta) Scission

The initial step in the chemistry of thermal cracking of hydrocarbons and the
formation of free radicals [Wikipedia, 2008i]

Tap Changer

A mechanism for selecting a desired number of transformer windings to be used

X-Wax

Solid particles of carbon and other hydrocarbon products produced by trans-

former heat, partial discharge or arcing. Excessive X-Wax buildup along paper
insulation increases its dielectric dissipation factor and may result in excessive
heating and increased risk of fault occurence [IEC 60599, 2007, 4.1, 5.8].

6
Contents
1 Introduction 12
1.1 Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1.2 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

1.3 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2 Sampling 18
2.1 Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2.2 Oine sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2.3 Online sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2.3.1 Manual sampling while the transformer

is on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2.3.2 Continuous automated online sampling 19

2.4 Sampling periodicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2.5 DGA inaccuracy due to poor sampling tech-

nique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

3 Gas extraction and measurement 21

3.1 Extraction methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

3.2 Measurement equipment calibration . . . . . 21

3.3 DGA report guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

4 Interpretation techniques 23
4.1 Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

4.1.1 Roger's Ratio method . . . . . . . . . 24

4.1.2 IEC 60599 Ratios method . . . . . . . 25

4.1.3 IEEE (Key Gas) and Dornenburg

Ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

4.1.4 Duval Triangle Method . . . . . . . . . 28

4.1.5 Single ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

4.2 Relative diagnostic accuracies of DGA inter-

pretation techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

4.3 DGA inaccuracies due to low DG concentra-

tions and lab equipment error margins . . . . 31

4.4 Application to OLTCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

7
 4.5 Predicting fault locations within the trans-
former based on DGA results . . . . . . . . . 34

4.6 Headspace Fault Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

5 Case Study 35
5.1 Pre-trip DG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

5.2 Post-trip DG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

5.3 Duval Triangle method applied . . . . . . . . 36

5.4 Comparison with Youngblood (Cinergy) ratios 37

6 Future developments in DGA 39

6.1 Online continuous monitoring . . . . . . . . . 39

6.2 New analysis methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

6.3 New DGA interpretation techniques for biode-

gradeable oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

7 Conclusion 42

8
List of Figures
1. Figure 1: A chemcal bond diagram showing how (naphtenic) mineral oil,
under heat or arcing, breaks down to form hydrocarbon gases

2. Figure [IEC 60599, 2007]: Scission energies required to produce particular

carbon-carbon bonds in fault gases

3. Figure 3: Table of DGA Fault Gases, in order of energy required to pro-

duce them

4. Figure 4: Relative gas production with respect to oil temperature

5. Figure 5: Relative gas solubility with respect to temperature

6. Figure 6: Tables of dissolved Fault Gas ratios which indicate pyrolysis due
to overheating, partial discharge and arcing

7. Figure 7: Transformer oil sampling setup at drain point

8. Figure 8: Typical DGA sampling periodicity by utilities

9. Figure 10: Table of key gases used for particular DGA interpretations

10. Figure 9: Sampling syringe and 3-way valve set

11. Figure 11: Diagnostics using the Roger's Ratio approach

12. Figure 12: A owchart approach to Roger's Ratio diagnostics

13. Figure 13: IEC 60599 Dissolved Gas Ratio Diagnostics

14. Figure 14: Simplied diagnostics table for IEC 60599 interpretation

15. Figure 15: IEEE DGA diagnostic guidelines

16. Figure 16: IEEE denitions for transformer condition based on TDCG

17. Figure 17: IEEE recommendations for transformer operation and mainte-
nance action, based on TDCG

18. Figure 18: The Duval Triangle

19. Figure 19: Comparison table of DGA interpretation technique accuracy

20. Figure 20: Plot showing DG reading errors increase as DG concentrations

get lower for factory () and routine (-) testing

21. Figure 21: Table showing variations in laboratory reading errors for medium
and low DG concentrations

22. Figure 22: DG concentration limits for transformers and separate OLTC
tanks requiring attention

9
23. Figure 23: Cinergy Monthly Watch Criteria for DG in LTCs

24. Figure 24: Youngblood (Cinergy) 90th percentile Fault Gas Ratios

25. Figure 31: Graphical representation of IEC 60599 DGA ratios

26. Figure 25: 11kV pre-trip DG concentrations

27. Figure 26: 11kV post-trip DG concentrations

28. Figure 27:11kV DG concentration percentages

29. Figure 29: CUF-K 11kV transformer incident ratios (2008) compared to
Youngblood (Cinergy) 90th percentile Fault Gas Ratios

30. Figure 28: Duval Triangle applied to case study

C2 H4
31. Figure 30: Proposed graphical interpretation of IEC 60599
C2 H6 ratio
applied to biodegradeable oil

32. Figure 32: IEC 60599 DGA interpretation technique owchart

10
Standards and Recommended Practice
1. ANSI C57.104-1978: Guide for the detection and determination of gener-
ated gases in oil-immersed transformers and their relation to the service-
ability of the equipment

2. IEEE Std C57.104-1991: IEEE Guide for the Interpretation of Gases Gen-
erated in Oil-Immersed Transformers

3. IEC 60567, 2006, Oil-lled electrical equipment  Sampling of gases and

of oil for analysis of free and dissolved gases  Guidance

4. IEC 60599-1999: The Interpretation of Gases in Transformer and Other

Oil-lled Electrical Equipment in Service

11
1 Introduction
Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA) is a method of diagnosing faults
1 in electrical
equipment having oil as a conductor insulator [Wikipedia, 2008a]. It may also be
a good indicator of the likelihood [IEC 60599, 2007, 8.1.1] of transformer failure
[Duval, 1989, Figures 8 and 9]. DGA interpretation techniques have become so
sensitive and accurate that it has now become standard practice in transformer
acceptance [Waukesha Electric, 2004], maintenance programs involving online
CM [Wong, 2000, Osztermayer at al, 2003], and post-mortem equipment failure
studies [Schroeder, 2000].

This report focuses specically on DGA

2 and its interpretation techniques for
3
oil-insulated power transformers, including oil at tap changers . It also presents
sampling method guidelines, gas extraction practice, maintenance recommen-
dations
4 based on interpretation techniques, and case studies.

1.1 Concepts
Transformer insulating oil, whether paranic, naphthenic or aromatic contain
dissolved gases.

1 It is also used in transformer factory acceptance tests, both before, during and after a
heat run [IEC 60567, 2006, "Introduction"]
2 Analysis of Furans, although not part of this report because they are considered uids
[Wikipedia, 2008g] at standard temperature and pressure, are useful in predicting buildup of
X-Wax at paper insulation that could possibly lead a future fault [IEC 60599, 2007, 5.8]. Oil
additives such as oxidation inhibitors, and the eect of copper sludge has on oil conductivity
and tan δ are also not covered here.
3 Winding and tap-changer oil should ideally be contained separately to ease troubleshoot-
ing and fault location [Kramer, 2008, Reinhausen Grp, 2006].
4 See Figure 17

12
Figure 1: A chemcal bond diagram showing how (naphtenic) mineral oil,
under heat or arcing, breaks down to form hydrocarbon gases (Taken from
[Jakob, 2008, Slide 12])

The decomposition
5 (Figure 1) of transformer oil6 under heat or arcing result in
7 8 9
more Fault Gases produced and dissolved in the oil than were there originally
10
[Blackburn, 2008] . Both the amount and types of Fault Gases produced are

5 Also referred to as thermal breakdown [Wikipedia, 2008a, "Faults"]

6 There may be accompanying paper insulation breakdown (also referred to as cellulose
breakdown, or pyrolysis [Wikipedia, 2008f]), which result in Furanic compounds produced in
the oil, which can be interpreted using IEC 61198 to estimate the extent cellulose involvment
in the fault [IEC 60599, 2007, 4.2].
7 Often referred to as DGA Fault Gases (see Figure 3)
8 Gas volume production is nearly quadratic with voltage, and linear with arc duration
9 Until saturation limits are reached [Blackburn, 2008, Slide 5]
10 X-wax may also be produced [IEC 60599, 2007, 4.1: Decomposition of Oil]

13
 Bond type Scission energy required
C −H 338 kJ/mole
C −C 607 kJ/mole
C=C 720 kJ/mole

Figure 2: Scission energies required to produce particular carbon-carbon bonds

in fault gases [IEC 60599, 2007, 4.1].

related to the energy produced by the fault (Figure 2).

The quantifying and historical trending of these Fault Gas ratios with respect
to industry-wide interpretation guidelines are the basis of DGA interpretation
[Jakob et al, 2003].

Key Fault Gas Indication

H2
Hydrogen Partial Discharge, Heating, Arcing
EthyleneC2 H4 , Ethane C2 H6 , Methane CH4 Hot metal
Acetylene C2 H2 Arcing
Carbon Monoxide CO , Carbon Dioxide CO2 Cellulose insulation degradation

Figure 3: Table of DGA Fault Gases, in order of energy required to produce

them (Taken from [Jakob et al, 2003, Table 2])

By having baseline records and trending of DG content, transformer operators

and owners would have a good indication how much their transformer oil has
deteriorated, either due to age, overheating (see Figure 4), arcing or external
water ingress.

14
Figure 4: Relative gas production with respect to oil temperature (Taken from
[Blackburn, 2008, Slide 13])

DGA is typically done by:

1. Taking an oil sample,

2. Quantifying gas content by using techniques such as liquid chromatogra-

phy [Wikipedia, 2008e], and

3. Correlating the results

11 with known standards and Fault Gas12 ratio13
guidelines to gauge the transformer's internal condition

11 This may include headspace Fault Gas results (see Section 4.6), should the suspect fault
be large enough to produce large enough Fault Gas volume
12 The degree of hydrogen unsaturation of the molecule correlates to the amount of energy
released by the fault [Duval, 1989]
13 Gas ratios are used because Fault Gas solubility with respect to oil temperature relative
to one another appears reasonably constant (see Figure 5). Thus DGA samples may be taken
even when the transformer has cooled and their relative ratios would remain similar.

15
Figure 5: Relative gas solubility with respect to temperature (Taken from
[Blackburn, 2008, Slide 6])

1.2 Applications
DGA concepts are applied to assess oil which insulates conductors, such as
transformer cores and windings, and oil-insulated cables. By using DGA tech-
niques, information about the equipment from which the oil sample was taken
from can be deduced, e.g. has there been overheating (see Figure 4
14 ), has there
been internal arcing within the oil (see Figure 6), has there been atmospheric
ingress. Such DGA interpretations would then be applied to estimate:

1. The transformer's most recent operating condition,

2. How much derating (or uprating) it should (or could) be safely operated
at in its remaining condition, and

3. How soon the next transformer oil change, ltering, Fuller's Earth treat-
ment or inspection should be.

14 There are also other sources of gas production, such as from newly facbricated steel and
via reaction of steel with water in the oil [IEC 60599, 2007, 4.3]

16
 Pyrolysis Ratios PD Ratios
EthyleneC 2 H4 60% Hydrogen H2 85%
Ethane C2 H6 20% Methane CH4 5%
Methane CH4 20% Ethane C2 H6 5%

Arcing Ratios
Acetylene C2 H2 30%
Hydrogen H2 60%
Methane CH4 5%
Ethylene C2 H4 5%

Figure 6: Tables of dissolved Fault Gas ratios which indicate pyrolysis due to
overheating, partial discharge and arcing (Taken from [Blackburn, 2008, Slide
16])

1.3 History
DGA has been used for transformer routine monitoring since the late 1960s
[Duval, 1989]. In 2003, it was estimated that about a million DGA tests were
done annually at laboratories worldwide [Duval et al, 2003]
15 .

15 This averages to more than 10 DGAs per minute, or > 1 DGA every 6 seconds

17
2 Sampling
2.1 Guidelines
Transformer operators may obtain gas samples from the gas relays (or Buchholz
relays), but for more accurate and early diagnosis [Wikipedia, 2008a, "Usage"],
DGA by careful oil sampling, gas extraction
16 [Duval et al, 2003] and chro-
matography is recommended. In all cases, sampling should not endanger the
operation of the equipment [IEC 60567, 2006, 4.1].

2.2 Oine sampling

ASTM D3613 requires that transformer oil sampling be taken via a syringe
[POA, 2007] and stopcock system [Duval, 1989] from a mineral-oil insulated
transformer's drain point to ensure no oil contact with air.

Figure 7: Transformer oil sampling setup at drain point (Taken from

[Alamo Transformer, 2008])

To minimise air ingress, it is important that the syringe not be pulled forcefully,
i.e. the transformer oil's natural gravity ow should be allowed to work the oil
into the syringe [NTT, 2001a].

16 Internationally recognized standards for gas extraction from oil samples are IEC 60567
(see Section 3.1) and ASTM D3612.

18
2.3 Online sampling
2.3.1 Manual sampling while the transformer is on

Some oil-sampling contractors can obtain oil-samples from live transformers for
DGA [IET, 2008], subject to transformer owner clearance of such practice.

2.3.2 Continuous automated online sampling

There are also manufacturers oering automated online sampling equipment for
undissolved gases [Kelman, 2005-8]. However the gases such equipment detect
from the headspace or Buchholz (gas) relay and are not dissolved, limiting the
rapidity of this CM diagnostic.

Continuous automated online sampling of DG oers cutting edge DGA CM

accuracy and diagnostics. This is addressed in Section 6.1.

2.4 Sampling periodicity

For new, overhauled, repaired, or newly oil-ltered transformers, a recommended
monthly sampling periodicity may be increased or decreased, depending on
whether DGA results show that gas content is stabilizing [Wikipedia, 2008a,
"Monitoring"]. Once the DGA concentrations have acceptably stabilized, the
transformer operator may commence monitoring every one or two years. Some
examples of DGA periodicity practiced are as follows:

Operator Periodicity
NGC UK (1998) Annually [Esp et al, 1998]
Petronas CUF-K (2008) Annually [Makhtar et al, 2008]
Petronas MCOT (2004) Pending oil dielectric test per 2 years [Makhtar et al, 2008]
Shell (2000) Pending dielectric test per 4 yrs; nonsealed units [Shell, 2000]
Syprotec (1995) Annually [Gibeault et al, 1995]
Transgrid (2008) Annually [Transgrid, 2007]

Figure 8: Typical DGA sampling periodicity by utilities

2.5 DGA inaccuracy due to poor sampling technique

DGA readings may be skewed by poor sampling technique, which the sampling
operator must guard against, e.g.:

1. Contaminated oil sample containers [IET, 2008]

19
 2. Not allowing some oil to ow to clean the drain valve piping before taking
a sample [NTT, 2001a]
17

3. Exposing the oil to sunlight [IEC 60567, 2006, 4.1]

4. Bubble in the syringe sample, in which case resampling is recommended

[IEC 60567, 2006, 4.2.2]

5. Pre-existing oxygen in the sample [IEC 60599, 2007, 4.3]

Figure 9: Sampling syringe and 3-way valve set (Taken from [NTT, 2008b])

17 Oil at the bottom of the tank may also be more susceptible to contaminants & dierent
DG levels [Ward, 2003]

20
3 Gas extraction and measurement
3.1 Extraction methods
Gas extraction methods specied in IEC 60567 include [IEC 60567, 2006, "Scope"]:

ˆ Extraction by vacuum

ˆ Extraction by displacement of the dissolved gases by bubbling a carrier

gas through the oil sample (stripping)

ˆ Extraction by partitioning of gases between the oil sample and a small

volume of the carrier gas at the head space

3.2 Measurement equipment calibration

Chromatography equipment accuracy is veried and corrected by measuring
gas content from calibrated gassed oil samples, known as gas-in-oil samples.
Trained and competent personnel are required to maintain the calibration of
DGA extraction and chromatography equipment, which require re-calibration
[IEC 60567, 2006, 8.6] prior to each sample and linearity checks [IEC 60567, 2006,
9.1] every 6 months or following changes in apparatus or operating conditions.
Given that dierent labs have been known to report dierent DGA quantities

for the sample oil sample, each DGA lab report should include the accuracy
margins of the lab equipment used [Duval et al, 2005].

3.3 DGA report guidelines

IEC 60559 recommends that DGA interpretation reports should contain the
following [IEC 60599, 2007, 10.]:

1. Method of DGA

2. DG lab equipment sensitivity thresholds and accuracy

3. Transformer date of commissioning, rated voltage and power, sealed or

vented, OLTC type, make and model

4. Oil volume, sampling date and location

5. Special incidents just before the sampling, e.g. tripping, alarm, repair,
degassing, outage

6. Previous DGA results on the transformer

7. Indication of typical DG values for the equipment, inlcuding healthy and

fault values, and identication of the previous fault types

8. Recommended action, e.g.:

21
(a) Revised oil sampling frequency
CO2
(b) Furanic compound analysis if
CO < 3
(c) Other tests, inspections or maintenance

22
4 Interpretation techniques
4.1 Guidelines
DGA interpretation techniques take into account the amounts of Key Gases
[Blackburn, 2008, "Analysis"] (see Figure 10) found in oil samples (in ppm) and
their relative ratios to each other to arrive at conclusions about the transformer
condition. These techniques include empirical approaches such as Roger's Ra-
tios (IEEE - 1978)
18 , IEC 60599 Ratios [Blackburn, 2008], IEEE 57.104 Ratios
19
[Jakob, 2008] , and graphical methods such as the Duval Triangle.

Key Fault Gases Interpretation applied

C2 H4 , C2 H6 , CH4 , H2 Thermal Fault: Overheated oil
CO2 , CO Thermal Fault: Overheated cellulose
H2 , CH4 , C2 H6 , C2 H4 Electrical Fault, PD in Oil
H2 , C2 H2 , C2 H2 , CH4 , C2 H6 Arcing In Oil

Figure 10: Table of key gases used for particular DGA interpretations (Taken
from [Blackburn, 2008, "Analysis"])

The following gas ratio methods work best with diaphragm or hermetically
sealed transformers. Kan et al has also noted its applicability to nitrogen sealed
transformers with N2 replenishment, because release of fault gases are infrequent
enough to treat the gas mixtures as being in equilibrium within the transformer
[Kan et al, 1995, "CO2/CO value for transformers with gas space above oil",]
20 .
It would be less accurate
21 for transformers with open type conservators because:

1. The diusion rate of H2 would be faster than the heavier Fault Gases

2. O2 entering the transformer would aect the insulation paper's character-

istics in terms of CO and CO2 retention [Kan et al, 1995, "Cases where
CO/CO2 method does not apply",].

To obtain data related to the transformer's most recent fault, the most recent
DGA results should have gas concentrations from previous DGA results sub-
tracted from it [IEC 60599, 2007, 6.1].

18 Roger's Ratios originated from the Doernenburg method [Serveron, 2007, p8]
19 Also known as the Key Gas Method [Serveron, 2007, Table 3, p4]
20 Although it has been argued that the headspace gases are aected by headspace purging
[Woolley et al, 2994]
21 IEC60599 mentions there is no agreement yet on adjustment techniques to account for
gases esacping to the atmophere for ventilated transformers [IEC 60599, 2007, 6.1]

23
4.1.1 Roger's Ratio method

Based on ratios of particular fault gases, a diagnostics summary using Roger's

Ratios [Rogers, 1975]
22 is as follows23 :

C2 H6 C2 H4 C2 H2
CH4 C2 H6 C2 H4 Diagnosis
R < 10 R < 1 R < 0 Normal deterioration
R < 1 R < 1 R < 0.5 PD activity
o
R < 1 R < 1 R < 0.5 Heating to 150 C
o
R > 1 R < 1 R < 0.5 Heating 150 - 300 C
R < 1 1 < R < 3 R < 0.5 Winding circulating current and overheating
R < 1 R > 3 R < 0.5 Overheated contacts
R < 1 R < 1 0.5 < R < 3 Transient arcing
R < 1 R > 1 R > 0.5 Transient arcing at power frequency
R < 1 R > 3 R > 3.0 Continuous sparking
R < 1 R < 1 R > 0.5 PD and tracking

Figure 11: Diagnostics using the Roger's Ratio approach (Taken from
[Blackburn, 2008, Slide 20])

A manually faster approach to Roger's Ratio diagnostics may be done using the
following Roger's Ratio owchart [Jakob, 2008, Slide 26]:

22 Also found in Table 7 of ANSI/IEEE C57.104-1978

23 For DGA diagnosis involving single ratios of CO2 , see Section 4.1.5.
CO

24
Figure 12: A owchart approach to Roger's Ratio diagnostics (Taken from
[Jakob, 2008, Slide 26])

4.1.2 IEC 60599 Ratios method

IEC 60599 has a similar diagnostic approach, using dissolved gas ratios [IEC 60599, 2007,
5.3 (Table 2), 9, Figure 1]
24 :

The IEC 60599 ratios in Figure 13 above should only apply if one of the gas
concentrations exceeds typical values [IEC 60599, 2007, 5.3, Table 2 and 6.1c].
The ratios may also be reproduced in a twin square, graphical format (Figure
31, Appendix). In some cases, no diagnosis may be forthcoming from the above

table, in which case a simplied diagnostics table may be applied:

24 IEC 60599 [Duval et al, 2001] also species that: (a) Faults are considered active if DG
rates continue to rise at 10% per month for hermetically sealed transformers [IEC 60599, 2007,
8.4]; and (b) Higher DG rates of increase such as 50% per week are considered very serious.

25
Figure 13: IEC 60599 Dissolved Gas Ratio Diagnostics (Taken from
[Miranda et al, 2005, Table II])

C2 H2 CH4 C2 H4
Case C2 H4 H2 C2 H6
Partial Discharge < 0.2
Discharge (Arcing) > 0.2
Thermal fault < 0.2

Figure 14: Simplied diagnostics table for IEC 60599 interpretation

[IEC 60599, 2007, Table 3].

For TDCG baseline acceptance criteria, IEC 60599 allows transformer opera-
tors to set their own thresholds, based on forensic evidence [IEC 60599, 2007,
8.2]. IEC 60599 also presents an overall owchart for its DGA interpretation,
reproduced in Figure 32, Appendix.

4.1.3 IEEE (Key Gas) and Dornenburg Ratios

IEEE 57.104 also has a set of ratios for DG and headspace gas
25 diagnostics
26
that borrows from the Dornenburg method :

25 Fault Gases from may help asses the size of a recent large fault [IEC 60567, 2006, "In-
troduction"]. Headspace Fault Gas analysis is addressed more completely in IEC 60599
[IEC 60599, 2007, 7.]which uses Ostwald coecients to convert headspace Fault Gas con-
centrations to a DG equivalent.
26 Found in Tables 5 and 6 of ANSI/IEEE 57.104-1978

26
Figure 15: IEEE DGA diagnostic guidelines (Taken from [Jakob, 2008, Slide
29])

In addition, based on TDCG, IEEE 57.104 includes condition denitions (Figure

16) and maintenance guidelines (Figure 17).

Figure 16: IEEE denitions for transformer condition based on TDCG (Taken
from[Jakob, 2008, Slide 33])

DG concentration ratios below the above threshold values do not necessarily

mean no fault is present, such results merely mean that the concentration values
are not high enough to be able to estimate probabilities of an incipient fault
[IEC 60599, 2007, 8.2.1, 8.3].

27
Figure 17: IEEE recommendations for transformer operation and maintenance
action, based on TDCG (Taken from [Jakob, 2008, Slide 34])

For new transformer oil TDCG baseline acceptance criteria, both IEC and
IEEE guidelines allow the transformer operators to set their own thresholds
[Jakob, 2008, Slide 31].

4.1.4 Duval Triangle Method27

A popular [Bandhopadhyay, 2006, Field et al, 2002] method that has been noted
to be more accurate [Serveron, 2007, Table 7, p10]
28 than the above three,
the Duval triangle
29 provides DGA fault diagnosis simply based on relative
percentages of CH4 , C2 H4 and C2 H2 , where the fault codes are [Delta-X, 2008]:

ˆ PD : Partial discharge

27 Found in Appendix B of IEC 60599-1991 [Delta-X, 2008]

28 Caveats to this accuracy [Delta-X, 2008] : (a) Because extremely low levels are related to
decreases in detection accuracy, detected gases involved in the triangle should be reasonably
above the detection limit; (b) Existing gases that were detected in the original oil sample
(during baseline sampling or before a suspect fault) should be subtracted out from the sample
percentages to be substituted into the triangle.
29 Developed by Michael Duval of Hydro Quebec [Bandhopadhyay, 2006]

28
ˆ T1 : Low-range thermal fault (below 300
o
C)
ˆ T2 : Medium-range thermal fault (300-700
o
C)
ˆ T3 : High-range thermal fault (above 700
o
C)

ˆ D1 : Low-energy electrical discharge

ˆ D2 : High-energy electrical discharge

ˆ DT : Indeterminate - thermal fault or electrical discharge

Figure 18: The Duval Triangle (Taken from [Blackburn, 2008, Slide 22])

29
4.1.5 Single ratios
CO2 30 O2 31 C2 H2 32
, and ratios may indicate paper insulation involvement in
CO N2 H2
faults, excessive heating or contamination by OLTC oil respectively [Serveron, 2007,
CO2 O2
p11]. However, the diagnosis accuracy of
CO and N2 have been disputed.

The
CO2 33 because of its temperature depen-
CO ratio is particularly nebulous
dency and CO2 's higher absorption rate into insulation paper relative to CO
at higher temperatures [Kan et al, 1994, 5. Conclusion]. For example, one nor-
CO2 CO2
mal
CO range has been dened as > 7, with CO < 3 [IEC 60599, 2007, 5.4:
CO2/CO ratio]indicating severe overheating of paper insulation [Jakob, 2008,
Slide 28]. However, studies by Kan et al have proposed that incipient faults may
CO2
actually be occuring at
CO ratios < 10 because CO2 gets absorbed into insulat-
ing the paper [Kan et al, 1995] at higher temperatures, depriving DGA samples
CO2
of a representative CO2 concentration. In addition to the
CO temperature de-
CO2
pendence skew, Kan et al also noted that a
CO ratio method: (a) cannot apply
accurately to new transformer oil for the rst six months because of a lack of
chemical equilibrium, and (b) cannot apply accurately to naturally circulated oil
because of the greater likelihood of localised hotspots [Kan et al, 1995, "Cases
where CO2/CO method does not apply",].

O2
When applying the
N2 ratio, it must be noted that ransformers that have not
been Nitrogen-purged may have signicant amount of Oxygen already inside
O2
[Woolley et al, 2994]. A
N ratio of < 3 may indicates excessive oxygen con-
2
sumption within the transformer [IEC 60599, 2007, 5.5].

IEC 60599 also noted that transformers with breahing apparatus (i.e. non-
hermetically sealed transformers) may have CO2 coming in from external air
that could falsify diagnostic results [IEC 60599, 2007, 5.4].

CO2 O2
In short, DGA involving these single ratios of
CO and N2 must be supplemented
by one of the methods mentioned in Section 4.1.

4.2 Relative diagnostic accuracies of DGA interpretation

techniques
Case studies using the IEEE Key Gases approach have shown that [Serveron, 2007,
p5]:

1. There can be high rates of incorrect diagnosis

30 This ratio has been noted to vary depending on transformer model and its operational
mode [Failhauer et al, 2006]. Due to a lack of diagnostic consistency or distinguishable pat-
CO2
terns, the ratio was removed from a data mining technique by Esp et al [Esp et al, 1998].
CO
31 Transformers that have not been Nitrogen-purged may have signicant amount of Oxygen
already inside [Woolley et al, 2994]
32 C2 H2 ratios higher than 2 or 3 in the main tank indicates oil contamination from the
H2
OLTC tank [IEC 60599, 2007, 5.5]
33 It has also been shown that CO2 levels in headspace can uctuate by up to 500ppm per
day [Ward et al, 2000], depending on transformer loading.

30
 2. Some gas combinations do not t into the specied range of values and
thus a diagnosis of the fault type cannot be given

Studies of DGA technique relative accuracies have shown that the Duval Tri-
angle method has relatively good consistency and accuracy when taking into ac-
count cases that are undiagnosable by the other methods [Muhamad et al, 2007].

Method % No Diagnoses % Wrong Diagnoses

IEEE Key Gas Method 0 58
IEEE Rogers Ratios 33 35
Dornenburg Ratios 26 3
IEC Basic Gas Ratios 15 8
IECDuval Triangle 0 4

Figure 19: Comparison table of DGA interpretation technique accuracy (Taken

from [Duval et al, 2005, Table 3])

Although the Dornenburg method appears more accurate than the Rogers,
Thang et al noted that [Thang et al, 2000]:

ˆ Although Dornenburg's method appears relatively more accurate, it is also

more susceptible to a non-interpretation result.

ˆ Although the Duval Triangle oers relative greater accuracy, it forces the
user into a transformer fault diagnosis because it has no area to account
for gase ratios due to operational aging. Thus the Duval triangle should
only be applied after the gases have been scrutinized for normalcy.

4.3 DGA inaccuracies due to low DG concentrations and

lab equipment error margins
IEC 60567 [IEC 60567, 2006, Table 5], IEC 60599 [IEC 60599, 2007, 6.2] and
studies by Duval et al have noted that DG volume reading inaccuracies increase
at very low concentrations of DG [Duval et al, 2005]:

31
Figure 20: Plot showing DG reading errors increase as DG concentrations get
lower for factory () and routine (-) testing (Taken from [Duval et al, 2005,
Figure 1])

However, correction factors may be applied to minimise this [Duval et al, 2005].
Duval et al also noted that DG reading errors for controlled medium and low DG
concentration oil samples varied signicantly from laboratory to laboratory
34 :

At medium gas concentrations At low gas concentrations

Best lab ±3% ±22%
Average ±15% ±30%
Worst lab ±65% ±64%

Figure 21: Table showing variations in laboratory reading errors for medium
and low DG concentrations (Taken from [Duval et al, 2005, Table 2])

34 IEC 60567 [IEC 60567, 2006, 9.3]mentions methods of how to minimize this, including
the storage of oil samples in fridges

32
To reduce the likelihoods of false readings resulting in incorrect DGA diag-
nosis
35 , both IEC 60567 [IEC 60567, 2006, 10] and Duval et al recommend
that DGA laboratories publish their lab's accuracy gures on all test reports
[Duval et al, 2005].

4.4 Application to OLTCs

The DG production pattern in an OLTC oil tank is dierent from that of the
main tank.
C2 H2
For example, more Acetylene (
36 (see Section
H2 ) is produced
4.1.5). DG concentration limits for untight OLTCs that may require attention
have been presented by Blackburn [Blackburn, 2008, Slide 14]:

Fault Gas Transformer OLTC

Hydrogen (H2 ) 60 - 150 75 - 150
Carbon Monoxide (CO) 540 - 900 400 - 850
Carbon Dioxide (CO2 ) 5100 - 13000 5300 - 12000
Methane (CH4 ) 40 - 110 35 - 130
Ethane (C2 H6 ) 50 - 90 50 - 70
Ethylene (C2 H4 ) 60 - 280 110 - 250
Acetylene (C2 H2 ) 3 - 50 80 - 270

Figure 22: DG concentration limits for transformers and separate OLTC tanks
requiring attention (Taken from [Blackburn, 2008, Slide 14])

Guidelines also exist from CM consultants (Figure ) as well as CM contractors,

who provide model-specic [Jakob et al, 2008, Slides 21-22]DG concentration
limits for OLTCs.

LTC type Hydrogen H2 Acetylene C2 H2 Ethylene C 2 H4

Vented > 1500 ppm > 1000 ppm > 1000 ppm
Sealed > 5000 ppm > 9000 ppm > 12000 ppm
Vacuum > 10 ppm > 5 ppm > 100 ppm

Figure 23: Cinergy Monthly Watch Criteria for DG in LTCs (Taken from
[Jakob et al, 2008, Slide 19])

35 Incorrect DGA diagnosis would also result in unnecessary downtime and resources wasted
to inspect a transformer [Duval et al, 2005]
36 C2 H2 ratios higher than 2 or 3 in the main tank indicates oil contamination from the
H2
OLTC tank [IEC 60599, 2007, 5.5]

33
Youngblood et al of Cinergy have also provided LTC DGA ratio limits based
on empirical data [Youngblood, 2003]:

Gas ratio Limit

Ethylene(C2 H4 )
0.3378
Acetylene(C2 H2 )
Ethylene(C2 H4 )
0.500
Acetylene(C2 H2 )+Hydrogen(H2 )
Ethylene(C2 H4 )+Ethane(C2 H6 )+M ethane(CH4 )
0.9157
Acetylene(C2 H2 )+Hydrogen(H2 )
Ethane(C2 H6 )
0.2067
M ethane(CH4 )
Ethylene(C2 H4 )
4.83
Ethane(C2 H6 )

Figure 24: 90th percentile Fault Gas Ratios (Taken from [Jakob et al, 2003])

4.5 Predicting fault locations within the transformer based

on DGA results
In general, once DGA DG concentration and ratio limits indicate an increas-
ing faults within the transformer, operators will arrange for the transformer
shutdown and inspection. Often the inspection may take weeks because the
fault may not be visually apparent upon detailed winding and core inspection
[Makhtar et al, 2008]. Given that equivalent heat areas of transformer cores

and winding dier, some work has been done by Zama et al on estimating the
C 2 H4
likelihood of the fault lying in the windings or the core, based on
C2 H6 ratioss
[Zama et al, 2008, Part F].

4.6 Headspace Fault Gas

Analysis of headspace gas collected from transformer Buchholz or gas relays
for analysis [Wikipedia, 2008c] are technically not part of DGA, since they
are not dissolved, and are aected by headspace purging [Woolley et al, 2994]
and solubility equilibrium uctutations that may only stabilise after 15 hours
[Ward et al, 2000]. However, excess Fault Gases from this headspace may be
helpful in assessing the size of a recent fault [IEC 60567, 2006, "Introduction"].
Headspace Fault Gas analysis is partially addressed in Figure 15, and more
completely in IEC 60599 [IEC 60599, 2007, 7.]which uses Ostwald coecients
to convert headspace Fault Gas concentrations to a DG equivalent.

34
5 Case Study
A case study involving an 11kV transformer
37 trip at in 2008 is referred [Makhtar et al, 2008].
Pre and post trip DG results are presented, and an interpretation suggested via
application of the Duval Triangle method.

5.1 Pre-trip DG
DG concentrations from a sample taken on 28 March 2008 are as follows:

Figure 25: 11kV pre-trip DG concentrations (Taken from [Makhtar et al, 2008]).

5.2 Post-trip DG
DG concentrations from a sample taken on 8 July 2008 after a trip incident are
as follows:
37 Transformer is sealed but not Nitrogen packed, and has on o-circuit LTC in the same oil
compartment as the transformer main winding [Makhtar et al, 2008].

35
Figure 26: 11kV post-trip DG concentrations (Taken from
[Makhtar et al, 2008]).

5.3 Duval Triangle method applied

Tabulating the above results,

Gas 4ppm %
Methane (CH4 ) 546-2=544 34.4
Ethylene(C2 H4 ) 430 27.1
Acetylene (C2 H2 ) 607 38.4

Figure 27: 11kV DG concentration percentages (Taken from

[Makhtar et al, 2008]).

and plotting the intersects,

36
Figure 28: Duval Triangle applied to case study (Taken from
[Makhtar et al, 2008]).

we obtain a Duval Triangle that suggests a D2 Fault: High energy arcing with
power follow-through, and possible carbonization and metal fusion [IEC 60599, 2007,
5.2].

5.4 Comparison with Youngblood (Cinergy) ratios

The post-incident DG concentration ratios are compared to failure probability
ratios given by Youngblood (Cinergy):

37
 Gas ratio Limit Pre-incident Post-incident Pf ailure
Ethylene(C2 H4 ) N IL
0.3378 0.708 210%
Acetylene(C2 H2 ) N IL
Ethylene(C2 H4 )
0.500 0 0.878 176%
Acetylene(C2 H2 )+Hydrogen(H2 )
Ethylene(C2 H4 )+Ethane(C2 H6 )+M ethane(CH4 )
0.9157 0.004 0.205 22.3%
Acetylene(C2 H2 )+Hydrogen(H2 )
Ethane(C2 H6 )
0.2067 0 0.051 24.7%
M ethane(CH4 )
Ethylene(C2 H4 )
4.83 0 15.36 318%
Ethane(C2 H6 )

Figure 29: CUF-K 11kV transformer incident ratios (2008) compared

to Youngblood (Cinergy) 90th percentile Fault Gas Ratios (Taken from
[Jakob et al, 2003] and [Makhtar et al, 2008])

38
6 Future developments in DGA
Some future developments in DGA include [Blackburn, 2008, Slide 33]:

ˆ Online continuous monitoring that is more reliable and aordable

ˆ New analysis methods involving gases with C3 bonds

ˆ New DGA interpretation techniques for biodegradeable oil

6.1 Online continuous monitoring

Although not yet widespread, online DGA monitoring systems have been in
use
38 since 1980 [Yamada et al, 1981]. Advantages include [Lindgren, 2003, Side
20]:

1. Theoretically more accurate diagnosis, including better resolution of rates

of DG, e.g. to discriminate between faults and contamination by OLTC
oil

2. The ability to uprate individual transformers and run it closer to thermal

limits

3. Since lab DGA often contains air, online monitoring will have much better
resolution of actual air leaks in the transformer

4. Possible capture of DG at higher temperature solubility limits, thus negat-

ing the eects of DGA inaccuracy at low DG concentration levels (see
Figure 20)

5. Lower-cost online or portable dissolved hydrogen concentration monitors

being used to decide whether a complete DGA is necessary [Belanger et al, 1977]

Some disadvantages are that [Duval et al, 2003, "On-Line Monitoring Devices"]:

1. Many of the online DGA monitors mentioned in [Duval et al, 2003, Table
VI] do not detect all Fault Gases, i.e. they detect mainly H2 , C2 H2 , CHX ,
CO , CO2 which ag arcing faults well, but are less eective for detecting
low and medium overheating

2. Being mostly located outdoors, they may have have poorer maintenance,
resulting in poorer accuracy relative to indoor DGA lab equipment

3. Detection responses for online DGA monitors utilising fuel cells are dier-
ent for each Fault Gas

4. Engineers are still challenged to produce online DGA monitoring devices

that are accurate, reliable and economical

Online DGA systems should use one of the more accurate extraction [Duval et al, 2003]
and diagnostic techniques mentioned in Section 4.1 [Serveron, 2007, p11-12].

38 Duval in 2003 estimated that about 18000 online DGA monitors had been installed world-
wide [Duval et al, 2003].

39
6.2 New analysis methods
The DGA interpretation techniques mentioned in Section 4 utilize DG ratios
involving C1 and C2 bonds. However, IEC 60599 mentions that more precise
analysis methods are possible if the DG ratios involving C3 bonds are scruti-
nized as well [IEC 60599, 2007, 5.7]. This implies that methods such as the
Duval Triangle (Section 4.1.4) could be modied and rened to involve an anal-
ogous, square shaped percentage-ratio-reference chart, given enough forensic
DGA data [IEC 60599, 2007, 8.1.2] to verify the chart's demarcations and diag-
nostic accuracy.

6.3 New DGA interpretation techniques for biodegrade-

able oil
Studies have shown that biodegradeable oils tend to release about three times
more ethane (C2 H6 ) than mineral oil during thermal heating tests. This would
result in IEC 60599 DGA interpretations having to be modied for biodegrade-
C2 H4
able oils, in particular, the
C2 H6 ratio:

40
 C 2 H4
Figure 30: Proposed graphical interpretation of IEC 60599
C2 H6 ratio applied
to biodegradeable oil (Taken from [IEC 60599, 2007, Annex B] and edited to
reect ethane production data from [Muhamad et al, 2008, Fig. 8]).

41
7 Conclusion
DGA methods have been used since the 1980s to gauge transformer condition
for:

1. factory acceptance tests,

2. site acceptance tests (e.g. for new oil),

3. predictions of remaining time to next transformer maintenance, and

4. post-mortem fault analysis

DGA sampling involves careful preparation of oil samples to ASTM D3613.

The extraction of gas from oil requires calibrated lab equipment compliant to
IEC 60567.

The actual DGA interpretation technique may rely on many dierent methods
mentioned in IEC and IEEE standards; the Duval Triangle method being one
of the more consistent methods.

Some future developments in DGA include [Blackburn, 2008, Slide 33]:

ˆ Online continuous monitoring that is more reliable and aordable

ˆ New analysis methods involving gases with C3 bonds

ˆ New DGA interpretation techniques for biodegradeable oil

42
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49
Appendix A
Graphical representation of IEC 60599 DGA ratios39

Figure 31: Graphical representation of IEC 60599 DGA ratios (Taken from
[IEC 60599, 2007, Annex B])

39 Gas volume production is nearly quadratic with voltage, and linear with arc duration

50
 Appendix B
IEC 60599 DGA interpretation owchart

Figure 32: IEC 60599 DGA interpretation technique owchart (Taken from
[IEC 60599, 2007, Figure 1])

51

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