Comparison of Radio Propagation Models F

WiMAX COVERAGE S1125522
COMPARISON OF RADIO PROPAGATION MODELS

FOR WiMAX COVERAGE AT 450 MHz, 2.5 GHz AND
3.5 GHz FOR DIFFERENT TERRAINS
BALAKRISHNAN RAMASANKAR
A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of
Glasgow Caledonian University
for the degree of Master of Science in
WIRELESS COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES
MSc 2012
Glasgow Caledonian University Page 1

DECLARATION
This dissertation is my individual unique work and has not been submitted somewhere else in
fulfilment of the requirements of this or any other award
Signature:
Date: 09 September 2020

ABSTRACT
WiMAX has become the corner stone in the field of wireless broadband communications.
There exists a huge demand from subscribers for peak data rates, for better quality
information on multimedia applications. WiMAX supports rural broadband coverage with an
economical infrastructure which is the same as existing DSL and FTTX 1 connections. The
initial stages of radio planning involve a key parameter, Coverage. Coverage is the distance
to which the signal can travel in geographical area with obstacles and is determined by two
key metrics; path loss and received signal power. Multiple path loss models exist for
coverage predictions in wireless environment. This dissertation deals through the analysis of
WiMAX coverage based on path loss and received signal strength. Three different
frequencies are analysed for WiMAX deployment at 450 MHz, 2.5 GHz and 3.5 GHz2. The
frequencies are analysed over four propagation models namely; ITU-R P 525, COST 231
HATA, OKUMURA HATA and SUI in urban, rural and open terrains for both LOS and
NLOS conditions. Received signal strength is evaluated for coverage, with focus on
modulation techniques and coding index in all the tree terrains. The dissertation is carried out
using ATDI ICS telecom as simulator for radio planning and coverage. The results
substantiates SUI as the best model for WiMAX at all the three frequencies, with SUI – A the
best for urban environment and SUI – C best for rural and open environment. At 450 MHz,
WiMAX provided better coverage in rural and open areas with high robust modulation
scheme QPSK ½.
Acknowledgement
1
FTTX- includes FTTN, FTTC, FTTB, FTTH
2
Spectrum of WiMAX not clearly defined by spectrum regulators.

First and foremost I want to thank my supervisor and dissertation guide Dr. Tuleen Boutaleb
for guiding me throughout the project, since the proposal. I appreciate all her contributions of
time and ideas for making my project experience scintillating. The joy and enthusiasm I had
for research, along with the motivation and confidence imposed by her on me, resulted in
successful completion of my project.
I would also like to extend my gratitude to the Module leader and teaching staffs at Glasgow
Caledonian University, who refined my skills during the first two semesters.
It would have been unmanageable for me to pursue masters’ abroad without the blessings and
support of my parents. I would like to thank my parents for their care and faith. Their moral
support helped me to find the energy and motivation to succeed by being a source of
inspiration.
Thanks to ATDI Ltd, for supporting the university program with a radio planning software -
ICS Telecom, used in this dissertation.
I would also like to thank almighty for giving me the strength and determination to complete
the project.
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 WiMAX FDD vs. TDD (Etemad & Lai, 2010)____________________________________21

Figure 2 TDD vs. FDD frame structure in WiMAX (ATDI -Advanced Topographic Development &
Images, 2011)_____________________________________________________________________21
Figure 3 Radio propagation in wireless and mobile environment (Jain, 2010)___________________22
Figure 4 WiMAX deployment Frequency bands across globe (Kumar, 2008)___________________23
Figure 5: Urban terrain, Hong Kong____________________________________________________25
Figure 6 Suburban environment, Bansagar, Kuala Lumpur – Malaysia.________________________26
Figure 7 Rural areas in Barossa Valley, South Australia.___________________________________26
Figure 8 Air interface structure for WiMAX release 1.0/1.5_________________________________29
Figure 9 Physical layer of WiMAX (ETEMAD et al., 2010), (Mohamed et al., 2010)_____________30
Figure 10 TDD Frame Structure (ETEMAD et al., 2010)___________________________________31
Figure 11 Constellation Diagram for various modulation techniques (S.Ahson , M.Ilyas, 2008)_____32
Figure 12 The MAC PDU (Hasan, 2007 June)____________________________________________32
Figure 13 WiMAX Physical layer (ETEMAD et al., 2010)__________________________________33
Figure 14 Fig: IEEE 802.16 Detailed MAC layer protocol functions (ETEMAD et al., 2010)_______35
Figure 15 Reflection, Diffraction, Scattering (Jain, 2006)___________________________________37
Figure 16 Path loss definition and elements of wireless communication system (Saunders & Zavala,
2007)____________________________________________________________________________38
Figure 17 Erceg vs. SUI model terrain description (DU & M.N.S.Swamy, 2010)________________42
Figure 18 SUI model constants (Erceg et al., 1999)________________________________________43
Figure 19 Multipath reflections (RÆKKEN & LØVNES, 1995)_____________________________44
Figure 20 multipath of two pulses shown in time variant channel (Stallings, 2002)_______________45
Figure 21 ICS telecom different sub modules to load the project for radio planning (ATDI -Advanced
Topographic Development & Images, 2011)_____________________________________________70
Figure 22 creating a mask in rural environment using ICS telecom. (ATDI -Advanced Topographic
Development & Images, 2011)________________________________________________________73
Figure 23 Clutter selections for BS placement. (ATDI -Advanced Topographic Development &
Images, 2011)_____________________________________________________________________74
Figure 24 A methodologies shown to place BS. (ATDI -Advanced Topographic Development &
Images, 2011)_____________________________________________________________________75
Figure 25 Tx/Rx parameters configuration (ATDI -Advanced Topographic Development & Images,
2011)____________________________________________________________________________75
Figure 26 Selection of WiMAX 5TDD (ATDI -Advanced Topographic Development & Images,
2011)____________________________________________________________________________76
Figure 27 to modify antenna settings in ICS telecom 9.6.2__________________________________77
Figure 28 modulation technique and coding index in ICS telecom 9.6.2 (ATDI -Advanced
Topographic Development & Images, 2011)_____________________________________________78
Figure 29 Duplicating BS to create subscribers unit (ATDI -Advanced Topographic Development &
Images, 2011)_____________________________________________________________________78
Figure 30 Propagation models available in ICS telecom version 9.6.2 (ATDI -Advanced Topographic
Figure 31 SUI A, B, C configuration in ICS telecom (ATDI -Advanced Topographic Development &
Images, 2011)_____________________________________________________________________80
Figure 32 Coverage methodologies in ICS telecom version 9.6.2 (ATDI -Advanced Topographic

Figure 33 to select minimum receiving threshold in dBm (ATDI -Advanced Topographic

Figure 34 Path loss predictions at 3.5 GHz in Urban environment.____________________________85
Figure 35 Path loss predictions at 2.5 GHz in Urban environment.____________________________85
Figure 36 Path loss predictions at 450 MHz in Urban environment.___________________________86
Figure 37 RSSI measurements at 3.5 GHz with QPSK ½ in urban environment_________________87
Figure 38 RSSI measurements at 3.5 GHz with 16 QAM ½ in urban environment_______________88
Figure 43 Path loss predictions at 3.5 GHz in Open environment.____________________________91
Figure 44 Path loss predictions at 2.5 GHz in Open environment.____________________________92
Figure 45 Path loss predictions at 450 MHz in Open environment.____________________________92
Figure 46 RSSI measurements at 3.5 GHz for open environment_____________________________93
Figure 47 RSSI measurements at 3.5 GHz with 16 QAM 1/2 in open environment_______________94
Figure 49 RSSI measurements at 2.5 GHz with QPSK 1/2 in open environment_________________95
Figure 51 RSSI measurement at 2.5 GHz with 64QAM 1/2 in open environment________________96
Figure 52 Path loss predictions at 3.5 GHz in rural environment._____________________________97
Figure 53 Path loss predictions at 2.5 GHz in rural environment._____________________________97
Figure 54 Path loss predictions at 450 MHz in rural environment.____________________________98
Figure 55 RSSI measurements at 3.5 GHz with QPSK 1/2 in rural environment_________________99
Figure 56 RSSI measurements at 3.5 GHz with 16QAM 1/2 in rural environment________________99
Figure 57 RSSI measurements at 3.5 GHz with 64QAM 1/2 in rural environment_______________100
Figure 58 RSSI measurements at 2.5 GHz with QPSK 1/2 in rural environment________________100
Figure 59 RSSI measurements at 2.5 GHz with 16QAM 1/2 in rural environment_______________101
Figure 60 RSSI measurement at 2.5 GHz with 64QAM 1/2 in rural environment_______________101
Figure 61 Modulation Technique and Coding rate for WiMAX based on distance from the BS (Bhunia
et al., 2011)______________________________________________________________________102
LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Comparison of WiMAX Versions (Source: Literature), (Andrews et al., 2007).....................20

Table 2 WiMAX PHY layer with its specific features (ETEMAD et al., 2010)..................................31
Table 3 Atmospheric effects vs. ITU - R propagation models. (Enoch & Otung, 2008)......................54
Table 4 WiMAX BS parameters (Source: Literature, WiMAX forum)...............................................71
Table 5 Modulation and Coding index vs. SNR threshold (Source: literature)....................................72
Table 6 Modulating technique and coding index vs. RSSI threshold limits at 5 MHz channel
bandwidth (Source: literature, BSNL).................................................................................................72

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

 0G Mobile Radio Telephone/ Pre cellular
 1G 1st Generation Mobile Telecommunications/analog telecommunications
 2G 2nd Generation Wireless Telephone Technology/Cellular Telecom
 3G 3rd Generation Mobile Telecommunications Technology
 4G 4th Generations
 AP Access Point
 ATDI Advanced Topographic Development & Images
 ATM Asynchronous Transfer mode
 ARQ Automatic Repeat re-Quest
 BER Bit error rate
 BPSK Binary Phase Shift Keying
 BS Base Station
 BWA Broadband Wireless Access
 BWAWG Broadband Wireless Access group
 CAC Call admission Control
 CAPEX Capital Expenditure
 CPE Customer Premise Equipment
 CS Convergence Sub layer
 CS SAP Service specific Convergence Sub layer
 CSMA/CA Carrier sense multiple Access/Collision Avoidance
 CQI Channel Quality Indicator
 dB Decibel
 dBi Decibel Isotropic
 dBm/dBmw Decibel (referenced to mill watts)
 DEM Digital Elevation model
 DSL Digital Subscriber Line
 DTM Digital Terrain model
 ECC Electronic Communication Committee
 FCC Federal Communication Commission
 FDD Frequency division duplexing
 FSPL Free Space Path loss Model

 FSL Free Space Loss

 FTTB Fiber to the Building/ Basement
 FTTC Fiber to the Curb/Closet/Cabinet
 FTTN Fiber to the node
 FTTH Fiber to the Home
 FUSC Fully used Sub channel/Fully used Subcarrier
 FWA Fixed Wireless Access
 GHz Giga Hertz
 GPS Global Positioning System
 HARQ Hybrid Automatic Repeat re-Quest
 IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers
 IMT International Mobile Telecommunications
 IP Internet Protocol
 IPv4 Internet Protocol version 4
 IPv6 Internet Protocol version 6
 ISI Inter symbol Interference
 IST Information Society Technologies
 ITU-R International Telecommunication Union Radio communications
 ITU-T International Telecommunication Union – Standardisation Sector
 KSA Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
 LOS Line of Sight
 MAC Medium Access Control
 MAC CPS MAC Sub layer-Common
 MACPDUs Medium Access Control protocol data units
 MACSDUs Medium Access Control service data units
 MATLAB Matrix Laboratory
 Mbps Mega Bits per second
 MBS Multicast and broadcast services
 MBX Maciel, Bertoni & Xia
 MHz Mega Hertz
 MIMO Multiple Input Multiple Output

 MPDU’s MAC protocol data unit

 MS Mobile Station
 NLOS Non - Line of Sight
 NMS Network Management system
 OFDM Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
 OFDMA Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access
 OPEX Operational Expenditure
 PDU Protocol Data Units
 PHY Physical layer
 PKM Privacy key Management
 PMP Point to Multipoint Protocol
 PPP Point to Point Protocol
 PUSC Partially used Sub channel/Partially used Subcarrier
 QAM Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
 QOS Quality of Service
 QPSK Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
 RRM Radio Resource Management
 RSP Received Signal Power
 RSSI Received Signal Strength Indication
 SOFDMA Scalable Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access
 SDU Service Data Units
 SNR Signal to Noise ratio
 SS Security Sublayer
 SUI Stanford University Interim
 TC Transmission Convergence Sublayer
 TDD Time division duplexing
 VOIP Voice over Internet Protocol
 WiMAX Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access
 WLAN Wireless Local Area Network

Table of Contents
LIST OF FIGURES...............................................................................................................................5
LIST OF TABLES................................................................................................................................7
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS..............................................................................................8
CHAPTER 1........................................................................................................................................14
1. INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................14
1.1. GENERAL..........................................................................................................................14
1.2. MOTIVATION....................................................................................................................14
1.3. PROBLEM DESCRIPTION................................................................................................15
1.4. PROJECT AIM AND OBJECTIVE....................................................................................16
1.4.1. PROJECT AIM............................................................................................................16
1.4.2. PROJECT OBJECTIVE..............................................................................................16
1.5. BACKGROUND.................................................................................................................16
1.5.1. WiMAX.......................................................................................................................16
1.5.2. WiMAX VERSIONS...................................................................................................17
1.5.3. WiMAX FDD vs. TDD................................................................................................20
1.5.4. LOS, NLOS and nLOS................................................................................................22
1.5.5. SPECTRUM OF WiMAX...........................................................................................22
1.5.6. WHY RADIO PROPAGATION?................................................................................24
1.5.7. RADIO PLANNING TERRAINS...............................................................................24
1.5.8. ATDI ICS TELECOM.................................................................................................27
1.6. PRIME CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE..................................................................27
1.7. THESIS LAYOUT..............................................................................................................28
CHAPTER 2........................................................................................................................................29
2. TECHNOLOGY SURVEY.........................................................................................................29
2.1. WiMAX...............................................................................................................................29
2.2. WIMAX AIR INTERFACE................................................................................................29
2.2.1. IEEE 802.16 PHY (Physical) layer..............................................................................30
2.2.2. IEEE 802.16 MAC (MEDIUM ACCESS CONTROL) LAYER.................................33
2.2.3. TRANSMISSION CONVERGENCE SUB LAYER (TC)..........................................36
2.3. RADIO PROPAGATION MODELS...................................................................................36
2.3.1. FREE SPACE PATH LOSS (FSPL)............................................................................37

2.3.2. PATH LOSS................................................................................................................38

2.3.3. OKUMURA HATA.....................................................................................................39
2.3.4. COST 231 HATA........................................................................................................40
2.3.5. SUI MODEL (STANFORD UNIVERSITY INTERIM MODEL)...............................41
2.3.6. ITU R P 525.................................................................................................................43
2.4. MULTIPATH PROPAGATION.........................................................................................43
CHAPTER 3........................................................................................................................................46
3. LITERATURE SURVEY............................................................................................................46
3.1. PROPAGATION MODELS IN URBAN TERRAIN..........................................................46
3.2. PROPAGATION MODELS IN SUBURBAN TERRAIN..................................................51
3.3. PROPAGATION MODELS IN RURAL & OPEN TERRAIN...........................................58
3.4. PROPAGATION MODELS IN MULTI TERRAIN ENVIRONMENT..............................62
3.5. COMPARISONS AND DISCUSSION...............................................................................65
CHAPTER 4........................................................................................................................................68
4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY & SYSTEM CONFIGURATION...........................................68
4.1. ATDI ICS Telecom..............................................................................................................68
4.2. HOW ICS telecom works for Radio planning?....................................................................70
4.3. RADIO PLANNING IN RURAL ENVIRONMENT..........................................................73
4.4. STEPS INVOLVED IN THE CALCULATION OF PATH LOSS......................................80
4.5. CALCULATION OF RSSI..................................................................................................82
4.6. RADIO PLANNING IN OPEN AND URBAN ENVIRONMENT.....................................82
CHAPTER 5........................................................................................................................................84
5. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS........................................................................84
5.1. RADIO PROPAGATION MODELS IN URBAN TERRAIN.............................................84
5.1.1. BEST RADIO PROPAGATION MODEL BASED ON PATH LOSS........................85
5.1.2. BEST RADIO PROPAGATION MODEL BASED ON RSSI IN URBAN
ENVIRONMENT........................................................................................................................87
5.2. RADIO PROPAGATION MODELS IN OPEN TERRAIN................................................91
5.2.1. BEST RADIO PROPAGATION MODEL BASED ON PATH LOSS IN OPEN
TERRAIN....................................................................................................................................91
5.2.2. BEST RADIO PROPAGATION MODEL BASED ON RSSI IN OPEN
ENVIRONMENT........................................................................................................................93
5.3. RADIO PROPAGATION MODELS IN RURAL TERRAIN.............................................97
5.3.1. BEST RADIO PROPAGATION MODEL BASED ON PATH LOSS IN RURAL
TERRAIN....................................................................................................................................97

5.3.2. BEST RADIO PROPAGATION MODEL BASED ON RSSI IN RURAL

ENVIRONMENT........................................................................................................................99
CHAPTER 6......................................................................................................................................104
6. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK...................................................................................104
6.1. CONCLUSION.................................................................................................................104
6.2. FUTURE WORK...............................................................................................................105
REFERENCES & BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................................................107
APPENDIX.......................................................................................................................................113
URBAN MAP...............................................................................................................................113
RURAL MAP................................................................................................................................113
OPEN TERRAIN MAP.................................................................................................................114

CHAPTER 1
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. GENERAL
The last decade, motivated a great development in field of telecommunications which has
shrink the globe into a small village. The mobile communication had a key breakthrough
from analog to digital communication. The advancement in wireless communication systems
with exponential growth in number of subscribers, motivated to a great journey from 1G
(First generation) to 4G (Fourth Generation). This allowed peak data rates up to 1 Gbps
(Gigabits per second) in the downlink for low mobility (pedestrians), up to 100 Mbps
(Megabits per second) for high mobility (vehicular speed), dynamically shared and the use of
network resources to support more simultaneous users per cell, high spectral efficiency,
scalable bandwidth, enhanced coverage up to 31 miles, low latency level, high reliability,
system capacity, robustness and better Quality of Service (QOS) compared to previous
wireless broadband generations. Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access
(WiMAX) provides speed up to 75 Mbps, with coverage of 50 kms (31 miles) as
recommended by WiMAX forum (A global organisation to promote and support
interoperability of WiMAX products) in ideal conditions. This dissertation performs critical
analysis on identifying the best radio propagation model (4 path loss models are considered-
OKUMURA – HATA MODEL, COST 231 HATA model, Stanford University Interim (SUI)
Model (Types A,B,C) and ITU-R P 525) in urban, semi-urban, rural and open areas, in the
operating frequency of 3.5 GHz, 2.5 GHz and 450 MHz respectively. The later part of paper
focuses on calculating coverage based on Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI) by
varying the modulation technique and coding index3 on three different frequencies4.
Advanced Topographic Development & Images (ATDI) ICS – Telecom, a radio planning
tool is used to identify the best radio propagation model for WiMAX.
1.2. MOTIVATION
The assessment of path loss is very important in mobile network cell planning. WiMAX
provides wireless communication to areas where cable infrastructure is inadequate. Huge
amount of money is being invested in radio planning of WiMAX for better service in means
of better coverage and quality, globally in the last few years. In real time scenarios WiMAX
3
QPSK ½, 16 QAM ½, 64 QAM ½
4
3.5 GHz, 2.5 GHz, 450 MHz

supports lower bit rates and less coverage compared to as recommended by the WIMAX
forum. Based on previous research it has been identified that wireless transmitted signal
undergoes a series level of degradation before reaching the receiver. The following reasons
has been highlighted which have a major impact on the signal degradation;
 Path loss
 Co-channel and adjacent channel interference
 Fading
 Doppler spread
The essential necessity for this project is to improvise coverage and quality in all terrains and
thereby making WiMAX technology as the best for wireless and mobile broadband
communications.
1.3. PROBLEM DESCRIPTION

WiMAX, a wireless and mobile technology often neglected, as failed to meet high
expectations set during the initial stages of development. According to [CITATION Kam10 \l
2057 ] and WiMAX forum, WiMAX supports peak data rates of 75 Mbps and coverage up to
50 kms. In field experiments, it is proved that WiMAX provides lower bit rate of 6 Mbps to
10 Mbps in LOS (line of sight) for coverage of 8km. With increase in data traffic for more
number of subscribers with better quality of service for high end multimedia applications,
better coverage and quality of service are demanded. The coverage and throughput of
WiMAX signal reduces due to increase in path loss level and signal degradation towards the
edge of the cell. The cell-edge users experience poor coverage, with low quality and majority
of time its black spot. Based on past research, different propagation models are employed for
WiMAX at different frequencies to identify the best coverage. The propagation models are
not handpicked based on terrain, thus radio planning fails with poor coverage and low signal
strength, with subscribers at the cell-edge being affected. A question can be raised “Can a
user continuing a phone chat move from near the Base station (BS) to a distance of 4 km
experience the same voice quality? “ If answer being NO, we probe ourselves is that due to
poor radio planning and coverage? At present WiMAX technology is not able to support the
coverage or throughput recommended by WiMAX forum and [CITATION Kam10 \l 2057 ]. This
dissertation focuses on identifying the best radio propagation model for WiMAX with terrain
specific along with modulation technique and coding rate.

1.4. PROJECT AIM AND OBJECTIVE
1.4.1. PROJECT AIM

To identify the best radio propagation model for WiMAX (IEEE-802.16) based on path loss
calculation of existing radio propagation models under different terrains and expanding cell-
edge coverage by manipulating modulation techniques with coding rates by varying operating
frequencies.
1.4.2. PROJECT OBJECTIVE

The aim of the project involves the following objectives to be delivered;
 To perform a comprehensive literature survey about “Radio propagation models” for

WiMAX.
 To tabulate the WiMAX BS parameters for each terrain in accordance with WiMAX
forum and literature.
 Analyse and identify best “Radio propagation model” for WiMAX in outdoor
environment based on path loss by varying operating frequency using ATDI ICS
telecom.
 Analyse and identify the best “Radio propagation model” for WiMAX in outdoor
environment based on RSSI by varying operating frequency, modulating techniques
and coding rate using ATDI ICS telecom.
 Identify one best radio propagation model for WiMAX in each terrain by critically
evaluating the results obtained the previous scenarios.
 To associate the results with published research papers and suggest future work based
on results.
1.5. BACKGROUND
1.5.1. WiMAX
The term WiMAX was coined by “WiMAX Forum” in 2001 to support consistency and
interoperability for the wireless standard. WiMAX supports wireless and mobile broadband
over long distances with extreme higher bandwidths compared to previous versions of Wi-Fi.
WiMAX the recent broadband wireless access technology for large geographical areas has
been promising to ease broadband services for both fixed and mobile where cable structure is
scant. The Mobile WiMAX technology with high mobility empowers high end multimedia
services like HD videos (High Definition), Video Conferencing, Video sharing, streaming

data, Multimedia online gaming, audio/video-game download, etc. Unlike the previous
wireless broadband technologies, WiMAX supports both Line of Sight (LOS) with a
frequency range of 10GHz-66GHz and Non-Line of Sight (NLOS) with a frequency range of
2GHz-11GHz. The OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple) modulation technique
with Advanced MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) makes Mobile WiMAX highly
efficient in the air interface. There exist two major versions in WiMAX namely Fixed
WiMAX (IEEE 802.16d) and Mobile WiMAX (IEEE 802.16e).[CITATION Kam10 \l 2057 ]
1.5.2. WiMAX VERSIONS
1.5.2.1. IEEE 802.16 a (FWA)

The evolution of WiMAX 802.16a was to overcome major limitations in Wireless LAN like
bandwidth, outdoor coverage, QOS and inadequate capacity for subscribers. The IEEE
802.16a is the first standard accepted by IEEE for WiMAX/WMAN. The reason for this
standard being accepted was because IEEE 802.16a provided a good support for low latency
applications compared to previous generations of wireless communication. The operating
frequency accepted by 802.16a is in the range of 10 GHz to 66 GHz. The IEEE 802.16a
supported advanced air interface solutions with complex PHY layer to transmit data for long
range communications. The 802.16a PHY had major changes compared to previous
generation of wireless communications and are categorised into three main parts “namely;
 A single carrier PHY

 A 256 point FFT OFDM PHY
 A 2048 point FFT OFDMA PHY” [ CITATION Jar \l 2057 ]
The PHY layers combined with enhanced MAC layer supports coverage in NLOS conditions
with a peak data rate of 75 Mbps with 20 MHz spectrum channel. The cell radius of IEEE
802.16a supported a range from 7-40km with a scalable bandwidth from 1.75 MHz to 20
MHz. IEEE 802.16a supports both FDD and TDD duplexing with robust connectivity. The
prime reason for IEEE 802.16a (WiMAX first version) to succeed Wi-Fi (WLAN) as next
generation wireless connectivity is the fact of supporting broadband in the “last-mile”.
[ CITATION Jar \l 2057 ]
1.5.2.2. IEEE 802.16 d (NOMADIC)

Fixed WiMAX supports both point to point and point to multipoint communications. IEEE
802.16d supports fixed and nomadic applications. It supports both LOS (Line of sight) and

NLOS (Non Line of sight), with a maximum coverage up to 31 miles in LOS with peak
throughput of 72Mbps, and up to 6 miles coverage in NLOS of peak throughput of 40Mbps.
The frequency band for IEEE 8002.16 d is in range between 2 GHz to 11 GHz. The air-
interface uses OFDM technology for both downlink and uplink. It has three physical layers
similar to IEEE 802.16a, and they can be used according to the LOS and NLOS conditions.
Both TDD and FDD duplexing are allowed in this version of WiMAX and the physical layer
considered for uplink is a combination of Time division Multiple Access (TDMA) and
Demand Assigned Multiple Access (DAMA). The enhanced feature of IEEE 802.16d is that
it supports both fixed and nomadic applications with better quality. Most of IEEE 802.16 d
deployments are FDD. As IEEE 802.16d supported only broadband to level of nomadic and
portable, the next generation, IEEE 802.16e for mobility evolved. [ CITATION Kam10 \l 2057 ],
1.5.2.3. IEEE 802.16 e (MOBILITY)

The Mobile-WiMAX (IEEE 802.16e) was developed to provide larger coverage area with
better data rates and higher mobility. Mobile-WiMAX uses multiple cells to cover urban area
and so called cell based technology. [CITATION Placeholder1 \l 1033 ] Mobile-WiMAX supports
users with multimedia applications when moving at 75 miles/hr. Mobile-WiMAX supports
users at those areas where wired connection is impossible with a better speed. Both FDD
(frequency division duplexing) and TDD (time division duplexing) is supported by IEEE
802.16e release 2005. The prime difference between IEEE 802.16e and the previous version
is that air interface supports OFDMA, which makes its more robust for multipath propagation
in NLOS conditions. Scalable PHY architecture of Mobile WiMAX makes to bear scalable
bandwidths from 1.25 MHz to 20 MHz. In reality Mobile WiMAX are deployed in the higher
end of radio spectrum for maximum channel bandwidths to support peak data rates. The
operating frequencies used are
 2.3 GHz
 2.5 GHz
 3.3 GHz
 3.5 GHz.
Advanced antenna techniques like Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) with AMC are
used to support higher QOS and coverage. Mobile WiMAX provides latencies less than 50
ms, which is suitable for higher order multimedia applications. Mobile WiMAX provides

peak data rates of 63 Mbps in downlink and 28 Mbps in uplink on 10 MHz channel.
[ CITATION WiM06 \l 2057 ]
1.5.2.4. IEEE 802.16m (VECHICULAR)

The IEEE 802.16 m also termed as International Mobile Telecommunications – Advanced
(IMT-A) is the 4th Generation wireless communications. Compared to previous versions of
WiMAX, IEEE 802.16 m supports low delay, better service classes, high speed and coverage,
data access – bi directional at an affordable cost. IEEE 802.16 m supports both TDD and
FDD duplexing. The shortcomings of the previous version of WiMAX are addressed and
PHY and MAC layer are modified accordingly. The advantages are as follows;
 Increased Spectral Efficiency and coverage

 Increased capacity for VOIP and data traffic
 QOS enhancements and lower latency
 Power conservation at End user device
 Interworking and interoperability with other wireless networks
IEEE 802.16m can support to peak data rate of 365 Mbps in 40 MHz spectrum channel with
advanced antenna techniques like 4x4 MIMO. The latency is less than 30 ms with powerful
handover operations during high speed mobility. The operating frequency for this version of
WiMAX is still under consideration. Majority of telecom operators have recommended the
lower part of radio spectrum i.e. less than 1 GHz. [ CITATION WiM10 \l 2057 ]
The below table shows a comparison between the different accepted standards of WiMAX

Parameters IEEE 802.16a IEEE 802.16d IEEE 802.16e IEEE 802.16m
Purpose Fixed Wireless Nomadic, Mobility Vehicular

Access portable
LOS/ NLOS LOS- Fixed Fixed NLOS Fixed and Fixed and
mobile NLOS Mobile NLOS (a
vehicular speed)
Frequency 10-66 GHz 2-11 GHz 2-6 GHz Less than 6 GHz
Band
MAC scheme Point to Point to Point to Point to
multipoint multipoint multipoint multipoint
Channel 20 MHz, 25 1.75 MHz to 1.25 MHz to 1.25 MHz to
Bandwidth MHz, 28 MHz 20 MHz 20 MHz 20 MHz
(MHz)
Modulation OFDM 256 QPSK, QPSK, QPSK,
techniques carriers, 16-QAM, 16-QAM, 16-QAM,
DOWNLINK QPSK, 64 QAM 64 QAM 64 QAM
16-QAM,
64 QAM
Modulation BPSK, BPSK, BPSK, BPSK,
techniques QPSK, QPSK, QPSK, QPSK,
UPLINK 16 QAM 16 QAM 16 QAM 16 QAM
Peak data rates 32 Mbps to 72 Mbps 63 Mbps 365 Mbps
(Downlink) 134.4 Mbps
Duplexing TDD and FDD TDD and FDD TDD and FDD TDD and FDD
Table 1 Comparison of WiMAX Versions (Source: Literature), [ CITATION Jef07 \l 2057 ]
1.5.3. WiMAX FDD vs. TDD

Mobile radio communication involves both uplink and downlink communications. Uplink
mode of communication is transfer of data from the mobile station to the BS. In downlink

communication, the data transfer happens from BS to Mobile station.
Figure 1 WiMAX FDD vs. TDD[ CITATION Kam10 \l 2057 ]
The above fig 1 represents a pictorial representation of Uplink and downlink in mobile radio
communications. All versions of WiMAX supports both Freqeuncy Division Duplexing
(FDD) and Time division duplexing (TDD) modes of duplexing. FDD spectrum is identified
as a paired spectrum as it requires two channels for communication. 1 channel for downlink
communication and 1 channel for uplink communication. TDD is also termed as un-paired
spectrum as it uses the same channel for uplink and dowlink radio communication. Both FDD
and TDD have their own advantages and disadvantages during deployment stages of
technology. The below fig portrays data transmission in uplink and downlink for both the
modes of duplexing.

Figure 2 TDD vs. FDD frame structure in WiMAX [ CITATION ATD11 \l 2057 ]
1.5.4. LOS, NLOS and nLOS

The expansion and advancement in technology promised to provide coverage for longer
distances up to 50 kms (31 miles) in WiMAX. There exists a condition where signal
transmitted undergoes multipath fading before attaining the receiver. This feature is called
NLOS (Non Line of Sight). Conversely a signal may travel without any obstruction between
the transmitter and receiver. This feature is called LOS (Line of Sight). LOS conditions
prevail in flat lands such as rural and open areas. Urban and suburban terrains experience
most of NLOS conditions for data transfer. The below fig portrays LOS and NLOS data
transfer in mobile radio communications, which is similar in all versions of WiMAX.
Figure 3 Radio propagation in wireless and mobile environment[ CITATION Jai10 \l 2057 ]
1.5.5. SPECTRUM OF WiMAX

The spectrum allocation for any technology or application is an internationally coordinated
process by an organisation International Telecommunication Union –Radio communication
(ITU-R). WiMAX, as promised by WiMAX forum and [ CITATION Ami08 \l 2057 ] can support
up to 100 Mbps with a channel bandwidth of 30 MHz in real life scenarios. The higher part of
the spectrum at 3.5 GHz is a centre of attraction among telecom regulators for wide channel
bandwidth. Nevertheless there exists a basic relationship between high frequency waves and
their wavelength expressed (distance in metres)
λ =c/f
Where;

 λ is the wavelength expressed in metres

 c is the velocity of light (c=299,792,458 m/s)
 f is frequency expressed cycles per second.
High channel bandwidth is available on the higher order of the spectrum, however high
frequency waves travel shorter distances and are easily distorted when travelling in the
transmission environment. There has been a serious concern of using the lower part of the
spectrum i.e. 700 MHz band for WiMAX deployment. The prime reason for choosing the 700
MHz spectrum for WiMAX deployment is because it’s suitable for rural areas with efficient,
reliable and robust communication. As rural areas are wide spread with a low dense
population, say with a cell radius of 10 miles, coverage can be provided with more reliability
at 700 MHz spectrum compared to the higher part of the spectrum. The peak frequency band
between 470 MHz & 862 MHz, i.e. 700 MHz is been released for broadband wireless access
by Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in the United States of America. Both FDD
and TDD are possible in 700 MHz spectrum, which is promising for a technology like
WiMAX with high expectations and performance. The below Fig 4 portrays the different part
of the spectrum allocated for WiMAX deployment across the globe.

Figure 4 WiMAX deployment Frequency bands across globe [ CITATION Ami08 \l 2057 ]
WiMAX usage in unlicensed band will have a greater impact on quality of communication,
as unlicensed band are used for testing purposes. It is based on the operating frequency the
channel bandwidth, modulation technique, coverage radius; FFT, etc. are selected and
obtained. As the radio spectrum is mostly occupied with existing technologies and
applications, WiMAX need to coexist with them. Three different frequency bands are the
most often selected by operators and regulators for WiMAX deployment. The 3300 MHz to
3800 MHz, 2300 MHz to 2690 MHz and the unlicensed band from 5150 MHz to 5850 MHz.
[ CITATION Ami08 \l 2057 ]
1.5.6. WHY RADIO PROPAGATION?

There is an exponential increase in the number of subscribers over the last decade. The
evolution of new mobile broadband technologies has led to increase in coverage and capacity
to adopt new ITU standards. This has led to a revolution in radio planning and requirement
for either new propagation models or expansion of existing propagation models to meet the
requirement of the technology. Moreover it is highly important to understand propagation
characteristic of radio wave through the air medium (transmission medium) to analyse the
coverage parameters and deploy a wireless broadband system more accurately. Radio
propagation based on path loss models, helps us to predict coverage with precise placing of
base stations in any given terrain. As radio waves have the feature of reflection, diffraction
and scattering, it is more important to understand a wireless and mobile environment for
proper transmission and receiving of signals. As the lower part of the spectrum is mostly
occupied and evolving technologies are working on higher part of the spectrum (ultra high
and super high frequencies) with lower wavelength, coverage planning with radio
propagation models is mandatory to meet CAPEX and OPEX
1.5.7. RADIO PLANNING TERRAINS

The radio planning for mobile technology is much focussed on terrains. The terrains are
classified in numerous ways by telecom regulators and operators. The major terrain
classifications are urban, semi urban and rural. These three terrains are further classified into
numerous subcategories which are specific to a given location and operators. The first radio
propagation model; OKUMURA [ CITATION YOk68 \l 2057 ] was developed in Tokyo city,
Japan. Tokyo city, Hong Kong are the two places across the globe considered to be dense
urban or core urban. A region with high density of population, skyscrapers placed closely

with no vegetation is identified as dense urban or core urban. Below fig 5 depicts a dense
urban/core urban terrain, Hong Kong.
Figure 5: Urban terrain, Hong Kong
Radio planning in dense urban or urban environment is comparatively challenging to other

environments. Signal attenuation is very high in this terrain and high performance modulation
techniques with coding rates (E.g. 64 QAM ¾) are more suitable for a better coverage. Path
loss is most in this type of terrains. NLOS conditions with multipath propagation prevails
more in urban terrains. Examples of urban terrain are New York City, London, and
Washington D.C, etc. In urban terrain path loss is slightly less compared to that of dense/core
urban terrain. The suburban environments are mostly the residential communities with few
storey buildings, shopping malls, with dense or medium vegetation. Buildings and complexes
are between 1 to 4 stories. Coverage and capacity can be easily achieved in these kinds of

terrain as path loss is minimum compared to urban. Both LOS and NLOS conditions prevails.
E.g. of suburban terrain environment are Sydney, Melbourne, Mumbai, Kuala Lumpur, etc.
The below fig 6 portrays a suburban environment Bansagar, Kuala Lumpur - Malaysia.
Medium cities and developing business centres fall in suburban terrain category.
Figure 6 Suburban environment, Bansagar, Kuala Lumpur – Malaysia.
The last major classifications of the terrains, namely rural areas are the villages and country
side. Path loss is least in these terrains and coverage can easily be achieved up to 10 miles
with high robust modulation techniques like QPSK ½ in low operating frequencies. Fig 7
shows a snapshot of rural environment. A rural area includes open areas, villages, country
sides, mountainous areas, desert, valleys, etc. Placing BS at height of 50 meters and above
can provide good coverage and capacity. A LOS condition prevails in rural areas as the
terrain surface is flat for radio propagation. Rural areas are scarcely populated with dense
vegetation and heavy foliage.

Figure 7 Rural areas in Barossa Valley, South Australia.
Apart from the major classifications, the other terrain classifications for radio planning
include dense urban or core urban, quasi urban, open, mountainous areas, forest, woods, lakes
& river, highways, barren lands, farms, etc. [ CITATION Sam98 \l 2057 ]
1.5.8. ATDI ICS TELECOM

ICS Telecom is radio planning toolkit for modelling systems from intense urban areas to rural
or extensive countryside. “ICS Telecom provides benefit at all stages of network planning
and task such as; Technology Evaluation, Business modelling, Infrastructure dimensioning,
Network Planning, Spectrum Optimisation, Network planning, Engineering data sharing,
system administration and network optimisation” [CITATION ATD11 \l 1033 ]. ICS telecom
supports radio planning from 10 KHz to 450 GHz frequency. An ideal radio planning tool for
both fixed and mobile-WiMAX, different modes of operation FDD and TDD, for all
frequency bands and different bandwidths. “A variety of propagation models are provided
with ICS telecom nG to suit particular modelling scenario” [CITATION ATD11 \l 1033 ]. “ICS
Telecom nG manages five cartographic layers used for propagation calculation and display
 Digital elevation model

 Raster maps
 Satellite and aerial photos
 Clutter information
 Vector data

 3D building models” [CITATION ATD11 \l 1033 ]
1.6. PRIME CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE

The key contribution of the dissertation is to define the performance of fixed WiMAX with
simple mobility through ATDI ICS telecom. Performance metrics like path loss and coverage
are analysed, which are the key factors during the initial stages of radio planning. As the
spectrum of WiMAX is yet to be defined, regulators across different countries attempts for
different frequency bands to achieve maximum performance. From theoretical calculation it
is evident that WiMAX can support up to 100 Mbps with 30 MHz spectrum. [ CITATION
Ami08 \l 2057 ]
Furthermore a detailed overview of WiMAX propagation at different frequencies is analysed.

More time is spent on analysing WiMAX coverage based on received signal power for
various Modulation and coding rates in downlink. As finite organized information is
available for WiMAX performance, this dissertation supports future development and
deployment of WiMAX technology.
1.7. THESIS LAYOUT

The thesis report is divided into six main chapters, of which each chapter can stand alone.
Chapter 1: This chapter presents an evolution and overview of wireless and mobile
broadband communications and general outline of the project along with the problem
description. It also defines the aim and the objectives required to meet the goals of the
project.
Chapter 2: A detailed overview of WiMAX with focus on PHY and MAC layer is provided.
The physical layer is analysed and understood in depth with modulation techniques and
coding rates which are key to this project. The propagation models used for simulation in this
dissertation is provided with a brief overview.
Chapter 3: This chapter provides a concrete framework of the literature survey and essential
knowledge required to perform this project. The last part of this chapter provides a critical
analysis of literature survey, which makes the concept further lucid.
Chapter 4: This chapter provides the research methodology implemented in this project to
meet the objectives stated earlier. The initial part of this chapter provides a brief introduction

to the tool used; ATDI ICS telecom. The later part of the chapter portrays the methodology
used.
Chapter 5: The chapter provides an outline by performing critical analysis on the graphs
obtained using the research methodology.
Chapter 6: This chapter summarises the conclusion of results and validates the results with
published research papers in reputed journals. The later part of this chapter conveys about the
planned future work that can be implemented in the near future for better radio planning
coverage.
CHAPTER 2
2. TECHNOLOGY SURVEY
2.1. WiMAX
The development in technology leads to the convergence of fixed and mobile broadband.
This resulted in a flexible network called Mobile WiMAX. The WiMAX technology adopts a
new air interface technique based on Orthogonal Frequency division Multiple Access
(OFDMA) which combats multipath propagation and providing high performance in Non
Line of Sight conditions (NLOS). The advancement in PHY layer with OFDMA supports
access-multiple and mobility. Scalable OFDMA (SOFDMA) of mobile WiMAX makes the
Physical layer architecture scalable and the resultant supports bandwidths for wide range.
2.2. WIMAX AIR INTERFACE

The air interface is a communication link established between the mobile station and base
station in wireless or mobile communication. In general, the air interface includes the PHY
and MAC layer in the OSI model. The efficiency of the air interface is based on PHY layer,
MAC layer and the environment situations. The below fig 8, shows the structure of air
interface for WiMAX release 1.0/1.5.

Figure 8 Air interface structure for WiMAX release 1.0/1.5
2.2.1. IEEE 802.16 PHY (Physical) layer

The encoding of binary bits to represent MAC frames is done by the PHY layer of WiMAX.
The PHY layer is dependent on the OFDM technique, which supports high speed data for
video and multimedia applications. The physical layer performs the following options;
 FEC forward error correction

 OFDM symbol in frequency domain
 OFDM symbol conversion from frequency domain to time domain
The below fig 9 represents the physical layer of WiMAX.

Figure 9 Physical layer of WiMAX [ CITATION KAM10 \l 2057 ], [ CITATION Moh10 \l 2057 ]
The physical layer as defined by WiMAX forum is categorised into five different types, of which
either of them can be combined with MAC layer for broadband wireless access based on requirements
and operating frequency. The five different physical layers along with its features are tabulated in
below table 6.
PHYSICAL LAYER TYPE FEATURE OF THE LAYER
Wireless MAN – SC Single Carrier
Wireless MAN – SCa Single carrier, supporting NLOS

Wireless MAN – OFDM OFDM technique, supporting NLOS
Wireless MAN OFDMA Single frequency band, OFDM
Wireless HUMAN OFDMA, Single carrier, frequency selective

channel, LOS and NLOS.
Table 2 WiMAX PHY layer with its specific features (ETEMAD et al., 2010)
The WiMAX physical layer operates on the basis of frame structure. The below figure 10
provides a detailed overview of the TDD frame structure in WiMAX. Each frame has an
uplink and a downlink. In TDD the uplink and downlink are separated by guard time and
both do not happen simultaneously.
Figure 10 TDD Frame Structure [ CITATION KAM10 \l 2057 ]
2.2.1.1. MODULATION AND CODING IN WIMAX

. In wireless signal are transmitted to long distance based on modulation and coding rate
used. WiMAX supports various modulation technique and coding rates to support coverage
on a large geographical area. The higher modulation technique supports lower Bit error rates
with high SNR margin, which makes the signal to travel more effectively in presence of
obstacles. The below figure 11 shows the constellation diagram of different modulation
techniques used in WiMAX downlink

Figure 11 Constellation Diagram for various modulation techniques (S.Ahson , M.Ilyas,

2008)
The fig 12 provides a detailed overview of MAC PDU in WiMAX.
Figure 12 The MAC PDU (Hasan, 2007 June)

Figure 13 WiMAX Physical layer [ CITATION KAM10 \l 2057 ]
2.2.2. IEEE 802.16 MAC (MEDIUM ACCESS CONTROL) LAYER

In general, the interface management between the PHY layer and higher transport layers is
provides by the MAC layer. This feature is considered to be a key role of the MAC layer. The
PHY layer contributes to the MAC efficiency. [ CITATION MAM \l 2057 ]From the upper layers,
MAC layer accepts packets which are termed as MACSDUs (Medium Access Control service
data unit) and converts into MACPDUs (Medium Access Control protocol data units) for air
interface transmission. Vice-versa, when the data is received through air interface as
MACPDUs, it converts into MACSDUs for upper layer transmission. The point to multipoint
feature of WiMAX is supported by the MAC layer. This feature is based on CSMA/CA; a
packet based sensing method used in WLAN (IEEE 802.11). The MAC layer of WiMAX
supports QOS (Quality of Service), power saving, mobility, security and broadcast -features.

The MAC layer of WiMAX supports four PHY layers which is promising for technology to
be extended for point to multipoint (PMP) to a mesh network. Any of the four PHY layers
can be combined with MAC layer to mature as a (broadband wireless access) BWA system.
The MAC Air interface of WiMAX includes three main sub layers with specific functions.
They are;
 Service specific Convergence Sub layer (CS SAP)

 MAC common part sub layer (MAC CPS)
 Security Sub layer (SS)
The Fig 14 provides detailed information about the IEEE 802.16 MAC layer. From the fig: it
is clearly evident that MAC layer is further divided into sub blocks based on functions; upper
MAC and lower MAC based on the operations performed. The upper MAC performs
functions like network entry, network selection, mode management (idle and paging)
scheduling, network discovery, QOS, MBS (Multicast and broadcast services), handover,
mobile management and RRM (radio resource management). The lower MAC concentrates
on the control plane and supporting PHY channels. The prime function of lower MAC is to
provide multiplexing functions, sleep management and security. The “PHY Control” block in
Common MAC sub layer performs functions like CQI (channel quality indicator), control
signalling, power control and HARQ (Hybrid Automatic Repeat request) for link adaption
uphold. [ CITATION KAM10 \l 2057 ]

2.2.2.1. CONVERGENCE SUB LAYER (CS)

This sub layer of IEEE 802.16e provides interface between network layers and the MAC
layer
Figure 14 Fig: IEEE 802.16 Detailed MAC layer protocol functions (ETEMAD et al.,
2010)
MACSDUs to be classified and mapped to correct MAC5 and formatting for protocol data
unit (PDU) are performed by CS layer. Packet CS6 and Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
CS are two types of convergence sub layer in IEEE 802.16 which are used for rules to
classify QOS. The various ATM services associated with MAC CPS are linked to the logical
interface by ATM CS. The protocols based on packet like IEEE 802.3, IP (IPv4 and IPv6)
and point to point (PPP) are defined and transported via packet CS. The packet CS has a
standard defined by IEEE and ATM CS is planned for future with no further implementation.
[ CITATION KAM10 \l 2057 ], [ CITATION MAM \l 2057 ]
2.2.2.2. MAC SUB LAYER-COMMON (MAC CPS)

This part of MAC plays a key role in QOS of air interface. The QOS attributes over the air
interface along with fragmentation and management of data units are performed in MAC
5
Higher layer addresses – no visibility in air interface
6
Ethernet, IPv4, IPv6

CPS. MAC CPS is also termed as middle MAC layer and accountable for establishing
connection and allocating bandwidth. MAC CPS is signified as the core of MAC as it
performs numerous operations like frame construction, radio resource management (RRM),
scheduling, mobility support, call admission control (CAC), automatic repeat request (ARQ)
along with band with properties like request, management and allocation.
2.2.2.3. SECURITY SUB LAYER

IEEE 802.16 working group has defined a separate layer in MAC section for security. It
provides encryption, authentication, integrity control access and exchange of secure key.
Privacy key management (PKM), a protocol for authentication is used with cryptographic
suites for the transfer of data between BS and SS.
2.2.3. TRANSMISSION CONVERGENCE SUB LAYER (TC)

This layer is present in between the PHY and MAC layer, and supports during data
transmission by converting variable length MPDU’s to fixed length blocks. The TCS is
defined in WiMAX OFDMA PHY layer and optional to be configured. The MACPDUs are
of variable length. If configured, during transmission of MACPDUs, FEC blocks of proper
length are created by add a pointer byte in the beginning. TCS is mostly enabled both in
downlink and uplink for preburst basis. As mentioned TCS is optional and included only in
WiMAX OFDM PHY layer and not in OFDMA PHY layer. [ CITATION Pro07 \l 2057 ]
2.3. RADIO PROPAGATION MODELS

Radio propagation models are empirical mathematical procedure for the depiction of radio
wave propagation as a “function of distance, frequency or any specific conditions” [ CITATION
Zer09 \l 2057 ]. Radio waves help in communication of a wireless network, both in short and
long range which is based on radio transmission. The geographical environment (mountains,
water area, plains and hills) or propagation environment along with physical parameters of
the medium like temperature, pressure, terrains, humidity, and environmental noise affects
the radio wave propagation. [ CITATION Joh05 \l 2057 ] Path loss (PL) happens when
electromagnetic waves interact with environment when transmitted between the source
antenna (a) transmitter and destination antenna (a) receiver. The signal undergoes reflection,
diffraction, scattering and absorption before hitting the receiver. This is because; the signal
transmission channel includes buildings, obstacles, trees, foliage, vegetation and moist air.
This reduces the amplitude and phase of the signal.

Figure 15 Reflection, Diffraction, Scattering (Jain, 2006)
2.3.1. FREE SPACE PATH LOSS (FSPL)

The signal loss that happens between the transmitter and the receiver in free space with Line
of Sight condition is termed as free space path loss or generally abbreviated as FSPL. Free
space path loss is calculated based on distance between the transmitter and receiver, signal
wavelength (ƛ) expressed in meters. Transmitter gain, receiver gain, transmitter & receiver
losses, transmitted power, obstacles in path, etc, are excluded in calculation. Free space loss
holds good in idealistic conditions assuming the transmitter antenna to be isotropic. The log
formula for free space path loss is;
FSPL (db) = 20 log 10 (d) + 20 log 10 (f) + 32.44
Where; f – signal frequency of operating frequency (MHz), d - distance between the

transmitter and receiver (expressed in km). [ CITATION Joh05 \l 2057 ]
2.3.2. PATH LOSS

Path loss is defined as the difference between transmitted and received power represented in
decibels (dB).Path loss increases as the distance between the mobile station (MS) and base
station (BS) increases and is highly influenced by terrain environment. The signal hits the
receiver after crossing a multipath with high attenuation on the RF signal. This is explained
by Friis equation;

Pr= (d) PtGtGrƛ2/ (4π)2d2L
The parameters are defined in below fig:
Figure 16 Path loss definition and elements of wireless communication system

(Saunders & Zavala, 2007)
In general, path loss is defined as decrease in signal amplitude caused due to the following
factors;
 Absorption losses
 Multipath
 Diffraction
 Doppler effect
 Free space loss
 Atmosphere
 Vegetation and building obstacles
 Terrain
Path loss is expressed as (PL in dB);
PL (d) = PL (do) +10γlog (d/do) +Xσ
“Where
γ – Power law relationship between the separation distance and received power
Xσ - denotes a zero-mean Gaussian random variable of standard deviation σ
do - received power reference point” [ CITATION Sar03 \l 2057 ], [ CITATION Joh05 \l 2057 ].

Propagation models help to predict coverage, range and capacity of wireless access system in
idealistic conditions. This can be extended to real time environment with correction factors
and approximating results. The signal received at the destination/receiver is a composite
signal of the diffracted, multi-reflected on building sites and the direct signal between the
transmitter and receiver. There exist multiple propagation models for numerous environment
conditions, which includes OKUMURA Model, HATA Model, Cost 231 HATA Model,
Longley-Rice Model, ITU Terrain Model, COST 231 Walfisch-Bertoni Model, COST 231
Walfisch Ikegami mode, Stanford University interim (SUI) model, Erceg Model, ECC – 33,
Ericsson, Macro model, Winner II suburban, Har-Xia-Bertoni, Lee model, MBX (Maciel,
Bertoni & Xia) model and numerous ITU-R models based on vegetation characteristics.
In this thesis, 5 propagation models are compared and contrasted for Mobile WiMAX. The
radio propagation models are test for WiMAX in different environments, operating
frequencies with adaptive modulation and coding index.
2.3.3. OKUMURA HATA

OKUMURA-HATA Model (a) HATA model is developed based on path loss data collected
from OKUMURA model. This model is easy to apply in real time conditions and can be
extended to different terrains with correction factors. This model can be applied to macro
cellular environment and exploited more in lower frequencies (less than 2 GHz7).
Urban Areas
L50(dB) = 69.55 + 26.16log (fc) -13.82log (ht) – a (hr) + [44.9 – 6.55log(ht)] log (d)
Where;
 fc --operating frequency between 150 MHz to 1500 MHz

 ht--height of the transmitting antenna; range 30 meters to 200 meters
 d--distance between the transmitter and receiver in km.
 a (hr) denoted the mobile antenna/CPE/mobile station height correction factor.
For urban/dense urban/core urban or large cities
a (hr) = 8.29(log (1.54 hr))2 -1.1, for operating frequency fc ≤200 MHz
a (hr) = 3.2(log (11.75 hr))2 -4.97, for operating frequency fc ≤400 MHz
7
Source – Literature Survey

In suburban and residential areas hr is in the range; 1 meters to 10 meters.
a (hr) = (1.1log (fc)-0.7) hr – (1.56log (fc) -0.8)
Path loss for suburban and residential areas;
L50(dB) = L50 (urban) – 4.78 (log(fc ))2 + 18.33log (fc)-40.94
Path loss for Open/Rural areas
L50(dB) = L50 (urban) – 2(log (fc/28))2 – 5.4
OKUMURA HATA model can also be applied to irregular terrain, due to the additions of
parametric corrections factors, which is not available in the basic model (OKUMURA).
[ CITATION Joh05 \l 2057 ], [ CITATION Sim07 \l 2057 ]
2.3.4. COST 231 HATA

COST 231 (a) COST HATA (a) COST 231 HATA (a) HATA Model PCS extension is a
radio propagation model developed by the European Union. This model was initially
proposed for dense urban areas like Tokyo city, but later extended to Suburban and
Rural/Open areas. This model was developed based on European standards8 and addressing
the frequency limitation of OKUMURA HATA model. The operating frequency range of
COST 231 HATA model is between 1500 MHz to 2000 MHz. The effective Transmitter
antenna height /Base station value ranges between 30 meters to 200 meters. The mobile
station/CPE/receiver antenna height varies of 1 meter to 10 meters. The distance, d between
the transmitter and receiver is of 1 km to 20 kms.
Path loss is given by
L50 (dB) = 46.3+33.9 log (fc) – 13.82 log (ht) – a (hr) + [44.9 – 6.5 log (ht)] log (d) +C
Where;
 fc operating frequency expressed in MHz

 ht effective base station antenna height expressed in meters
 hr effective mobile station antenna height in meters
 a(hr) correction factor for mobile station antenna height
8
Propagation conditions of European Continent

 d distance between transmitter and receiver

 C9 = 0 dB, for suburban, residential, medium cities and vegetation
 C = 3 dB, for urban, metropolitan centre
COST 231 HATA model is mainly used in mobile telephony with a criterion, “where base
station is above the adjacent roof tops” [ CITATION Joh05 \l 2057 ],[ CITATION Sim07 \l 2057 ].
2.3.5. SUI MODEL (STANFORD UNIVERSITY INTERIM MODEL)

SUI propagation model is an extension of Erceg model 10 and was developed by IEEE BWA
group (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers- Broadband Wireless Access Working
group). This model was proposed as solution for WiMAX planning at 3.5GHz. This model
can be used in a link distance range of 0.1km to 8km. The height of base station antenna can
be from 10m to 80m, with the receiving antenna height of 2m to 10m. SUI models introduce
two new components, γ the path loss exponent, s- week fading standard deviation. Both
components are random variables through statistical procedure. The Erceg model supported 3
major terrain types. Each terrain in Erceg model was further classified in two types, making a
total of 6 types of classifications for SUI model.
Erceg Model SUI Model Terrain Description

Type A SUI – 5 , SUI Hilly terrain with moderate to heavy tree density
–6
Type B SUI – 3, SUI – Hilly terrain with light tree density or flat terrain with
4 moderate to heavy tree density
Type C SUI – 1, SUI – Light tree density
2
Figure 17 Erceg vs. SUI model terrain description (DU & M.N.S.Swamy, 2010)
Path loss for SUI model is given by;
PLSUI = A + 10 γ log (d/do) + Xf + Xh +s, for d>d0

9
Environmental Factor
10
Erceg Model- model developed from data collected at 95 macro cells at 1.9 GHz. [ CITATION Vin99 \l 2057 ]

A = 20 log (4πd0 /ƛ)
γ = a – bht + c/ht
“Where;
 d distance between the transmitter and receiver (expressed in meters)

 d0 = 100 meters
 Xf correction factor for frequencies above 2 GHz
 Xh correction factor for receiver antenna height
 ƛ wavelength (expressed in meters)
 γ the path loss exponent
 s shadowing factor for vegetation and obstacles in the propagation path
 ht height of the base station in metres
and a, b, c are constants as per below Fig 18
MODEL SUI – 5 , SUI – 6 SUI – 3, SUI – 4 SUI – 1, SUI – 2

PARAMETERS (Hilly terrain with (Hilly terrain with (Light tree density)
moderate to heavy light tree density or
tree density) flat terrain with
moderate to heavy
tree density)
A 4.6 4 3.6
B 0.0075 0.0065 0.005
C 12.6 17.1 20
Figure 18 SUI model constants [ CITATION Vin99 \l 2057 ]

The SUI model has extra features compared to the original Erceg model, hence can be used
more precisely in different terrains like urban, suburban and rural. [ CITATION KEL10 \l 2057 ] ,
[ CITATION Vin99 \l 2057 ]
2.3.6. ITU R P 525

ITU R P 525 is used for point – point link in free space loss. This propagation model is an
extension of Free Space Loss for isotropic antennas
The path loss for ITU R P 525 is given by;
Lbf = Pt – E + 20 log f + 167.2
E = Pt – 20 log d +74.8
Where;
 Lbf Free space propagation for isotropic radiators

 Pt Power transmitted (isotropic) expressed in dBW
 E Electric Field Strength (expressed in dBµV/m
 f Frequency expressed in GHz
 d Distance between the transmitted and receiving isotropic antenna (km) [ CITATION
ITU94 \l 2057 ]
2.4. MULTIPATH PROPAGATION

Wide band channels are used in WiMAX for wider bandwidth to support high data rates. The
signal as it passes from the transmitter to reach the receiver, undergoes a series of path and
finally reaches the destination. If a radio signal takes more than one path to reach the
receiver, it is called multipath propagation. Multipath propagation is common in wireless and
mobile environment, since the radio signal travels through an unguided wave medium i.e. air
medium between the transmitter and receiver. The effects of multipath propagation on wide
band channels make the symbols to spread to the next adjacent symbol resulting in inter
symbol interference. WiMAX uses a modulation technique called OFDM, which helps to
mitigate ISI, caused due to multipath propagation in NLOS environments. OFDM makes “the
symbol duration of the subcarriers is increased in relation to the delay spread” [ CITATION
Zer091 \l 2057 ]. Environmental factors, refraction and reflection caused by ionosphere,
atmosphere duct, water bodies, obstacles such as buildings and mountains cause the signal to
fade in the propagating media. Fading happens due to multipath propagation. The

propagation channel is part of mobile radio system between the transmitter and the receiver.
The influence of multipath propagation on the transmitted signal causes the receiver to
receive multiple copies of the same transmitted signal. At the receiver the multiple copies of
the transmitted signal are added with different phases thereby increasing bit error rate and
making the single power poor for detection at the receiver. In digital radio communications,
multipath causes inter symbol interference (ISI). ISI caused due multipath propagation
reduces the quality of communications in digital radio and making the signal to blur over
long distance. This introduces errors on the transmitted signal and thereby increasing the
BER.
Figure 19 Multipath reflections (RÆKKEN & LØVNES, 1995)
Multipath propagation is one of the major conditions to be evaluated to make outdoor

coverage effective in mobile and wireless environment. In mobile and wireless
communications “the received signal power is proportional to d-3.5 or d-4, where d is the
distance between the transmitter and receiver” [ CITATION RUN95 \l 2057 ]. If the receiver unit
is considered to be mobile, the obstacles and interference level varies with increase or
decrease in signal attenuation.

Figure 20 multipath of two pulses shown in time variant channel (Stallings, 2002)
The above fig explains multipath in time variant channel. The delayed pulses caused due to
multipath propagation acts as a noise source to the succeeding primary pulse, making the
signal detection at the receiver more difficult. Multipath propagation in mobile environment
makes the signal to fade over long distance. This is called multipath induced fading or signal
fading. Fading depends on channel coherence time and is closely associated to term called
Doppler spread/effect. In mobile communications, the receiver can move close or away from
the transmitter antenna causing a “change in frequency of a wave” [ CITATION Wil02 \l 2057 ].
This phenomenon is termed as Doppler Shift. Fading in mobile environment may be
categorized into four types namely;
 Fast fading
 Slow fading
 Flat fading
 Frequency selective fading.
CHAPTER 3

3. LITERATURE SURVEY
WiMAX has addressed major socio-economic and technical challenges by providing higher
data rates and has profitably pierced the commercial blockade. This has made WiMAX
technology as the future of wireless and mobile networks. WiMAX offers a solution - cost
effective broadband access with higher degree coverage compared to previous generations of
wireless technologies, in environments where communication wasn’t feasible during earlier
stages of telecommunication. The coverage mechanism is based on precise positioning of
base station tower and is evaluated based on path loss and signal power measurements. The
accurate placement of base station with appropriate configurations 11 provides maximum
promised coverage as well achieving CAPEX (Capital Expenditure) and OPEX (Operational
Expenditure).
This chapter provides a concrete framework for path loss and RSSI predictions based on
radio propagation models. Towards the end of this chapter, helps us to alleviate the following
things;
 Precise location of base stations.

 Base station (BS) tower configuration based on terrain.
 Understanding path loss models on different terrains, based on path loss and RSSI.
The literature survey is sectored into 4 major topics
 Propagation models in urban terrain

 Propagation models in semi urban terrain
 Propagation models in rural & open terrain
 Propagation models in multi terrain environment.
3.1. PROPAGATION MODELS IN URBAN TERRAIN

The following researchers have focussed on testing WiMAX at different frequencies in urban
terrain. City centres, rapidly growing commercial towns with high buildings and huge
population clusters were focussed to measure WiMAX performance based on path loss and
received signal power.
In [ CITATION Gla10 \l 1033 ], propagation measurements are done in city of Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil. An urban environment with 3.5 GHz was considered for measurement of path loss for
11
Based on terrain, BS parameters vary.

coverage. A microcell environment; high buildings, a large retail centre with transmitter
antenna placed on roof top of the building with height of approximately 30m was taken into
consideration for measurement purpose. SUI - B model, Walfisch - Bertoni model, COST -
231 are statistical models considered for radio propagation of Mobile - WiMAX at 3.5 GHz.
Stronger signal strength results were predicted in COST - 231 and Walfisch - Bertoni model.
At a distance greater than 200m, weaker signal was predicted by SUI – B model. The test was
also conducted in another city Copacabana, Brazil. “Copacabana is characterised by a high
building density area (there is almost no distance between the buildings) with almost
orthogonal streets some with and some without trees. The district is surrounded by rocky
mountains and by the sea” [ CITATION Gla10 \l 1033 ]. The radio propagation models provided
similar results with good signal coverage up to 1km. Received signal powers varied from
-30dBm to -110dBm. The highest signal power was observed at a location, where there exists
a LOS. The results proved that the existing propagation models were not able to provide a
better coverage prediction in micro – cell environment at 3.5 GHz. “The 3.5 GHz frequency
band has great influence in WiMAX coverage, since in this frequency range there is a lower
intensity of the signal that can propagate by reflection and diffraction, besides the greater
attenuation because of the higher frequency range“[ CITATION Gla10 \l 1033 ].
[ CITATION Ria08 \l 1033 ] presents WiMAX propagation and coverage analysis in Saarbrucken,
Germany, operating at a frequency of 3.5 GHz. The radio propagation models used in
Saarbrucken for testing are Erceg model, COST 231 Walfisch-Ikegami model and Har-Xia-
Bertoni model. Cost 231 HATA model is employed for testing and supports frequency range
from 800 MHz to 2 GHz, hence HATA corrections terms are applied before analysing in the
urban environment. “The base station used is MacroMax with 1200 sectors. The first sector
feeds the inner city with higher buildings (5-12 floors); second sector feeds an area within
smaller buildings (up to 3-5 floors) and industrial settlements“ [ CITATION Ria08 \l 1033 ]. The
achieved throughput was 8.7 Mbps with modulation technique of 16 QAM ¾ , with a wide
channel bandwidth of 3.5 MHz. It has been identified that there is a decrease in the received
signal power with distance to the base station, nevertheless the data rate can be high due to
robustness offered by OFDM based WiMAX. The result obtained from Har-Xia-Bertoni
model wasn’t idealistic. COST 231 Walfisch-Ikegami and Erceg model provided elegant
results supporting WiMAX planning. [ CITATION Ria08 \l 1033 ]
In [ CITATION Fur10 \l 1033 ], extensive measurements were performed in Mobile-WiMAX

system for cosmopolitan and desert terrains. The radio propagation was done in Oman,
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) for Mobile WiMAX. Since most of the propagation models
were developed based on assumptions of vegetations and rainfall, OKUMURA HATA Model
was not suitable. The paper concludes that existing propagation models provides worst results
in desert terrain as existing models were developed on a different environment altogether.
“The path loss exponent for the desert terrain which is obtained for Mobile – WiMAX is
worse than that of free space but better than that of urban shadowed environment” [ CITATION
Fur10 \l 1033 ]. Walfisch-Ikegami model which is an extension of COST – 231 HATA model
was identified to be the suitable model for fast growing terrains and deserts, with absence of
vegetation and rainfall.
[ CITATION Moh11 \l 1033 ] comprehends about large number of users for higher throughput
and wider coverage. The experiment is carried out at carrier frequency in range of 2 – 6 GHz
and distance between the transmitter antenna to the receiving antenna is kept constant at 5 km
in urban, rural and semi urban. The radio propagation models applied are OKUMURA,
HATA, COST – 231 HATA, Erceg, Walfisch, Lee, ECC – 33 and Ericsson. “Based on
simulation results, Erceg model provided closest result to the real measurement data.
Minimum path loss was obtained in urban environment with the following models; Erceg,
HATA and COST-231. Erceg, COST-231 HATA, HATA and ECC – 33 models provided the
minimum path loss in sub-urban environment. HATA model and Erceg model provided
minimum path loss in rural environments “[ CITATION Moh11 \l 1033 ].
In [ CITATION Dal12 \l 1033 ], path loss models results are compared between theoretical and
measured. The empirical models considered for path loss measurements are SUI model,
COST – 231 HATA model, ECC model and statistical model; ITU-R (P.1411-1) model. The
path loss experiments were done at 2.3 GHz frequency in commercial hub, Mumbai, western
India. The western India has diversified terrains which helped to measure and analyze path
loss in;
 Partly dense urban

 Partly lightly dense urban
 Partly urban
 Partly open
 Partly low density vegetation
 Partly industrial zone
 Marginal coastal areas

A total of seventeen base stations (BS) were placed at different locations with varying
antenna heights, operating at 2.3 GHz to estimate path loss and the results proved that path
loss varied between 100 – 160 dB for distance over 500 meters. The ECC model and COST
231- HATA model proved to be the best, compared to rest of models used for predicting
radio path loss. [ CITATION Dal12 \l 1033 ]
A coverage model for WiMAX, to estimate the downlink (Base station to user equipment)
performances in a fixed radio channel was developed based on the assumption of uniform
traffic spread over the entire cell area in [ CITATION Pao12 \l 1033 ] . The field trial of WiMAX
was carried out in the urban city of Milan, Italy with European standard - Operating
frequency at 3.5 GHz. The advantage feature of WiMAX; adaptive modulation and coding
was tested in the field trial to evaluate spectral efficiency and coverage. The WiMAX layout
for the field trial includes a Base station antenna at height of 47 meters above ground level,
channel bandwidth of 3.5 MHz, 18 dBi antenna gain and two 120 o sectored antenna. The
duplexing mode for trial was FDD (frequency division duplex). The Erceg model was taken
in consideration to evaluate path loss and separate measurements were made on antenna
sectors. [ CITATION Pao12 \l 1033 ] paper focused much on proving WiMAX spectral efficiency
and finally concluding that radius of coverage fluctuates and is firmly based on terrain and
propagation conditions assumed.
In [ CITATION Wal05 \l 1033 ] WiMAX propagation was performed in urban environment of

Birmingham, Liverpool, London and Manchester (United Kingdom). Path loss was measured
at a frequency of 3.5 GHz and base station transmitter was placed at height between 15-25
meters, while the mobile station was fixed at a constant height of 2.5 meters. Log-normal
shadow fading model provided better results compared to existing empirical propagation
models which are designed for low frequency and short distances.
[ CITATION Fab05 \l 1033 ] predicted and analyzed WiMAX coverage based on receiver
sensitivity. The literature survey done on WiMAX coverage concluded that existing empirical
models provided appropriate results for frequency less than 2 GHz and for specific terrains.
Hence [ CITATION Fab05 \l 1033 ] tried to maximize WiMAX coverage by modifying channel
bandwidth, operating frequency and modulation scheme and coding index. Although
WiMAX supports NLOS with the key feature of OFDM technique, higher modulation
schemes like 64 QAM with better coding index proved to have the worst coverage. Coverage
prediction was performed at two frequencies. 3.5 GHz (licensed) and 5.8 GHz (unlicensed)

with a varied channel bandwidth between 1.75 MHz to 20 MHz. Modulation schemes like
QPSK and 64-QAM with varied coding rates like ½, 2/3 and ¾ were analyzed for coverage
prediction based on receiver sensitivity. 64 QAM which is considered as the highest
performance modulation technique with a coding rate of ¾ for WiMAX, provided the worst
coverage. Increasing channel bandwidth above realistic conditions to 10-20 MHz, with
constant used subcarriers reduces coverage both in licensed (3.5 GHz) and unlicensed (5.8
GHz) band. This is due to “effectiveness of equalization and coding schemes, thus regarding
the overall OFDM receiver performance” [ CITATION Fab05 \l 1033 ] . Manipulating channel
bandwidth, modulation schemes and coding rates had a great impact on data rate and
coverage radius.
In [ CITATION Siv10 \l 1033 ] WiMAX path loss is evaluated in an urban environment,

Cyberjaya - Malaysia. Cyberjaya is considered to be the Silicon valley of Malaysia and is
made up of both terrain profiles; urban and suburban. The path loss models considered are
SUI model, Egli model and COST 231 HATA (suburban profile). The results conclude that
multipath fading happens more in urban and dense urban because of sky scrapers and multi-
storey buildings. The field trial measurements of WiMAX were done at 2.3 GHz frequency
band. The receiver antenna height was varied between 2 m - 4 m to measure and analyze
receiver sensitivity on path loss, while the transmitting antenna was kept at 23 meters,
constant height. The path loss was calculated for different propagation models and graphs
were plotted for path loss (dB) against log distance. The theoretical vs. measured path loss
was compared and COST 231 HATA model promised to be the best in open urban and urban
scenarios. The SUI and Egli model over estimated path loss in both suburban and open urban
terrains. Similarly in [ CITATION Yun08 \l 1033 ] WiMAX coverage measurements were made
based on received signal power. Luodong, an urban settlement in, Taiwan required 16 base
stations to cover the whole area of 11.34 km2 and 24 base stations in Yilan city, Taiwan to
provide 80% coverage. The frequency band for WiMAX in Taiwan is range of 2.5 – 2.69
GHz.
In [ CITATION Win07 \l 1033 ] WiMAX coverage measurements were made based on path loss
and signal power. MATLAB was used to compare between measured results and predicted
results. WiMAX measurements were made in a city of Cakovec, Croatia. Cakovec located in
Croatian County is densely populated with both buildings and human population. The terrain
classification was based on BWA (Broadband Wireless Access) Working group into three
categories.

 Terrain A with highest path loss hilly terrain

 Terrain B with medium path loss and characterised between flat terrain and hilly
terrain
 Terrain C with least path loss flat terrain.
The measurements were separately made for both LOS and NLOS condition with
transmitting base station antenna height of 35 meters. The transmitter antenna gain is 14.5
dBi and the receiver antenna gain is 14 dBi. Graphs are plotted between path loss (dB) vs.
distance and received signal power (dBm) vs. distance (meters). HATA path loss models
were used to evaluate WiMAX coverage at 3.5 GHz. The results obtained via MATLAB,
described HATA model as the best for WiMAX coverage at 3.5 GHz.
[ CITATION CVR10 \l 2057 ] performed WiMAX propagation measurements in Rio de Janeiro,

Brazil a dense urban area. The scalable bandwidth feature of WiMAX was analyzed based on
LOS and NLOS conditions. Semi-empirical models like ITU – R P. 1546-3, ITU – R P. 1411
– 3 and empirical models like SUI (Stanford University Interim) A, B, C are evaluated for
dense urban conditions. The transmitting antenna was placed at a height of 42 meters above
ground level with a gain of 15 dBi, while the receiving CPE or MS (mobile Station) had an
antenna gain of 5 dBi. The MS was mounted on a vehicle with GPS receiver fixed and
moving at an average speed of 40km/hr. The propagation measurements were made and
separate graphs were plotted for LOS and NLOS conditions. The results inferred are that ITU
– R P.1411 under estimated path loss, while ITU – R P.1546 over estimated path loss with
varying CPE or MS height. SUI results were better in LOS conditions, while in NLOS
conditions it overestimated for long distance and under estimated for shorter paths.
3.2. PROPAGATION MODELS IN SUBURBAN TERRAIN

Residential communities are expanding and emerging with a high requirement for coverage
and data rate. This part of the dissertation focuses on the study conducted by various
researchers in suburban terrains based on path loss and signal power received. Suburban
terrain includes residential communities, retail centres, and detached houses with medium
population distribution.
In [ CITATION Mil07 \l 1033 ] path loss predictions are done with empirical models for fixed and
mobile wireless systems. The propagation models considered for WiMAX at 3.5 GHz are
COST 231 HATA, Model 9999, SUI (Stanford University Interim) Model and Macro model.

WiMAX system at 3.5 GHz is compared in both urban and suburban areas with separate
analysis made for NLOS (Non line of sight) and LOS (Line of sight) propagation conditions.
It is expected in ideal conditions Mobile-WiMAX supports a coverage of 50 kms (31 miles),
with a peak data rate of 75 mbps in downlink, but in real time it has been identified that
signal degrades with response to environment, surrounding objects and structure in between
the receiver and transmitter. In real time environment, Mobile – WiMAX supports coverage
between 5 km to 8 km with peak bit rate of max 2 Mbps. In [ CITATION Mil07 \l 1033 ]
coverage measurements are done during spring of 2007, in city Osijek, Croatia. Osijek a
highly residential area, suburban region, 33 measurements are taken at 28 locations with
transmitting antenna at a height of 59 meters and receiving antenna height at 3 meters. Using
the SUI model the path loss component (γ) was identified to be 2 dB in urban environment
and urban NLOS environment the path loss (γ) varied between 3-5 dB. SUI model was
identified as the best radio propagation model, while the other 3 models under-estimated or
over-estimated the received power. The COST 231 HATA Model under-estimated the
receiver power, while Model 9999 and Macro model over-estimated received power. Testing
the above mentioned 4 statistical models at Osijek, Croatia helped to identify that receiver
power remains constant with distance. SUI model and Macro model proved to be the best
propagation models with lowest error standard deviation for WiMAX at 3.5 GHz. This paper
also identifies that “separation of prediction for NLOS and LOS conditions improves
prediction accuracy if the most suitable model is chosen for any given location” [ CITATION
Mil07 \l 1033 ].
In [ CITATION Bac \l 1033 ]; coverage of WiMAX is compared at two different frequencies, 2.5
GHz and 3.5 GHz. The propagation models identified for comparison are ECC - 33,
WINNER II-Suburban, SUI - Flat Model and COST 231 HATA. It has been identified that
distance to the site had a major impact on propagation model results. The comparison of
WiMAX coverage between two different frequencies is based on following 4 assessments;
comparison of outdoor coverage footprints, indoor coverage, impact of local clutter and
impact on site configuration. The collection of data for coverage comparison was done both
by drive tests; a vehicle with collection system fitted with GPS and walk tests; for indoor
penetration loss measurements. Both walk tests and drive test was carried out independently
to improve prediction accuracy for WiMAX deployment. This test was carried out in a
suburban town Kingston, London. Kingston a residential area with a large retail centre, 2
storey buildings with semi-detached and terraced houses, building blocks and mixture of 3-4

floors apartment blocks. The channel bandwidth was assumed to be 10 MHz and transmit
power of 35 dBm for the base station. The coverage was better and similar when close to
transmitter at both the frequencies; 2.5 GHz and 3.5 GHz. It has been identified that WiMAX
coverage performance at 2.5 GHz performed slightly above 3.5 GHz, under same
environment and clutter conditions. “At 2.5 GHz, cell edge performance with respect to
coverage and capacity was better with an average of 2 dB loss at 1 km from the transmitter
location” [ CITATION Bac \l 1033 ].
In [ CITATION Nek11 \l 1033 ], the prime focus is on Performance Evaluation of Mobile -

WiMAX based on Propagation models at 3.5 GHz. A software simulation tool, based on
radio planning for Mobile - WiMAX system in an urban and sub-urban environment is
considered for coverage and performance study. Higher data rates are achieved using
multiple antennas and over all coverage is improved by using QAM (Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation). The coverage measurements are performed in Marousi, a semi-urban area
Athens, Greece. ATDI (Advanced Topographic Development and Images) ICS Telecom
software is used to predict the coverage based on terrain and with the help of aerial
photography, 3D data is generated. The radio propagation models considered for coverage
are, an analytical model- ITU-R P.525/526 and two empirical models namely COST 231 -
HATA and SUI - C model (Stanford University interim). A total of 5 base stations were used
to cover the full area. The large part of area was served with 64 QAM 3/4 modulation, 4 x 2
MIMO system resulting a coverage of 94% with promising results of higher data rate, greater
than 10 Mbps. ITU-R P.525/526 is identified as the best propagation model with a total
coverage of 67.4% of the total area with higher data rates. Robust modulation techniques like
QPSK ½ provided cell coverage of 1.8 km while high performance modulation techniques
like 64 QAM with coding index of ¾ provided coverage up to 750 meters in rural areas.
[ CITATION Nek11 \l 1033 ]
[ CITATION Sha08 \l 1033 ] Comprehends the propagation impairments and signal outages
happening at high frequency range of 2 GHz to 66 GHz. The standard ITU-R (International
Telecommunication Union- Radio communication) propagation models are applied and
individual environmental factors are calculated based on signal degradation, with respect to
signal frequencies and distances at various BER (Bit Error rate). [ CITATION Sha08 \l 1033 ]
observed that, at a high frequency of above 14 GHz with LOS (Line of Sight) link, the signals
are experiencing high level of degradation with maximum outage. The focus is on signal
degradation caused due to terrestrial environment and losses which occur due to atmospheric

multipath and absorption, fog, snow, rain and path loss on in the transmission channel.
COST-231 HATA model supports frequencies between 1.5 GHz to 2 GHz. COST-231
HATA model was proved to be the best radio propagation model with field trial results in
NLOS (Non Line of sight) conditions in urban environment. In frequency range of 2.3 GHz
to 2.5 GHz SUI (Stanford University Interim) models proved to be the best propagation
models based on empirical results. [ CITATION Sha08 \l 1033 ] proved there was high level of
attenuation in the signal level due to rain, atmospheric gases, clouds and fog, snow, terrain
level and multipath fading happening due to atmospheric layers. The above mentioned
environmental factors were evaluated with separate ITU-R propagation models for accuracy
of the signal level lost due to degradation.
Environmental Radio Propagation Advantages of the radio propagation model.

factors model
Rain Attenuation ITU – R 838.2 Terrestrial Link- Rain Attenuation level.
Atmospheric gases ITU – R 676 10 GHz frequency, 50 km distance between

transmitter and receiver, absorption due to
water vapour oxygen.
Clouds and fog ITU – R 840.3 At 0oC, Frequency range 30-60 GHz.
Snow ITU – R P 530-11 Moisture content, hailstorms, thunderstorms.

for rain and wet
snow
ITU – R P. 839
above sea well
Fading due ITU – R 453, ITU – Based on terrain and vegetation, 40 GHz, LOS
atmospheric R 530 path, transmitting .receiving antennas at height
multipath of 30 meters from ground level.
Table 3 Atmospheric effects vs. ITU - R propagation models. [ CITATION Sha08 \l 2057 ]
The above table lists the best radio propagation model to be used for obtaining precision
results for various environmental effects on signal degradation. The last part of the research
paper by [ CITATION Sha08 \l 1033 ] provides information of reducing bit rate, coverage
distance, using different modulation technique for improvement of BER (Bit error rate). “The

reduction in BER doesn’t help in achieving the data rates as expected in all WiMAX
standards” [ CITATION Sha08 \l 1033 ].
[ CITATION Mor09 \l 1033 ] tested WiMAX performance at 3.5 GHz in the suburban terrain of
Mexico and Brazil during 2008. The prime motive addressed by [ CITATION Mor09 \l 1033 ]
was to prove WiMAX as a solution for rural environment, where cable infrastructure
broadband like DSL and FTTH wasn’t feasible. The testing conditions and experimental
parameters assumed for the city of Sao Paulo, Brazil were abnormal. The transmitter antenna
was set at height of 73 meters with 15 o mechanical down tilt and antenna gain of 16.5 dBi.
The path loss measurements in the suburban region were made on a cloudy day, with a
humidity of 34% to 84% and temperature varying between 100 to 22o C. A GPS based
receiver at height of 0.8meters was used to calculate path loss and RSSI. In Mexico City,
Mexico; the calculations were made in normal conditions. The transmitter antenna was
placed at a height of 18 meters with 2 o mechanical tilt and antenna gain of 16 dBi. Path loss
was calculated based on deterministic models like MBX (Maciel, Bertoni & Xia), empirical
models like COST 231 HATA, Erceg, SUI and mixed models like COST Walfisch – Ikegami
Model. The final conclusions are that all propagation models were designed for mobile
applications operating less than 2 GHz frequency and results proved to be worst for WiMAX
at 3.5 GHz. [ CITATION Mor09 \l 1033 ]
In [ CITATION Nic09 \l 1033 ] WiMAX is tested at high frequency of 4.9 GHz in a suburban
region called Tulsa – Oklahoma, United States. The propagation analysis is done in focus to
NLOS and LOS with reference to coverage. The transmitter antenna placed at height of 107
meters, with operating frequency at 4.925 GHz, channel bandwidth of 10 MHz and the
transmitter antenna gain set to 17.5 dB. The receiving antenna was moving at a constant
speed of 15 miles/hr through the coverage area in Tulsa. The radio propagation models
considered for path loss calculation are SUI (Stanford University Interim) model, ECC – 33
model and COST 231 HATA model. The results were compared between the predicted data
and measured data and it proved that COST 231-Hata model was best suitable and closest to
the calculation. ECC – 33 and SUI model over – estimated path loss and proved that these
models were designed for frequency less than 2 GHz. The abnormal height of transmitter
antenna – 107 meters was used to decided determine whether vertical distance had an impact
on propagation and results proved “vertical distance does not linearly affect the propagation
distance” [ CITATION Nic09 \l 1033 ].

In [ CITATION Muh08 \l 1033 ] Mobile - WiMAX propagation was investigated in a

microcellular environment. Ray tracing technique was used to evaluate path loss for coverage
mechanism at two different frequencies 3.5 GHz and 700 MHz. Mobile Cellular coverage
has a biggest constraint due to physical propagation characteristics even though advanced
modulation schemes and OFDMA technology is used in WiMAX. 700 MHz frequency
spectrum was analyzed for WiMAX deployment to focus on large cellular and cost effective
deployment in scarcely dense areas. “Path loss at 700 MHz is 26.5 dB with better building
penetration and lower Doppler shift” [ CITATION Muh08 \l 1033 ]. Separate measurements were
done for LOS and NLOS conditions and graphs were plotted for RSSI (received signal
strength indicator) and path loss. [ CITATION Muh08 \l 1033 ] concludes that path loss and
coverage is highly dependent on WiMAX operating frequency and both parameters increases
exponentially after 1 GHz band. The % of coverage for 700 MHz was 11 dB more than at
frequency of 3.5 GHz.
In [ CITATION Ama09 \l 1033 ] Empirical propagation models like COST 231 HATA, Hata –
Okumura, Erceg and COST 231 Walfisch – Ikegami were used for WiMAX testing at 3.5
GHz band. The experiment was performed in Katubedda, a suburban region in Srilanka.
Measurements were made in commercially deployed networks with the following
specifications; Transmitter antenna height one at 42 meters and other 28 meters above ground
level, 120o sectored vertically polarized antenna with 16 dBi gain. The former transmitting
antenna used a channel bandwidth of 1.75 MHz and the latter 3.5 MHz. A GPS fixed receiver
CPE moving within a distance range of 100meters to 1.5 km, with varying heights at 3m, 4m
and 5m was used to calculate path loss. The Katubedda area of Srilanka is of suburban region
with high tree density and buildings of 10meters on average height. Erceg model was
identified as most suited for path loss calculation and RSSI results proved a gain of 20 dBi at
lower CPE antenna heights.
In [ CITATION And06 \l 1033 ] field measurements for WiMAX were conducted in Ljubljana,
Slovenia. Erceg model was used to evaluate path loss in suburban and urban environment.
Erceg model was initially designed for sub urban environment with a frequency band
between 1.9 GHz to 2.0 GHz, but was extended up to 3.5 GHz with the help of X f- frequency
correction term. The trial included installing two base station antennas, one at the height 55
meters and the other 22 meters, both above the ground level. The gain of transmitting antenna
was 16 dBi and both the antennas had one 90o sector active for coverage. The WiMAX
coverage simulator helped to define LOS and NLOS coverage separately. The coverage

results proved that Erceg model “over-predicts path loss in LOS conditions and under-
predicts in NLOS conditions” [ CITATION And06 \l 1033 ].
According to [ CITATION Snj09 \l 1033 ] the best way to evaluate WiMAX path loss is by
separate propagation in urban, rural and suburban conditions. Signal power of WiMAX is
evaluated at 3.5 GHz frequency band. The empirical propagation models COST 231 - HATA,
SUI – C, Ericsson and Macro model were used in the city of Osijek, Croatia to evaluate path
loss and received signal power. The experimental setup included a transmitting antenna
placed at height of 59 meters, receiving antenna at 3 meters and results for received signal
power were measured at 60 different locations with varying distance between 225 meters to
7169 meters. Macro model proved to be the best for rural environment and SUI C, Ericsson
and Macro provided results which were close to predicted results for received signal power.
COST 231 HATA model either over estimated or under estimated the power level in all the
terrains. Similar WiMAX coverage measurements were done in Taiwan by [ CITATION
YHL12 \l 1033 ] at operating frequency between 2.5 GHz to 2.69 GHz. Signal strength i.e.
RSSI (Received Signal Strength Indication) was measured at 58 different location in the
streets of Taiwan and National Taiwan University. WiMAX coverage was measured based on
RSSI (dBm) and was critically analyzed using different modulations techniques namely;
QPSK, 16QAM, 64 QAM. The channel bandwidth was constant at 10 MHz and WiMAX
coverage was compared between the simulated and measured value based on throughput
(Mbps), RSSI (dBm) as a function of distance and modulation technique.
In [ CITATION Sun08 \l 1033 ] path loss models are used for coverage prediction at 3 different
frequencies; 2.3 GHz, 2.6 GHz and 3.5 GHz. The coverage prediction was performed in
Shanghai, a suburban environment in China. The transmitting antenna placed at a height of
20 meters and receiving antenna at 3 meters. The results confirmed that operating at 2.3 GHz
had the lowest path loss with better coverage.
[ CITATION Yaz11 \l 2057 ] performed WiMAX measurements in a deployed network in

Amman, Jordan. Coverage was analyzed based on signal power received from 3 base stations
with approx. 500 measurements. The selection of operating frequency for WiMAX in Jordan
is 3.5 GHz (Middle East & Europe – 3.5 GHz). The radio propagation models analyzed in
Amman are COST 231 HATA (Urban and Suburban), ECC - 33, and SUI (A, B, C). As 3
Base stations were planted, the CPE/MS can pick up the best signal by connecting to nearest
Base station (handover techniques). The results are inferred by plotting graphs (separately for

all BS) between Received signal power (dBm) vs. distance (m) for all propagation models.
The SUI model performed fairly compared to other models in suburban terrain of Amman
with give specifications. Similar test was conducted by [ CITATION Dam07 \l 2057 ] in Rome to
validated measured free space loss against theoretical values. Two sites were considered; BT
Italy and Ericsson Campus. The operating frequency for WiMAX was selected to be 3.5 GHz
and channel bandwidth of 3.5 MHz at both sites. The city of Rome featured a suburban
terrain, with residential buildings, street widths varying between 4-10 meters and couple of
multi storey buildings with height not exceeding more than 45 meters. The results were
evaluated by plotting separate graphs for path loss (dB) vs. distance (m) and Received signal
power (dBm) vs. distance (m). There existed a miniature variation between measured free
space losses against theoretical values.
3.3. PROPAGATION MODELS IN RURAL & OPEN TERRAIN

Rural and open areas are regions of common interest where broadband has not reached due to
technological barrier. WiMAX was developed focussing rural broadband to provide
geographical coverage extensively. Rural and open areas include green fields, villages,
seaport, mountainous areas, valleys and residential community which are scarcely populated
and covered by forests and dense foliage. This part of the dissertation throws light on
literature conducted for path loss in rural areas.
[ CITATION Pas07 \l 1033 ] centres on propagation loss of Broadband Wireless Access (BWA)
Networks at 3.5 GHz. The WiMAX test bed for rural environment was established in
Canavese, Italy (Turin, a rural region in North – East district). The measurements were taken
rural open area (flat open) bordered by huge mountains. The reason for much focus in rural
environment is due to unpredictable obstacles like seasonal variability, climatic conditions,
tree density, foliage, etc. “The transmitting antenna is vertical polarised and exhibits a gain of
14 dBi, a beam width of 90 0 and 8 0
in azimuth and elevation. The receiving antenna is
vertically polarized (3360 Fibreglass Omni) is mounted on the top of the mast. It is Omni -
directional in azimuth plane with gain of 13 dBi. The mobile receiver comprises an
appropriate band pass filter (3.4 GHz - 3.5 GHz) and a low noise amplifier connected a
spectrum analyser“[ CITATION Pas07 \l 1033 ]. The statistical models considered for radio
propagation analysis include SUI (Stanford University Interim) model and COST 231 HATA
model. Both the models over estimates the propagation losses at the receiver end. [ CITATION
Pas07 \l 2057 ] concludes that existing models are inadequate for testing in rural areas and

overestimate of propagation loss affects the radius of the cell and in high density cells,
external interferences becomes underestimated which affects the overall radio planning.
[ CITATION Gop11 \l 1033 ] helps to define coverage based on path loss in rural areas with
adverse climate. The propagation model was studied in Rajasthan, India during the months of
November 2009 to February 2010, “when cold waves flow and temperature reaches near
freezing point of water, morning time is full of fog, but occasionally clear sky. The area
covered includes light green vegetation, with low height hills scattered and many places with
flat terrain” [ CITATION Gop11 \l 1033 ] . OKUMURA HATA model and SUI – C model
(Stanford University interim) was used in initially at for operating frequency of 2500 MHz
and 3500 MHz. The COST 231 HATA mode was later used for suburban areas for path loss
calculation with minimum tree density. “The experimental setup was made with distance
between the source and destination by 45 kms. The antenna orientations are set at 0 0-1200-
2400, , the output power at of antenna connector set to 40 dBm with gain of 17dBi, frequency
of 5 MHz bandwidth each from 2.6375 GHz to 2. 6525 GHz” [ CITATION Gop11 \l 1033 ]. The
throughput varied between 3.57 Mbps to 16.07 Mbps which varied according to coding
schemes used. A similar study was conducted for WiMAX propagation in 2007 by [ CITATION
SKS09 \l 2057 ]. The coverage prediction was done in Kolkata, suburban area in India, with
both LOS and NLOS conditions. The throughput achieved was order of 2 Mbps with LOS
conditions, where antennas placed in rooftops. In NLOS conditions the transmission was
found to be limited to 2 kms.
According to [ CITATION Viv11 \l 1033 ] SUI model proved to be best for rural environment at
3.5 GHz frequency band. Matlab tool was used to evaluate path loss and models considered
were SUI (Stanford University Interim model), Macro model, HATA OKUMURA, ECC –
33, COST 231 HATA, Dual Slope and Erceg model. The parameters assumed for evaluation
of path loss are “width of roads, building height, road orientation, base station height above
sea level, building separation, distance between AP and CPE and operating frequency”
[ CITATION Viv11 \l 1033 ]. SUI model with 3m receiving CPE antenna height proved to be the
best for rural India with minimum path loss.
Similarly [ CITATION Car08 \l 1033 ] concluded from the literature survey, that existing
empirical propagation models are not suitable for 4G technologies like Mobile – WiMAX
operating at 3.5 GHz. [ CITATION Car08 \l 1033 ] worked on analyzing and transforming IST-
Winner propagation model feasible for WiMAX at 3.5 GHz. WiMAX test was performed in

rural mountainous areas in Italy, Mount Vesuvius near Naples. Matlab was used for
simulation and analyzing based on input parameters. The extension of IST WINNER model
was developed analytically and results were analyzed through computer simulations. The
literature lacked to support these new results and hence a measurement campaign was agreed
to verify the proposed radio propagation model and improve for complex scenarios.
According to [ CITATION Han11 \l 1033 ] propagation models for higher frequencies need to be
chosen based on receiver antenna height and type of environment. WiMAX propagation was
analyzed and compared at 3.5 GHz frequency with the help of MATLAB tool. The empirical
propagation models considered are SUI, Ericsson and COST 231 HATA model. [ CITATION
Han11 \l 1033 ] proved that receiver antenna height has great impact on path loss, based on
calculation made using Matlab software and inferred a variation of 12-14 dB for a change in
receiving antenna height from 2m to 8m. A graph was plotted for path loss (dB) against
distance (km) and SUI model proved to be the best for WiMAX propagation at 3.5 GHz with
lowest prediction error.
In [ CITATION Pål07 \l 1033 ] WiMAX coverage is analyzed based on path loss and real time
physical parameters. There is a constant increase in the number of subscribers with huge
variation in environmental factors which is a key area of focus in [ CITATION Pål07 \l 1033 ].
Separate analyses are made for LOS and NLOS conditions. A fast growing rural region,
Gjovik, Norway is considered for WiMAX deployment at 3.5 GHz. Gjovik is scarcely
populated area, with a city center – suburban region, (max 5 storey buildings). The whole
town of Gjovik was covered with 3 base stations with varying antenna sectors. The channel
bandwidth was constant at 3.5 MHz for downlink and uplink and FDD technique was
utilized. The free space loss (FSL) and COST 231 HATA model were employed to
understand WiMAX coverage in rural and suburban areas. A specially designed tool named
Network Management System (NMS) was used by the operator in real time scenarios to
administrate base station and subscribers users. The tool offer logs for RSSI; both downlink
and uplink, SNR (Signal to Noise Ratio); both uplink and downlink and Path loss results
based on calculations. [ CITATION Pål07 \l 1033 ] isolated path loss models based on LOS and
NLOS conditions. The results which are arrived from logs of NMS proved that FSL (Free
space loss) model proved to be best for LOS conditions as there is no multipath and COST
231 HATA model proved to be the best for NLOS conditions in urban terrain where
multipath fading was more prevalent.

Mobile broadband coverage in rural areas is constantly increasing with number of

subscribers. [ CITATION Tan11 \l 1033 ] focused on WiMAX coverage in rural areas of
Vietnam. The coverage study was done in Bac Ninh, Vietnam. Bac Ninh a region located in
river delta part of Vietnam. 3 different operating frequencies were selected to compare and
analyze WiMAX coverage in Bac Ninh. 450-700 MHz, 2300 - 2500 MHz, 3600 MHz along
with adaptive modulation and coding index along with scalable bandwidth was evaluated for
WiMAX rural coverage. Okumura HATA model was used to investigate coverage based on
path loss – propagation in rural areas. Site specific radio propagation software termed
“Remcom Wireless Insite” is used to analyze outdoor rural coverage. The results confirm that
using directional antennas at 450 MHz with minimum base stations (2) provided a maximum
coverage of 36.92 km. At higher frequency (3.5 GHz) and using isotropic antenna provided
least coverage of 1.21 km.
In [ CITATION Yaz12 \l 2057 ] WiMAX field trial measurements are made in Amman, Jordan.
Amman, largest developing city, with increase in population and commercial centre is a hilly
area with Mediterranean climate. The test specifications include; WiMAX at 3.5 GHz and
transmitting antenna placed at 30 meters height. A GPS fixed receiver at height of 2 meters is
used measure path loss at 250 locations for coverage evaluation. The propagation models
used for path loss evaluation are as follows;
 Free space path loss

 SUI A, B, C
 Cost 231 HATA (urban and rural)
 ECC - 33 (Medium and large)
 Ericsson (urban, rural and suburban)
 Cost 231 Walfisch Ikegami (rural and suburban)
Separate graphs are plotted for path loss (dB) vs. distance (meters) and for RSP (Received
signal Power- dBm) vs. distance (m). From the results inferred SUI – C and COST 231
Walfisch Ikegami proved to be the best models to predict coverage with given specifications.
3.4. PROPAGATION MODELS IN MULTI TERRAIN ENVIRONMENT

A given geographical location is a mixture of all terrains. The following authors have
analysed path loss and received signal power in a given place, which includes two or more
terrains.

In [ CITATION Tom06 \l 1033 ] WiMAX coverage is compared at two different carrier

frequencies; 450 MHz and 3.5 GHz. The statistical models used for analysis being Okumura
HATA model, Longley – Rice model and Erceg path loss model, applied in urban, flat rural
and hilly rural environment. The Erceg path loss models supports suburban regions with
operating frequency band of 1.9 GHz and distinguishes three different terrains;
 Terrain A with highest path loss hilly terrain.

 Terrain B with medium path loss and characterised between flat terrain and hilly
terrain.
 Terrain C with least path loss flat terrain.
The propagation models are appropriated according to terrain, Okumura HATA model for
urban areas, Longley – Rice model for frequency bands from 20 MHz to 40 GHz, with a
distance between the transmitter and receiver ranging between 1 km to 2000 km and supports
to calculate terrain roughness, soil conductivity, climatic conditions, etc. Erceg path loss
models are identical for radio coverage calculation at urban and rural areas with carrier
frequency of 450 MHz. The following parameters are assumed on radio coverage
calculations; the propagation environment and interference from neighbouring radio systems,
transmitter losses, transmitter antenna and its location, receiver antenna sensitivity, receiver
antenna altitude, elevation, azimuth and receiver loss. WiMAX supports different modulation
techniques with varying coding index namely BPSK (Binary Phase Shift Keying), QPSK
(Quadrature Phase Shift Keying), 16 – QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation) and 64 –
QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation). The modulation and coding index were altered
according to terrain to achieve minimum guaranteed BER (Bit Error rate). At 3.5 GHz, radio
coverage for WiMAX in hilly rural terrain wasn’t sufficient compared to 450 MHz. On the
other hand WiMAX at 450 MHz with BPSK modulation technique provided a better
coverage for rural areas. [ CITATION Tom06 \l 1033 ] It has been identified that “higher system
capacity is required in urban areas with a frequency band of 3.5 GHz and 450 MHz provides
a good compromise between coverage and capacity at rural areas”[ CITATION Tom06 \l 1033 ].
According to [ CITATION VSA05 \l 1033 ] existing empirical models are exhaustive and provide
better results for mobile channels and fixed wireless access systems. The propagation models
considered are ECC – 33 models, SUI model (Stanford University Interim model) and COST
231 HATA model at operating frequency of 3.5 GHz and channel bandwidth of 2.5 MHz, in
Cambridge, London. All the three terrains were considered; rural, urban and semi – urban.

“The sub-urban and urban measurements were taken in winter of 2003, as foliage density was
quite low, while the rural measurements were taken in early Autumn of 2003 and so most
trees were still in full leaf”[ CITATION VSA05 \l 1033 ]. The WiMAX trial included 5 Base
stations, 65 subscribers and 550 measurements covering 300 odd locations. The earlier
prediction made against path loss models were compared with the empirical path loss models
measurement made and it proved that ECC - 33 propagation model provided better results at
3.5 GHz, while COST 231 HATA model over-estimated path loss at larger antenna heights
with acceptable results at lower CPE antenna height. The SUI model either over-estimates or
under-estimates path loss results with diverge terrains. [ CITATION VSA05 \l 1033 ].
[ CITATION Dan11 \l 1033 ] intends to portray WiMAX propagation in different environments.

The measurements were made in outdoor, indoor, mixed environments with different antenna
heights which are Omni directional and 1200 sectored antennas. The outdoor propagation
model employed COST 231- Walfisch- Ikegami model, with antenna height of 21.31 meters
which is Omni-directional. The results proved to be as expected, “the field strength is lower
in areas with a medium to high building density. In higher altitude the coverage is very poor,
similar to built up areas in urban centres, owing to the shadowing effect of buildings”
[ CITATION Dan11 \l 1033 ].
The literature conducted by [ CITATION Pam11 \l 1033 ] proved that existing empirical radio
propagation models either over estimated or under estimated cellular coverage. The reasons
behind error prediction on coverage was due to parameters measured like mean signal
strength and mean path loss which aren’t universal parameters in the initial step of network
coverage or radio planning. [ CITATION Pam11 \l 1033 ] utilized propagation models like COST
231 HATA (Urban, Suburban, and Rural), SUI (A, B, C), ECC-33 and Erceg (A, B, C) for
evaluating WiMAX coverage at 3.5 GHz. [ CITATION Pam11 \l 1033 ] mainly focused on
estimating relative error between propagation models for different terrains. It was observed
that error percentage was above 40% for most propagation models irrespective or terrain
selected. [ CITATION Pam11 \l 1033 ] insisted that propagation models should be selected based
on cell radius (required % to cover), terrain specifications (appropriate to topography),
environmental factors, etc. The results of [ CITATION Pam11 \l 1033 ] concluded that SUI – C as
best for rural terrain, COST 231 HATA model for medium and sub urban cities, and ECC –
33 for urban and core urban.

In [ CITATION Meo10 \l 1033 ] WiMAX coverage performances are analyzed based on path loss
and received signal power. A test bed is created for coverage measurements with the
following conditions, 3.5 MHz channel bandwidth, operating 1 GHz frequency, Transmitting
antenna/ base station antenna placed at height of 158 meters and gain of 8 dBi. The mobile
station antenna was 2-3 meters in height with gain of 6 dBi. The path loss models used are
COST 231- Walfish Ikegami model, ITU-R M.1225, Okumura Hata (suburban and open
area), 2- ray ground model and COST 231- HATA model. Coverage and performance
measurements were analyzed for UPLINK using adaptive modulation and coding schemes
(QPSK ½, 16 QAM ¾ and 64 QAM 2/3). The results concluded that 2 ray reflection model in
combination with a transmitting antenna height of 158 m provided coverage up to 37.76 km,
while the data rate was highly unstable due to distance factor. Similarly in [ CITATION Pla12 \l
2057 ] WiMAX coverage based on propagation was analyzed and evaluated in Bulgaria at 3.5
GHz. The NLOS feature of WiMAX was much focused for coverage with the following path
loss models; ECC-33 model, Free space path loss model (FSPL), SUI and Cost 231 Walfisch
Ikegami model. The transmitter antenna is placed in varying heights for all the three terrains;
rural – 20 meters, suburban – 30 meters, urban – 50 meters. The received antenna is placed at
a height of 3 meters. Free path loss model is based on operating frequency and distance
between the transmitter and receiver with no impact considered for reflection, diffraction and
environmental factors. Hence free space path loss model performed fairly compared to the
other 3 models for coverage in all the three terrains. The measurements conclude ECC – 33,
which is an extension of Okumura HATA model performed well in urban and suburban areas
compared to SUI and Cost 231 Walfisch Ikegami. ECC – 33 over estimated path loss in rural
areas.
In [ CITATION Fra08 \l 2057 ] Mobile WiMAX coverage and capacity are compared on two
different band of frequencies; 700 MHz and 2500 MHz band. 700 MHz is analyzed, as FCC
is more interested in lower band frequencies in the spectrum for future wireless technologies.
All the three terrains; urban, rural and suburban with TDD (Time Division Duplexing) are
explored based on channel bandwidth of 10 MHz. Various modulation and coding schemes
with focus on MIMO technology is evaluated. The propagation models considered are
Okumura HATA/HATA model for 700 MHz applications and COST 231 HATA model is
used for 2500 MHz. From the simulation results its was found that at 700 MHz frequency
band with higher modulation scheme ( 64 QAM ¾ ) performed much better for coverage,
user throughput and higher spectral efficiency than the 2500 MHz band with same

specifications. Especially in rural conditions, 700 MHz provided maximum coverage up to 10

kms in LOS conditions. Towards the end [ CITATION Fra08 \l 2057 ] addresses the global
interest of lower part of spectrum for WiMAX frequency allocation. The spectrum between
470 MHz to 862 MHz is much feasible for WiMAX deployment in the rural region with
calculated plan of placing base stations.
Cell size and coverage for WiMAX are estimated based on path loss models in [ CITATION
Mar09 \l 2057 ]. The measurement is done in Taipei, Taiwan with WiMAX operating
frequency at 2.5 GHz and transmitting antenna placed at height of 32 meters. [ CITATION
Mar09 \l 2057 ] was more interested on testing radio propagation models which are defined for
frequency below 2 GHz. The propagation models considered are COST 231 Hata and Erceg
model, both with separate terrain classifications. The coverage calculations were analyzed by
varying different modulations and coding schemes in downlink (QPSK, 16 QAM, and 64
QAM) and sub channels in downlink namely; FUSC and PUSC. The results for path loss
obtained proved that COST 231 HATA performed fairly in suburban and urban environment,
while SUI performed better in rural environments’. [ CITATION Mar09 \l 2057 ]
3.5. COMPARISONS AND DISCUSSION

The summarization of the above literature survey helps us to understand the various
propagation models against multiple terrains and numerous environmental factors.
Researchers have either focused on a specific terrain (urban, suburban, rural or open) for
coverage or multi terrain based on different parameters.
[ CITATION VSA05 \l 2057 ] , [ CITATION Dan11 \l 2057 ] , [ CITATION Tom06 \l 2057 ] tried to realize
WiMAX coverage in multi terrain environment by applying standard empirical models with
realistic BS configurations. Coverage investigations in multi terrain environment concluded
that existing propagation models were not suitable for a technology like WiMAX due to
enhanced features. From the results presented in the above mentioned research papers,
existing radio propagation models either over estimated or underestimated path loss. The
cause being, performing radio planning in multi terrain environment for a technology like
WiMAX with superior features provides incorrect results. This was proved by [ CITATION
Pam11 \l 2057 ] who analyzed the reasons for failure of existing propagation models with
WiMAX technology. The coverage prediction parameters like mean signal strength and
mean path loss aren’t universal parameters at initial step of coverage and testing in multi
terrain had peculiar results. Similar results were seen in [ CITATION Fur10 \l 2057 ] , when path

loss predictions were done in Riyadh desert (KSA). It was clearly evident that existing radio
propagation models weren’t suitable for desert or fast growing terrains similar to Riyadh.
Although [ CITATION Fur10 \l 2057 ] performed path loss predictions in a single terrain (desert
urban), the results of path loss were overestimated or underestimated. The reason for failure
of the propagation models in desert terrain was because all existing propagation models were
developed based on natural vegetation and environment. Moreover, existing propagation
models are modified from the primary propagation model namely OKUMURA model, which
was developed in a dense urban city Tokyo, Japan. Applying a propagation model developed
in an urban terrain to an environment like Riyadh desert, will result in failure of radio
planning.
Authors like [ CITATION Gla10 \l 2057 ],[ CITATION Ria08 \l 2057 ], [ CITATION Pao12 \l 2057 ],
[ CITATION Yaz12 \l 2057 ], [ CITATION Pas07 \l 2057 ] , [ CITATION Nek11 \l 2057 ] ,[ CITATION
Fab05 \l 2057 ], [ CITATION Wal05 \l 2057 ] focused on a specific terrain to predict coverage and
applied standard propagation models which were used in previous generations12. Although
propagation models have correction factors and allowed researchers to extrapolate above the
pre-defined frequency standard, in certain worst case scenario either it over estimated or
under estimated coverage which is not promising for a developing technology like WiMAX.
The above researchers were able to identify a propagation model suitable for a given terrain
with realistic BS configuration parameters. Stanford University Interim model proved to be
the best in majority of the scenarios.
Authors like [ CITATION Nic09 \l 2057 ], [ CITATION Mor09 \l 2057 ] placed BS at heights13
beyond reality to understand the impact of coverage based on height of the transmitting
antenna and operating frequency in open and rural areas. This was tested in rural and open
environments where path loss is minimum compared to urban environments. NLOS coverage
conditions were improved as the height of BS was increased, and throughput was maximum
for channel bandwidth of 10 MHz. Although high frequency radio waves travels less
distance, at 4.9 GHz the coverage was provided up to a distance of 7 km with a maximum
throughput of 4.9 Mbps with 16 QAM 3/ 4 modulation. The vertical height of BS antenna had
no impact on propagation distance at high frequency of 4.9 GHz.
12
2nd Generation, 3rd Generation
13
BS height at 103 metres.

CHAPTER 4
4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY & SYSTEM CONFIGURATION

The solid frame work developed in the literature, provide a lens through view to research
methodology applied. This chapter of dissertation provides an overview about the tool used
for radio planning simulation and the methodology carried out for research.

4.1. ATDI ICS Telecom

Deploying a new technology like WiMAX with advanced technological features, and an
exponential growth in the number of subscribers, providing coverage would have been
tedious work without the support of radio planning tool. ATDI ICS Telecom, version 9.6.2
(Demo version) is used as simulation software for radio planning of WiMAX in this
dissertation. ICS telecom software runs on Windows environment and provides more user
friendly support for the analysis of radio planning and coverage. ICS telecom version 9.6.2
(Demo) supports WiMAX, which has alleviated the process of radio planning. The spectrum
of WiMAX is yet to be defined more precisely by WiMAX forum. Regulators and operators
across the world test WiMAX at different operating frequencies to prove the technology
worthy for wireless and mobile broadband. The literature of this dissertation substantiates the
same. Researchers have tried working in different frequencies from the lower part of the
spectrum i.e. 450 MHz to higher part of the spectrum at 4.9 GHz. Both licensed and
unlicensed spectrums are tested by the researchers for WiMAX deployment. ICS telecom
supports radio planning and modelling in the frequency range of 10 KHz to 450 GHz.
[ CITATION ATD11 \l 2057 ]Radio planning or RF engineers find ICS telecom easier to test a
new technology like WiMAX during the initial stages of testing and deployment. WiMAX as
the latest technology for mobile and broadband communications supports scalable channel
bandwidth, both TDD and FDD mode of duplexing, adaptive modulation and coding scheme
for downlink and uplink, etc. ICS telecom version 9.6.2 (demo) allows us to test all these
features for WiMAX deployment.
In this dissertation, ICS telecom helps us to calculate path loss and received signal power
(RSSI) for four different propagation models in four different terrains. The most important
and the trickiest part being is whether the simulated model can be considered for imitating a
real time scenario. ICS Telecom provides the support and helps to replicate the same in real
time scenario. ICS telecom involves a couple of sub modules to be combined to create an
efficient project for radio planning. Cartographic data are required for a well organised radio
planning and is supported by ICS telecom. These include;

 Digital terrain model: The digital terrain model (DTM) has an extension of *.geo or
*.ics2. It is also termed as the digital elevation model (DEM). The DEM provides
altitude of terrain and the buildings at each given point in the map.
 Map Images: the Map image has an extension of *.img and *.pal. These are image
and palette files which provides colour for each clutter 14 in the map. Image files of
maps can be either orthophoto15 or geocoded16 map. Both the *.img and *.pal has to be
loaded simultaneously and cannot be varied with within the same map.
 Colour patter: The colour palette has an extension of *.sol. This sub module provides
information about ground occupation with references to whether the location has a
building, roof tops, forest, hydro, trees, etc. Propagation models depend on this
information for the signal to be reflected, diffracted or scattered.
 Building layer: The buildings layer has an extension of *.blg. This sub module
provides height of an obstacle above ground level. In urban and sub urban
environments, sky scrapers are identified using the building layer.
 Vector layer: The vector layer has an extension of *.vec. The vector layer provides
elevation and depression above the sea level.
 Map Server file: The map server files has an extension of *.map.
 Parameter file: The parameters file has an extension of *.prm. The parameter file
includes the basic set of predefined parameters for a given a technology. In this
dissertation WiMAX.prm is used.
 Network Objects: The network objects module has an extension of *.EWF. The
network object includes the parameters configured for a given network or subscriber
station. In this dissertation the network objects file includes network parameters for
the subscribers’ stations.
 User Colour Palette: The user colour palette has an extension of *. Pld. The user or
operator may redefine the existing colour palette for each clutter. The colour palette
helps to identify each clutter by a unique colour. This is pre-configured and may be
reconfigured for colourful display.
 Result: The project created via ICS telecom stores the results in a file with an
extension of *. Fid Steps involved in Radio planning using ICS Telecom. This file is
created automatically after the first simulation is completed.[ CITATION ATD11 \l 2057 ]
14
Clutter – height of buildings, obstacles, etc.
15
Orthophoto - aerial photography of a map, geometrically corrected to a uniform scale
16
Geocoded – maps expressed based on latitudes and longitudes.

4.2. HOW ICS telecom works for Radio planning?

The working of ICS telecom is portrayed in the picture below Fig 21 the important modules
have to be loaded to create project for radio planning.
Figure 21 ICS telecom different sub modules to load the project for radio planning
[ CITATION ATD11 \l 2057 ]
As mentioned earlier ICS telecom, version 9.6.2(demo) allows to redefine certain modules
for effective and user friendly radio planning.
The important modules to be loaded for radio planning are DEM module with *.geo
extension, the image and palette files with *.img and *.pal, the clutter layers for heights of
objects with an extension *.sol, the network parameters file (WiMAX) with an extension of
*.prm and the network objects with an extension of *.EWF.
This dissertation involves the classification of 4 terrains namely, rural, open, suburban and
urban. So we require three sets of above mentioned files for an effective radio planning. The
BS needs to be configured precisely for maximum coverage. We adopt the information
available from literature and WiMAX forum to tabulate the BS parameters separately for all
the three terrain. More over the BS parameters are redefined based on the propagation
models, as the propagation models used are originally defined for a different terrain with
specific configurations. The below table tabulates the BS parameters separately for the 4
terrain to be evaluated. These parameters are suitable for the propagation models identified to
be simulated in this dissertation.
Semi
Urban Rural Open
Parameters Urban
Tx antenna height (metres) 25 35 50 60

Tx Antenna gain (dBi) 18 18 18 18

Rx antenna height (metres) 2 2 2 2
Rx antenna gain (dBi) 15 15 15 15
Tx cable losses (dB) 2 2 2 2
Rx Cable Losses (dB) 2 2 2 2
Transmitter Additional Losses (dB) 2 2 2 2
EIRP (W) 45 45 45 45
Tx Antenna Azimuth (0-359) (degree) 90 120 240 135
Tx Antenna Tilt (degree ) 2 2 2 2
Distance between Tx- Rx 5 5 5 5
5 MHz 5 MHz 5 MHz 5 MHz
Channel Band Width
FFT size 512 512 512 512
Sampling Frequency Fs (MHz) 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.6
Sampling Period 1/Fs (µs) 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18
Sub carrier frequency spacing Δf/
10.94 10.94 10.94 10.94
NFFT (KHz)
Useful Symbol period Tb=1/Δf (µs) 91.43 91.43 91.43 91.43
Guard Time Tg=Tb/8 (µs) 11.43 11.43 11.43 11.43
OFDMA Symbol duration Ts=Tb+Tg
102.9 102.9 102.9 102.9
(µs)
Symbol Guard Time interval 1/8 1/8 1/8 1/8
Pilot Power boosting loss (dB) -0.46 -0.46 -0.46 -0.46
KTBF (dBm) -104 -104 -104 -104
Input impedance (ohms) 50 50 50 50
Table 4 WiMAX BS parameters (Source: Literature, WiMAX forum)
Signal to Noise ratio (SNR) varies according modulation technique and coding index. All
versions of WiMAX supports multiple modulation and coding rate in both downlink and
uplink. In this dissertation three different modulation techniques are compared in downlink of
WiMAX namely QPSK ½, 16 QAM ½, and 64 QAM ½. Based on SNR the other coverage
parameters like throughput, interference level, jitter, etc, vary.
The below table provides information of threshold SNR for each modulation technique used.
Modulation technique and coding index SNR threshold

QPSK ½ 5dB
16 QAM ½ 10.5 dB
64 QAM ½ 18 dB
Table 5 Modulation and Coding index vs. SNR threshold (Source: literature)
In the later of the report RSSI is measured to evaluate and analyse coverage. RSSI value
thresholds are set by WiMAX forum for minimum coverage to be provided. RSSI values vary

in accordance with modulating and coding index used. The below table tabulates the RSSI
values vs. Modulation technique to be used. These standards are implemented in this
dissertation for accuracy measurement of coverage. RSSI value also varies with channel
bandwidth used. In this dissertation we assume a 5 MHz TDD WiMAX configuration.
Channel Bandwidth Modulation technique and RSSI threshold limits

coding index (dBm)
5 MHz QPSK 1/2 -96
5 MHz 16 QAM 1/2 -90
5 MHz 64 QAM 1/2 -83
Table 6 Modulating technique and coding index vs. RSSI threshold limits at 5 MHz
channel bandwidth (Source: literature, BSNL)
There exists a limitation while implementing radio planning and coverage predictions using
ICS telecom version 9.6.2 (Demo). The available maps supports three terrains namely; rural,
urban and open. The suburban terrain is not supported. Hence we evaluate the effectiveness
of radio planning of the propagation models in these three terrains alone.
The implementation of radio planning in this dissertation is divided into three parts.
 Radio planning in rural environment

 Radio planning in open environment
 Radio planning in urban environment.
4.3. RADIO PLANNING IN RURAL ENVIRONMENT

As defined in the project aim, coverage predictions in rural environment are based on path
loss and received signal strength indication. Path loss models are identified for each terrain
based on three different frequencies namely; 3.5 GHz, 2.5 GHz and 450 MHz.
The map of Annemasse is considered for rural environment. The 6 important modules
namely, *.geo, *.img,*.pal, *.sol, *.prm and *.ewf of the map of Annemasse is loaded. The
project is completed and is saved with an extension of *.pro. Once the project is saved, it gets
automatically loaded. A BS has to be placed in prime location for the best coverage. In other
words it means that BS should be visible to users for high signal power, SNR and throughput.
The placing of a BS is done by creating a mask. The area to be covered in a given map is
selected using a mask. The advantageous feature of creating a mask to place BS is that many
points in a given area can be tested for coverage. On the left tool bar there exists a polyline
tool which allows loading an existing mask or creating a new mask.

Polyline tool representation in ICS telecom version 9.6.2
As the Annemasse map is of high resolution focussed on a small distance, we selected the
entire map to draw mask and predict the best point to place BS. The below fig 22 represents a
mask defined by the user for placing BS.
Figure 22 creating a mask in rural environment using ICS telecom.[ CITATION ATD11 \l 2057 ]
Once the mask is created, the continue button is selected to predict the best location to place
BS. The below fig 23 appears to select the terrain type for the best BS placement. As we are
planning coverage in a rural environment of Annemasse, we select only rural. By default all
the clutters are selected. ICS telecom also provides an option of selecting the number of
random points inside the mask to place BS. By default the number of random points is 25. In
certain scenarios of irregular terrain a point to place BS can also be selected outside the mask.
This feature is supported by ICS telecom version 9.6.2 used in this dissertation. By default
radio planning engineers select an option “Find point(s) inside selection”. In this dissertation
we use this option to select random points to place BS. We click on start button, which is
located on the right bottom of the screen to proceed to the next step. The calculation starts
and resultant is number of points are identified in the rural map to place BS. All the points
which can provide maximum coverage are highlighted with “blue” colour. The colour palette
is configured with different colours and “blue” colour is been given to a point that can
provide the highest coverage in a given mask of the map of Annemasse.

Figure 23 Clutter selections for BS placement.[ CITATION ATD11 \l 2057 ]
The next step involves placing the BS with appropriate configurations as mentioned in Tab 1,
2. One of the random 25 points is selected which is highlighted “blue” in colour. Left click on
the position and select “Add Tx/Rx” to place BS. A popup menu as shown in fig is displayed
to place BS.
Figure 24 A methodologies shown to place BS. [ CITATION ATD11 \l 2057 ]
The placed BS has to be configured appropriately according to table 3 and table 4

A Tx/Rx parameters box appears where the details are to be configured.
Figure 25 Tx/Rx parameters configuration [ CITATION ATD11 \l 2057 ]
In this dissertation we use WiMAX 5TDD (5MHz channel bandwidth with Time division
Duplexing) to predict coverage. The fig 26 below shows the method to select the WiMAX
5TDD
Figure 26 Selection of WiMAX 5TDD[ CITATION ATD11 \l 2057 ]
Coverage is also analysed based on RSSI predictions. In this dissertation, modulating and
coding index are manipulated based on table 4 and table 5 with pre-defined SNR.
The below fig 28 shows the way to manipulate the modulation and coding index in ICS
telecom version 9.6.2. Based on the modulation and coding index we manually configure the

SNR threshold level. Also we manually modify the channel bandwidth, receiver sensitivity,
receiver antenna gain, etc., according to table 3. The antenna orientation and azimuth are
modified according to the table. The below fig 27, shows the way to modify antenna settings
in ICS telecom version 9.6.2
Figure 27 to modify antenna settings in ICS telecom 9.6.2

Figure 28 modulation technique and coding index in ICS telecom 9.6.2 [ CITATION ATD11 \l
2057 ]
After the stations are configured appropriately, ICS telecom version 9.6.2, allows duplicating
the BS to create a subscriber unit. The duplication process involves left clicking on the
configured BS and selecting stations  duplicate stations.
Figure 29 Duplicating BS to create subscribers unit [ CITATION ATD11 \l 2057 ]

The above fig 29 shows the way to duplicate stations in a given map. In this dissertation we
assume the same BS for coverage predictions for both path loss and RSSI measurements.
Hence we don’t duplicate BS.
We evaluate coverage based on 4 propagation models namely; ITU R p 525, COST 231
HATA, OKUMURA/HATA and SUI model. The below Fig 30, shows the list of propagation
models available in ICS telecom version 9.6.2. At a given time, we select a given propagation
model to predict coverage and path loss.
Figure 30 Propagation models available in ICS telecom version 9.6.2 [ CITATION ATD11 \l
2057 ]
The SUI model has three classifications based on terrain. They are SUI A, SUI B, SUI C. The
below is screen shot to manipulate SUI Model based on terrains to predict coverage and path
loss. The below fig 31 shows the way to manipulate between the SUI models. The a, b, c
coefficients of SUI are defined in Chapter 2.

Figure 31 SUI A, B, C configuration in ICS telecom [ CITATION ATD11 \l 2057 ]
4.4. STEPS INVOLVED IN THE CALCULATION OF PATH LOSS

1. We configure the BS as per table 3 and table 4 respectively
2. We select one of the radio propagation models.
3. The menu on the top provides a tab named “ coverage”
Coverage  Network calculation  Tx/Rx coverage
The fig 32 below shows the way to perform coverage predictions.
Figure 32 Coverage methodologies in ICS telecom version 9.6.2 [ CITATION ATD11 \l 2057 ]

4. We need to select the select the receiver antenna height to be 2 metres with coverage
distance to be 5 kms.
5. We select the appropriate clutter from the list by clicking the options button on the
same screen. In this case it’s rural.
6. Then we select the RSSI threshold as per Table 5
7. Finally we select the Start button to predict coverage.
Figure 33 to select minimum receiving threshold in dBm[ CITATION ATD11 \l 2057 ]
To measure path loss we set the BS as reference point and then we select,
Direct path loss calculation.
As I am calculating for fixed WiMAX, I assume that all subscribers units are fixed antennas
located outdoor on roof tops or house wall for reception.

Then we select the reference point to be 200 metres away from the BS. When the cursor
moves over the map, distance value auto populates on the right top of the screen. At exactly
200 metres left click with the mouse, Path loss value in dB is shown. Similarly we calculate
path loss at a distance of 400, 600, 800, 1000, 1200, 1400, 1600, 1800, and 2000 metres
respectively.
Similarly we measure path loss by changing the propagation models and keeping the receiver
antenna at a constant height and RSSI threshold values.
The next step would be changing the operating frequency to 2.5 GHz and then to 450 MHz.
We tabulate the values of path loss in a spread sheet. The X axis denotes distance in metres;
Y axis denotes path loss in dB.
4.5. CALCULATION OF RSSI

The initial procedures remain the same to measure RSSI. The reference point is chosen once
again as the BS. We move the mouse over the map, the distance (metres) value and RSSI
(dBm) auto populate on the top of the screen.
We modify operating frequency from 3.5 GHz to 2.5 GHz and finally 450 MHz. We also
modify the modulation and coding rates from QPSK 1/2 to 16 QAM ½ and finally 64 QAM
½. We measure the RSSI values at distance of 200, 400, 600, 800, 1000, 1200, 1400, 1600,
1800, and 2000 metres respectively.
We tabulate the values in spread sheet, with X axis taking distance in metres, Y axis taking
RSSI in dBm.
4.6. RADIO PLANNING IN OPEN AND URBAN ENVIRONMENT

The procedures remain the same for Open and Urban environment as mentioned for rural
environment. The major differences includes,
Selecting the appropriate map and its sub modules separately for open and for urban
environment.
We use the map of Algeria for Urban and Teruel, Spain for Open environment.
During the initial stage of placing BS, we select appropriate terrain based on the map. For e.g.
we select urban location for Algeria and forest, hydro, woods for open environment. This is
similar as shown in Fig 23.

Similar procedures are followed to calculate path loss and received signal strength indicator
and values are tabulated in spread sheet.
The maps for urban – Algeria, rural – Annemmase and open – Teruel are shown in Appendix

CHAPTER 5
5. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

In dissertation, this chapter deals with the analysis of results obtained using research
methodology and simulation of path loss models for individual terrains. The propagation
models namely ITU R P 525, COST 231 HATA, OKUMURA/HATA and SUI models are
analysed in three different frequencies 3.5 GHz, 2.5 GHz and 450 MHz based on path loss
results. In the latter part, RSSI is more critically evaluated by also varying modulating
technique and coding index for varying distances. The results obtained help us to categorize
propagation models separately for each terrain, which was the main weakness identified form
the literature review. Few researchers have analysed the propagation models in multi terrain
and are unable to zero down on the propagation models for WiMAX. This dissertation
mitigates the challenge by providing the best propagation model for each terrain. This chapter
is divided into 3 sections namely;
 Radio propagation models in urban terrain

 Radio propagation models in open terrain
 Radio propagation models in rural terrain
5.1. RADIO PROPAGATION MODELS IN URBAN TERRAIN

Coverage prediction for technology like WiMAX is done based on path loss and RSSI.
Although there exists a numerous methods to predict coverage, path loss and RSSI are used
during the initial stages of deployment.

5.1.1. BEST RADIO PROPAGATION MODEL BASED ON PATH LOSS

At 3.5 GHz with QPSK 1/2
200
180
160
140
120 FSL
ITU R P 525
100
Path loss (dB) Cost 231 HATA
80 Okumura HATA
SUI A
60
SUI B
40 SUI C
20
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Distance (metres)
Figure 34 Path loss predictions at 3.5 GHz in Urban environment.
At 2.5 GHz with QPSK 1/2
180
160
140
120
FSL
100
ITU R P 525
Path loss (dB) 80 Cost 231 HATA
Okumura HATA
60 SUI A
SUI B
40 SUI C
20
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Distance (metres)
Figure 35 Path loss predictions at 2.5 GHz in Urban environment.

At 450 MHz with QPSK 1/2
160
140
120
100
FSL
ITU R P 525
80
60 Okumura HATA
SUI A
40 SUI B
SUI C
20
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Distance (metres)
Figure 36 Path loss predictions at 450 MHz in Urban environment.
From the above graphs (Fig 34, 35, 36) it’s clearly evident that SUI – A performed better
compared to the other radio propagation models taken into consideration. SUI model, which
is an extension of Erceg model as proposed in [ CITATION Tom06 \l 1033 ], [ CITATION Pam11 \l
1033 ] proved to be the best. To be more precise, SUI – A is more similar to Erceg A which is
suitable for high path loss environments. Urban environments, due to obstacles have high
path loss and as distance increases path loss also increases rapidly in urban environment.
From the above graph it is clearly evident that SUI – A performed fairly compared to other
models. In [ CITATION Mil07 \l 1033 ], numerous propagation models were considered for path
loss predictions at 3.5 GHz. SUI A performed fairly well in NLOS conditions. Urban
environments, experience more NLOS compared LOS. At 2.5 GHz and 450 MHz, SUI – A
proved to be the best for urban environment. AT 450 MHz, path loss for SUI A is less by 20
dB compared to that of 2.5 GHz and 3.5 GHz. This coincides with universal laws of radio
propagation, path loss increases with increase in operating frequency. SUI – B which is for
medium hilly terrains and suburban terrains is close to SUI A performance at all the three
frequencies. In [ CITATION Pla12 \l 2057 ], WiMAX is tested at 3.5 GHZ in urban terrain with
similar conditions as in table 3. The results prove that SUI-A model as the best for urban

terrain with maximum path loss and performed better compared to the other propagation
models considered.
5.1.2. BEST RADIO PROPAGATION MODEL BASED ON RSSI IN URBAN

ENVIRONMENT
At 3.5 GHz with QPSK ½
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
-20
-40
ITU R p 525
RSSI (dBm) -60 Cost 231 Hata
Okumura Hata
SUI A
-80 SUI B
SUI C
-100
-120
Distance (metres)
Figure 37 RSSI measurements at 3.5 GHz with QPSK ½ in urban environment

At 3.5 GHz with 16 QAM ½
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
-20
-40
ITU R p 525
Okumura Hata
SUI A
-80 SUI B
SUI C
-100
-120
Distance (metres)
Figure 38 RSSI measurements at 3.5 GHz with 16 QAM ½ in urban environment
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
-20
-40
ITU R p 525
Okumura Hata
SUI A
-80 SUI B
SUI C
-100
-120
Distance (metres)

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
-20
-40
ITU R p 525
Okumura Hata
SUI A
-80 SUI B
SUI C
-100
-120
Distance (metres)
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
-20
-40
ITU R p 525
Okumura Hata
SUI A
-80 SUI B
SUI C
-100
-120
Distance (metres)

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
-10
-20
-30
-40
ITU R p 525
Okumura Hata
-60
SUI A
-70 SUI B
SUI C
-80
-90
-100
Distance (metres)
From the above graphs i.e. from fig 37- fig 42. It is clearly evident that SUI – A performed
better in urban environments compared to the other propagation models considered for
received signal power measurements. Reducing the operating frequency from 3.5 GHz to 2.5
GHz had an improvement on received signal strength on all the three modulations and coding
schemes used. Since the received signal power is measured in urban environment, NLOS
conditions prevail. It is clearly evident from graphs that at higher operating frequency (say
2.5 GHz and 3.5 GHz) with high performance modulation techniques (e.g. 64 QAM1/2) on
urban environment the coverage achieved are max to a distance of 800 – 1000 metres. This
coincides with [ CITATION Sum11 \l 2057 ] who confirms that higher order modulation
techniques supports only limited distance. [ CITATION GPl03 \l 2057 ], concludes by conforming
higher order modulation schemes (e.g. 64 QAM) reduces the cell size. Similar results were
seen in [ CITATION Tan11 \l 2057 ] , when performing outdoor propagation. The cell size which
covered 36.92 km in 450 MHz reduces to 7.01 km in 3.5 GHz. This is clearly evident in Fig
39 and Fig 42, where the cell size is reduced to 800-1000 metres at operating frequencies of
3.5 GHz and 2.5 GHz. The measured RSSI value is not experiencing a constant decrease;
this is mainly due to LOS and NLOS conditions prevailing. If the receiver is at LOS, the
signal is high compared to previous distance measured. (From Fig 38, it is clearly evident that
at 2000 metres, ITU R P 525, had the best signal of -60 dBm as LOS conditions exist). In
[ CITATION Muh08 \l 2057 ] WiMAX comparison was made at 3.5 GHz and 700 MHz. Graphs
were plotted for RSSI vs. Distance and it was evident that 700 MHz performed better

compared to 3.5 GHz in LOS and NLOS conditions. At 64 QAM ½ there is a difference of 5
dBm in signal power compared with 3.5 GHz to 2. 5 GHz. In [ CITATION Muh08 \l 2057 ] there
is a difference of 9 dBm as RSSI measurements were done at 3.5 GHz and 700 MHz.
5.2. RADIO PROPAGATION MODELS IN OPEN TERRAIN
5.2.1. BEST RADIO PROPAGATION MODEL BASED ON PATH LOSS IN

OPEN TERRAIN
160
140
120
100
FSL
ITU R P 525
80
60 Okumura HATA
SUI A
40 SUI B
SUI C
20
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Distance (metres)
Figure 43 Path loss predictions at 3.5 GHz in Open environment.

160
140
120
100
FSL
ITU R P 525
80
60 Okumura HATA
SUI A
40 SUI B
SUI C
20
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Distance (metres)
Figure 44 Path loss predictions at 2.5 GHz in Open environment.
At 450 MHz with QPSK ½
140
120
100
80 FSL
ITU R P 525
60
Okumura HATA
SUI A
40 SUI B
SUI C
20
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Distance (metres)
Figure 45 Path loss predictions at 450 MHz in Open environment.

From the above fig 43, 44 and 45 it is clearly evident that in an open environment, SUI – C
performed better compared to the other propagation models. Open environment is one of the
subcategories in rural terrain classification. An open environment is where the signal needs to
travel long distance with least attenuation. SUI – C supports terrains which have low path
loss. Path loss reduces, with decrease in operating frequency from 3.5 GHz to 450 MHz. It is
clearly evident that at lower frequencies better coverage is obtained in an open environment.
In [ CITATION Viv11 \l 1033 ], path loss is predicted for rural environment at 3.5 GHz. Matlab
simulation tool was used to predict coverage based on path loss. The results in [ CITATION
Viv11 \l 2057 ] conclude that in an open or rural environment SUI – C performs the best by
mitigating interference level. Similar results were also seen in [ CITATION Gop11 \l 1033 ],
where WiMAX propagation measurements were analysed for coverage in rural areas of India.
5.2.2. BEST RADIO PROPAGATION MODEL BASED ON RSSI IN OPEN

ENVIRONMENT
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
-20
-40
ITU R p 525
Cost 231 Hata
RSSI (dBm) -60
Okumura Hata
SUI A
-80 SUI B
SUI C
-100
-120
Distance (metres)
Figure 46 RSSI measurements at 3.5 GHz for open environment

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
-20
-40
-60 ITU R p 525

Cost 231 Hata
RSSI (dBm)
Okumura Hata
-80
SUI A
SUI B
-100 SUI C
-120
-140
Distance(metres)
Figure 47 RSSI measurements at 3.5 GHz with 16 QAM 1/2 in open environment
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
-20
-40
-60 ITU R p 525

Cost 231 Hata
RSSI (dBm)
Okumura Hata
-80
SUI A
SUI B
-100 SUI C
-120
-140
Distance (metres)

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
-20
-40
ITU R p 525
Cost 231 Hata
RSSI (dBm) -60
Okumura Hata
SUI A
-80 SUI B
SUI C
-100
-120
Distance (metres)
Figure 49 RSSI measurements at 2.5 GHz with QPSK 1/2 in open environment
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
-20
-40
ITU R p 525
Cost 231 Hata
RSSI (dBm) -60
Okumura Hata
SUI A
-80 SUI B
SUI C
-100
-120
Distance (metres)

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
-20
-40
ITU R p 525
Cost 231 Hata
RSSI (dBm) -60
Okumura Hata
SUI A
-80 SUI B
SUI C
-100
-120
Distance( metres)
Figure 51 RSSI measurement at 2.5 GHz with 64QAM 1/2 in open environment
The above fig 47 to fig 51 represents the coverage calculation for WiMAX at different
operating frequencies and modulation techniques in an open environment. From the above
fig: 47 – fig 51 it is clearly evident that SUI C performed well for coverage in rural areas. In [
CITATION Gop11 \l 2057 ], coverage was predicted in 3.5 GHz in rural and open desert. From
the results concluded SUI flat (SUI C) proved to be the best propagation model in rural
environment. From the literature survey completed, it is clearly evident that there exist
countable research papers for open terrain. More over authors perform WiMAX propagation
in rural terrain and extend it open environments as open environment is one of the
subcategories in rural environment. The path loss and RSSI measured in this dissertation for
open environment shows similar results of rural terrain. Also SUI C model is identified as the
best for open environment, which is same as rural.

5.3. RADIO PROPAGATION MODELS IN RURAL TERRAIN
5.3.1. BEST RADIO PROPAGATION MODEL BASED ON PATH LOSS IN

RURAL TERRAIN
180
160
140
120
FSL
100
ITU R P 525
Path loss (dB) 80 Cost 231 HATA
Okumura HATA
60 SUI A
SUI B
40 SUI C
20
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Distance (metres)
Figure 52 Path loss predictions at 3.5 GHz in rural environment.
160
140
120
100
FSL
ITU R P 525
80
60 Okumura HATA
SUI A
40 SUI B
SUI C
20
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Distance (metres)
Figure 53 Path loss predictions at 2.5 GHz in rural environment.

At 450 MHz with QPSK ½
160
140
120
100
FSL
ITU R P 525
80
60 Okumura HATA
SUI A
40 SUI B
SUI C
20
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Distance (metres)
Figure 54 Path loss predictions at 450 MHz in rural environment.
Fig 52, 53, 54 shows path loss results for three distinct frequencies in rural environment. SUI
– C proved to be the best model in the rural environment by predicting the lowest path loss.
There exists a difference of 15 dB between the higher operating frequencies (3.5 GHz, 2.5
GHz) and lower operating frequencies (450 MHz). SUI – C which is similar to Erceg C as
proposed in [ CITATION Tom06 \l 2057 ] is defined for rural environment, which has the lowest
path loss. Lowest path loss exists in rural and open environments, where obstacles are least
and radio signal waves can travel with LOS conditions. The results from Fig 52, fig 53 and
fig 54 coincides with [ CITATION Han11 \l 2057 ] who performed WiMAX propagation in rural
environment and identified SUI C as the best. In [ CITATION Tan11 \l 2057 ] high coverage was
seen at 450 MHz with lowest path loss compared to that of 3.5 GHz. This coincides with fig:
52, 53, and 54 in the dissertation work done. Similar results were seen in [ CITATION Gop11 \l
2057 ] where path loss predictions were done in rural environment of India. SUI flat also
termed as SUI C performed well compared to the other propagation models considered.

5.3.2. BEST RADIO PROPAGATION MODEL BASED ON RSSI IN RURAL

ENVIRONMENT
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200
-20
-40 ITU R p 525

Cost 231 Hata
RSSI (dBm)
Okumura Hata
-60 SUI A
SUI B
SUI C
-80
-100
Distance (metres)
Figure 55 RSSI measurements at 3.5 GHz with QPSK 1/2 in rural environment
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200
-20
-40 ITU R p 525

RSSI (dBm) Cost 231 Hata
Okumura Hata
-60 SUI A
SUI B
SUI C
-80
-100
Distance (metres)
Figure 56 RSSI measurements at 3.5 GHz with 16QAM 1/2 in rural environment

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200
-20
-40 ITU R p 525

Cost 231 Hata
RSSI (dBm)
Okumura Hata
-60 SUI A
SUI B
SUI C
-80
-100
Distance (metres)
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200
-20
-40 ITU R p 525

Cost 231 Hata
RSSI (dBm)
Okumura Hata
-60 SUI A
SUI B
SUI C
-80
-100
Distance (metres)
Figure 58 RSSI measurements at 2.5 GHz with QPSK 1/2 in rural environment

-10
-20
-30
ITU R p 525
-40
Cost 231 Hata
RSSI (dBm)
-50 Okumura Hata
SUI A
-60 SUI B
SUI C
-70
-80
-90
Distance (metres)
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200
-20
-40 ITU R p 525

Cost 231 Hata
RSSI (dBm)
Okumura Hata
-60 SUI A
SUI B
SUI C
-80
-100
Distance (metres)
Figure 60 RSSI measurement at 2.5 GHz with 64QAM 1/2 in rural environment

Fig 55-60, shows results for coverage of WiMAX in rural environment. Lower order
frequencies; less than 1 GHz provided maximum coverage as they can travel long distance
with least obstruction. RSSI threshold exists for WiMAX coverage based on table 5. As
coverage is evaluated with these values, signal powers received beyond the threshold are
omitted. At 3.5 GHz for higher order modulation the cell size is low, compared to the cell
size at 450 MHz with robust modulation technique. This coincides with [ CITATION Mar09 \l 2057 ]
who analysed WiMAX coverage at 2.5 GHz. SUI – C an extension of Erceg –C proved to be
the best in rural and flat environments. The coverage probability was high in rural
environment with better service. Similarly [ CITATION Sum11 \l 2057 ] who analyses a test bed of
WiMAX network confirms that high order modulation supports for shorter distance and
higher robust modulation for long distance and unpredictable environments. [ CITATION Tom06 \l
1033 ] also summarises “450 MHz frequency will provide coverage of wide rural areas, while
higher frequencies are applicable when high capacity of system is required” [ CITATION Tom06 \l
1033 ].
The Fig 61 summaries the WiMAX coverage analysis performed on the basis of RSSI for three
operating frequencies with varying modulation techniques and coding rate.
Figure 61 Modulation Technique and Coding rate for WiMAX based on distance from
the BS [ CITATION Sum11 \l 2057 ]
RSSI measures at 450 MHz provided non-realistic values in all the terrains. The results were
ignored as, SUI model cannot be used for RSSI based coverage in urban and rural areas. As
stated earlier SUI model an extension of Erceg model, cannot be used for radio coverage

calculation at 450 MHz. These results coincide with [ CITATION Tom06 \l 1033 ], who
performed WiMAX coverage analysis at 3.5 GHz and 450 MHz in rural and urban areas. As
open environment is one of the sub categories for rural, SUI model at 450 MHz cannot be
applied for mobile radio coverage.

CHAPTER 6
6. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
6.1. CONCLUSION
WiMAX coverage based on radio propagation models are studied at different operating
frequencies. Coverage analysis is evaluated based on RSSI measurements by evaluating PHY
layer performance and varying the modulation and coding scheme to understand WiMAX
performance in real time environment. A test bed for coverage analysis is created using ICS
telecom version 9.6.2 (demo). The efficiency of radio planning test bed created using ICS
telecom is evaluated based on two key metrics namely, path loss and RSSI. Path loss and
RSSI are one among the parameters used to evaluate coverage in real time scenarios. The
dissertation was carried out in two stages; coverage based on path loss, coverage based on
RSSI. For path loss evaluation, a total of 9 scenarios are evaluated to identify the best
propagation model for WiMAX in 3 different terrains at different operating frequencies. For
RSSI, a total of 27 scenarios are evaluated to identify the best propagation model for
WiMAX.
From the results tabulated, it is clearly evident that SUI model performed better compared to
any other propagation models considered. The SUI model is divided into three categories;
SUI – A, SUI – B, SUI – C based on terrains and signal attenuation level. SUI model was
developed to support WiMAX and forthcoming versions. SUI model which is an extension of
Erceg model resembles with the same results when tested in different terrains. SUI model
which is classified into three terrains is based on the classification of terrains done in Erceg.
In urban environment, where path loss is most and NLOS conditions prevail, SUI – A
performed better compared to other propagation models. SUI - A supports propagation
conditions with high signal attenuation and high path loss. SUI A performed better in all three
operating frequencies tested. The change in operating frequency had a variation in path loss
of 20dB. In open and rural environments, SUI – C performed better compared to the other
propagation models employed. The change in operating frequency from 3.5 GHz to 450 MHz
had impact on coverage measured based on path loss. In rural and open environments,
coverage was better at lower frequencies, as radio waves can travel with less obstruction.
Comparing the path loss evaluation at 450 MHz and 3.5 GHz in rural environment, 450 MHz

provided better coverage by travelling long distance up to 9 km for high robust modulation
technique QPSK ½.
The coverage based on signal power also favoured SUI A in urban terrains and SUI C for
rural and open environments. At high frequencies like 3.5 GHz and 2.5 GHz with high order
modulation schemes (E.g. 64 QAM) coverage area moved down to 800 metres. In urban
environment, signal degradation was highly prevailing due to NLOS and obstacles in radio
propagation. On the other hand 450 MHz spectrum with robust modulation provided
maximum coverage in rural and open terrains with least signal degradation comparatively to
urban environment.
The changeover of modulation technique over different frequencies helps us to analyse the
actual fading characteristics of signal over different terrain and environmental conditions.
In a nutshell, SUI model an extension of Erceg model, which is developed by IEEE

BWAWG suits WiMAX coverage in different environments and propagation conditions. The
most appealing fact being that according to terrains, SUI model can be modified with
correction factors. From the coverage data received based on path loss and received signal
power, 450 MHz spectrum can be deployed for rural and open terrains with robust
modulation technique – BPSK ½ which enables LOS. 3.5 GHz spectrum with 64 QAM
modulation can be applied for urban and core urban terrains for better radio reception.
6.2. FUTURE WORK

Performance of WiMAX is critically evaluated based on coverage at varying distances and
conditions. Modulation and coding rates are varied at three different frequencies with focus
on received signal power and path loss. The link quality which is closely associated with
received signal power varies with respect to operating frequency, modulation and coding rate,
along with distance between the transmitter and receiver with environmental conditions.
There are numerous issues with regarding WiMAX coverage which should be further
investigated for accurate radio planning. They are;
1. In this dissertation, coverage is predicted for fixed WiMAX with minimum mobility.
The mobility level considered is pedestrians on the roads. This can be further
extended to next generations of WiMAX, as the latest technology supports mobility
up to speed of 350 miles/hr.

2. Coverage based on radio planning includes measurements of other key parameters

like SNR, BER, throughput, latency, jitter, CQI, etc. These parameters can be
included and analysed to substantiate propagation models in each terrain.
3. For RSSI based coverage, in this dissertation downlink is considered. It would be
more appropriate to measure uplink RSSI for coverage.
4. Radio propagation models are originally defined based on generalised terrain
conditions. Terrains like Riyadh desert suffer from poor radio planning as no
propagation models are defined for desert conditions (extreme conditions). A new
propagation model can be defined or existing propagation model may be customised
for desert terrain.
5. The lower part of the spectrum should be considered for emerging technologies, as
path loss is minimal for frequency below 1 GHz. The spectrum centred at 450 MHz
and 700 MHz is been a centre of attraction for deploying WiMAX. From the literature
survey conducted, it was clearly evident that there exists finite research in this part of
the spectrum. More coverage analysis and research are required to substantiate this
part of the spectrum to be deployed for WiMAX.
6. Suburban and rural propagation measurements vary according to seasons. In real
“drive-test” these conditions are more appropriate with focus on foliage and
vegetation of environment.
7. As WiMAX supports advanced antenna features like dynamic beam forming and
MIMO, coverage can be compared between these techniques on various terrains to
understand their impact.
8. Measurement campaign or Drive test should be performed to find the effectiveness of
radio propagation channel in wireless and mobile environment.

REFERENCES & BIBLIOGRAPHY
Abate, Z., 2009. Introduction- What is OFDM ? In WiMAX RF Systems Engineering. Illustrated ed.
London: Artech House Mobile Communications Series. p.11.
Abate, Z., 2009. WiMAX RF Systems Engineering. Illustrated ed. Norwood, Massachusetts: Artech
House Mobile Communications Series.
Abhayawardhana, V.S. et al., 2005. Comparison of Empirical Propagation Path Loss Models for Fixed
Wireless Access Systems. In IEEE 61st Vehicular Technology Conference, 2005. VTC 2005- Spring.
2005. Stockholm, 2005.
Afric, W., Zovko-Cihlar, B. & Grgic, S., 2007. Methodology of Path Loss Calculation using
Measurement Results. In 14th International Workshop on Systems, Signals and Image Processing,
2007 and 6th EURASIP Conference focussed on Speech and Image Processing, Multimedia
Communications and Services.. Maribor, Slovenia, 2007.
Agabio, P., Cornaglia, B. & Arco, R., 2012. societe de l'electricite, de l'electronique et des technologies
de l'information et de la communication. [PDF] Vodafone Omnitel N.V. Available at:
http://web1.see.asso.fr/cdecrr07/papers/S5.3.pdf [Accessed 5 July 2012].
Alqudah, Y.A., 2012. Power Analysis and Modeling Based on Field Measurements Using 3.5 GHz
WiMAX Network. In International Conference on Information Technology (ICOIN), 2012. Bali,
Indonesia, 2012.
Alqudah, Y.A. & Tahat, A., 2011. Path Loss and Propagation Models at 3.5 GHz Using Deployed
WiMAX Network. In International Conference on Informartion Networking (ICOIN). Barcelona, Spain,
2011.
Alshaalan, F., Alshebeili, S. & Adinoyi, A., 2010. On the Performance of Mobile WiMAX system:
Measurement and Propagation Studies. International Journal of Communication, Network and
System Sciences, 3(11), pp.863-69.
Alshami, M., Arslan, T., Thompson, J. & Erdogan, A.T., 2011. Frequency Analysis of Path Loss Models
on WIMAX. In 3rd Computer Science and Electronic Engineering Conference (CEEC), 2011. Colchester,
2011.
Andrews, J.G., Ghosh, A. & Muhamed, R., 2007. Fundamentals of WiMAX networking. Illustrated ed.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall Communications Engineering and Emerging
Technological Series.
ATDI -Advanced Topographic Development & Images, 2011. ATDI-ICS Telecom. [Online] Available at:
http://www.atdi.fr/?option=com_content&view=article&id=133&Itemid=136 [Accessed 8 April
2012].

Badri, H.W., Ghnimi, S. & Gharsallah, A., 2011. Electromagnetic Propagation Environment Effects On
The WiMAX Communication System. In 11th Mediterranean Microwave Symposium (MMS), 2011.
Hammamet, Algeria, 2011.
Begovic, P., Behlilovic, N. & Avdic, E., 2011. A Novel Approach for Evaluating Applicability of Existing
Empirical Propagation Models to Coverage Planning in 3.5 GHz WiMAX Systems. In 18th
International Conference on Systems, Signals and Image Processing (IWSSIP), 2011. Sarajevo, Bosnia
and Herzegovina, 2011.
Belloul, B., Aragón-Zavala, A. & Saunders, S.R., 2009. Measurements and comparison of WiMAX
radio coverage at 2.5 GHz and 3.5 GHz. In 3rd European Conference on Antennas and Propagation,
2009. EuCAP 2009. Berlin, 2009.
Bhunia, S., Misra, I.S., Sanyal, S.K. & Kundu, A., 2011. Performance study of mobile WiMAX network
wtih changing scenarios under different modulation and coding. International Journal of
Communication Systems, 24, pp.1087-104.
Cardamone, P. et al., 2008. WiMAX Channel Model for Mountainous Areas. In IEEE 68th Vehicular
Technology Conference, 2008. VTC 2008-Fall. Calgary, BC- Canada, 2008.
Dalela, C., Prasad, M.V.S.N. & Dalela, P.K., 2012. Some experimental investigations in the WiMAX
band and comparison of propagation models in mixed urban environments of Western India. Annals
of Telecommunication, 67, pp.1-9.
Doyle, A.J. et al., 2003. Performance Evaluation Of The IEEE 802.16a Physical Layer Using Simulation.
Lecture notes Spring 2003. Austin, Texas: The University of Texas at Austin Dept. of Electrical and
Computer Engineering The University of Texas at Austin.
Duc, T.T., Duc, T.T., Do, D.D. & Nguyen, H.V., 2011. Innovative WiMAX Broadband Internet Access for
Rural Areas of Vietnam using TV Broadcasting Ultra-High Frequency (UHF) Bands. In 2011 IEEE
Region 10 Conference TENCON 2011. Bali, Indonesia, 2011.
DU, K.-L. & M.N.S.Swamy, 2010. Wireless Communication Systems: From RF Subsystems to 4G
Enabling Technologies. New York, U.S.A: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERISTY PRESS.
Enoch, S. & Otung, I., 2008. Propagation effects in WiMAX systems. In The 2nd International
Conference on Next Generation Mobile Applications, Services and Technologies. NGMAST '08. Cardiff,
Wales, UK, 2008. IEEE Computer Society.
Enoch, S. & Otung, I., 2008. Propagation effects in WiMAX systems. In The Second International
Conference on Next Generation Mobile Applications, Services and Technologies. Cardiff, 2008.
Erceg, V. et al., 1999. An Empirically Based Path Loss Model for Wireless Channels in Suburban
Environments. IEEE JOURNAL ON SELECTED AREAS IN COMMUNICATIONS, 17(7), pp.1205-11.
Etemad, K. & Lai, M.-Y., 2010. WiMAX Technology and Network Evolution. 1st ed. Hoboken, New
Jersey: Wiley Publications.

ETEMAD, K., YAGHOOBI, H. & OLFAT, M., 2010. OVERVIEW OF MOBILE WiMAX AIR INTERFACE IN
RELEASE 1.0. In K. Etermad & M.-Y. Lai, eds. WiMAX Technology and Network Evolution. 1st ed.
Wiley-IEEE Press. pp.17-59.
Figueiredo, F.L. & Cardieri, P., 2005. Coverage Prediction and Performance Evaluation of Wireless
Metropolitan Area Networks based on IEEE 802.16. Journal of Communication and Informations
Systems , 20(3), pp.132-40.
Grønsund, P., Engelstad, P., Johnsen, T. & Skeie, T., 2007. The physical performance and path loss in
a fixed WiMAX deployment. In International Conference on Wireless communications and mobile
computing, IWCMC '07. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA, 2007.
Hrovat, A. et al., 2006. Comparison of WiMAX Field Measurements and Empirical Path Loss Model in
Urban and Suburban Environment. In 10th WSEAS International Conference on Communications.
Vouliagmeni, Athens, Greece, 2006. World Scientific and Engineering Academy and Society (WSEAS).
Imperatore, P., Salvadori, E. & Chlamtac, I., 2007. Path Loss Measurements at 3.5 GHz:A Trial Test
WiMAX Based in Rural Environment. In 3rd International Conference on Testbeds and Research
Infrastructure for the Development of Networks and Communities, 2007. TridentCom 2007. Lake
Buena Vista, FL , 2007.
ITU - International Telecommunication Union, 1994. ITU Free space attenuation. [Pdf] ITU Available
at: http://www.itu.int/rec/R-REC-P.525/en [Accessed 04 August 2012].
Jain, R., 2006. A Review of Key Wireless Physical Layer Concepts. [Online] Available at:
http://www1.cse.wustl.edu/~jain/cse574-06/ftp/j_3phy/sld001.htm [Accessed 28 July 2012].
Jain, D.N., 2010. An Introduction to Wireless Fading channels. [PPT slides - Lecture Notes] Available
at: http://www.slideshare.net/nitin_jain_india/introduction-to-wireless-fading-channels [Accessed
18th July 2012].
Javornik, T., Kandus, G., Hrovat, A. & Ozimek, I., 2006. Comparison fo WiMAX coverage at 450 MHz
and 3.5 GHz. In International Conference on Software in Telecommunications and Computer
Networks, 2006. SoftCOM 2006. Split, 2006.
K.C, A. et al., 2009. Comparison of Propagation Models for Fixed WiMAX system based on IEEE
802.16-2004. In International Conference on Industrial and Information Systems (ICIIS), 2009. Sri
Lanka, 2009.
Kamboj, V., Gupta, D.K. & Birla, N., 2011. Comparison of Path loss models for WiMAX in Rural
environment at 3.5 GHz. International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology (IJEST), 3(2),
pp.1432-37.
Katev, P.D., 2012. Propagation Models for WiMAX at 3.5 GHz. In ELEKTRO,2012. Rajeck Teplice,
Slovakia, 2012.
Kumar, A., 2008. SPECTRUM FOR WiMAX NETWORKS. In A. Ward, ed. Mobile Broadcasting with
WiMAX: Principles, Technology, and Applications. Jordan Hill, Oxford: Elsevier Inc. p.263.

Kun, S., Ping, W. & Yingze, L., 2008. Path loss models for suburban scenario at 2.3GHz, 2.6GHz and
3.5GHz. In 8th International Symposium on Antennas, Propagation and EM Theory, 2008. ISAPE
2008. Kunming, Yunnan - China, 2008.
LaSorte, N., Barnes, W.J., Zigreng, B. & Refai, H., 2009. Performance Evaluation of a Deployed
WiMAX System Operating in the 4.9GHz Public Safety Band. In 6th IEEE Consumer Communications
and Networking Conference, 2009. CCNC 2009. Las Vegas, NV, 2009.
Lee, M.-h. et al., 2010. Mobile WiMAX Performance Measurements and the selection of Path Loss
Model for UGV. In International Conference on Information and Communication Technology
Convergence (ICTC), 2010. Jeju, South Korea, 2010.
Lee, Y.-H. et al., 2012. The Measurement and Analysis of WiMAX BASE STATION Signal Coverage.
Progress in Electromagnetics Research C, PIER C, 25, pp.223-32.
Luca, D.D. et al., 2007. Outdoor Path Loss Models for IEEE 802.16 in Suburban and Campus-Like
Environments. In IEEE International Conference on Communications, 2007. ICC '07. Glasgow,
Scotland, UK, 2007.
Manna, G.C. & Jharia, B., 2011. Mobile WiMAX coverage evaluation for rural areas of India. In 13th
International Conference on Advanced Communication Technology (ICACT), 2011. Seoul, Korea, 2011.
Mar, J., Ko, C.-C., Li, C.-H. & Chen, S.-E., 2009. Cell Planning and Channel Throughput of Mobile
WiMAX at 2.5 GHz. Journal of the Chinese Institute of Engineers, 32(5), pp.585-97.
Milanovic, J., Rimac-Drlje, S. & Bejuk, K., 2007. Comparison of Propagation Models Accuracy for
WiMAX on 3.5 GHz. In 14th IEEE International Conference on Electronics, Circuits and Systems, 2007.
ICECS 2007. Marrakech, December 2007.
Mohamed, M.A., Abo-El-Seoud, M.S. & Abd-El-Atty, H.M., 2010. Performance Simulation of IEEE
802.16e WiMAX Physical Layer. In The 2nd IEEE International Conference on Information
Managment and Engineering (ICIME). Chengdu,China., 2010.
Mohamed, M.A., Abou-El-Soud, M.S. & Abdel-Atty, H.M., 2010. Performance and Efficiency of
WiMAX-MAC-LAyer: IEEE-802-16e. International Journal of Computer Science and Network Security
IJCSNS, 10(12), pp.217-24.
Moraes, E.P., Covolan, J., Buffalo, M. & Maciel, L.R., 2009. WiMAX Near LOS measurements and
Comparison with Propagation Models. In 3rd European Conference on Antennas and Propagation,
2009. EuCAP 2009. Berlin, Germany, 2009. Alcatel- Lucent, Network and System Integration Division
in Latin America.
Moraitis, N., Vouyioukas, D. & Constantinou, P., 2011. Propagation Study and Performance
Evaluation of a Mobile WiMAX System at 3.5 GHz. In IEEE International Conference on
Communications (ICC). Kyoto, Honshu - Japan, 2011.
Nuaymi, P.L., 2007. WiMAX: Technology for Broadband Wireless Access. Illustrated ed. West Sussex,
England: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Okumura, Y., Ohmori, E., Kawano, T. & Fukuda, K., 1968. Field Strength and Its Variability in VHF and
UHF Land-Mobile Radio Service. Review of the Electrical Communication Laboratory, 16, pp.825-73.
Plitsis, G., 2003. Coverage Prediction of New Elements of System Beyond 3G: The IEEE 802.16 System
as a Case Study. In IEEE 58th Vehicular Technology Conference, 2003. VTC 2003-Fall. Orlando,
Florida, 2003.
RÆKKEN, R.H. & LØVNES, G., 1995. Multipath propagation and its influence on digital mobile
communication systems. Telektronikk- Norway Telecommunication Journal, 4, pp.109-26.
Ramos, G.L. et al., 2010. Urban Measurements and Propagation Models Comparison of a 3.5 GHz
Signal for Broadband Wireless Systems. In Proceedings of the Fourth European Conference on
Antennas and Propagation (EuCAP), 2010. Barcelona, Spain, 2010.
Retnasothie, F.E. et al., 2008. A Comparison of IEEE 802.16e Mobile WiMAX Deployments in 700 MHz
and 2500 MHz Bands. Government Report. Washington D.C: Federal Communications Commission
(FCC) Logus Broadband Wireless, NEC, WiMAX Forum, Alcatel - Lucent, AT & T.
Rial, Á.V. et al., 2008. Empirical Propagation Model for WiMAX at 3.5 GHz in an Urban Environment.
Microwave and Optical Technology Letters, 50(2), pp.483-87.
Rimac-Drlje, S., Milanović, J. & Strešnjak, S., 2009. Receiving Power level Prediction for WiMAX
systems at 3.5 GHz. In IEEE Wireless Communication and Networking Conference, 2009. WCNC 2009.
Budapest, 2009.
Rizwan, M. & Abbas, S.A., 2008. Median Path Loss, Fading and Coverage Comparison at 3.5GHz and
700MHz for Mobile WiMax. In IEEE International Multitopic Conference, 2008. INMIC 2008. Karachi,
2008.
Robalo, D. et al., 2011. Experimental Characterisation of WiMAX propagation in different

environments. In IEEE EUROCON - International Conference on Computer as a Tool
( EUROCON),2011. Lisbon, 2011.
Ron, C.V.R. & Mello, L.A.R.d.S., 2010. Propagation measurements at 3.5 GHz in a dense urban area.
In Proceedings of the Fourth European Conference on Antennas and Propagation (EuCAP), 2010.
Barcelona, Spain, 2010.
Sarkar, T.K. et al., 2003. A Survey of Various Propagation Models for Mobile Communication. IEEE
Antennas and Propagation Magazine, 45(3), pp.51-82.
Sarkar, S.K. & Manna, G.C., 2009. PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF IEEE 802.16 BASED SYSTEM IN
SUB-URBAN AREA. Telecommunications, 59(2), pp.72-79.
Saunders, S.R. & Zavala, A.A., 2007. Antennas and Propagation for Wireless Communication Systems.
2nd ed. West Sussex, England: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Seybold, J.S., 2005. Introduction to RF Propagation. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, INC.
Stallings, W., 2002. Fading in Mobile Environment. In Wireless communicatio and networks. 2nd ed.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall- Pearson. p.117.

Thiagarajah, S.P. & Roslee, M., 2010. A Comparison of Path Loss Models for WiMAX in Suburban and
Open Urban Environments. International Journal of Electronics, Computer and Communications
Technologies, IJECCT 2010, 1(1), pp.1-5.
Walden, M.C. & Rowsell, F.J., 2005. Urban Propagation Measurements and Statistical Path Loss
Model at 3.5 GHz. IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society International Symposium, 1A, pp.363-66.
WiMAX Forum - INTEL, 2010. WiMAX and the IEEE 802.16m Air Interface Standard - April 2010.
Technical Report - Copyright. Solana Beach, California: WiMAX Forum - Intel WiMAX Forum.
WiMAX Forum, 2006. Mobile WiMAX - Part I: A Technical Overview and Performance Evaluation.
Technical Report, Copyright. Solana Beach, California: WiMAX Forum WiMAX Forum.
Yang, S.C., 1998. Cdma RF System Engineering -Mobile Communications Library. Illustrated ed.
Boston, U.S.A: Artech House -Artech House Mobile Communications Library.
Yen, Y.-S., Hsu, H.-M. & Chen, H.-H., 2008. An M-Taiwan experience on mobile WiMAX. In
Proceedings of the International Conference on Mobile Technology, Applications, and Systems.
Mobility '08. Yilan, Taiwan, 2008. ACM.

APPENDIX
URBAN MAP
RURAL MAP

OPEN TERRAIN MAP

Comparison of Radio Propagation Models F

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Comparison of Radio Propagation Models F

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

WiMAX COVERAGE S1125522

COMPARISON OF RADIO PROPAGATION MODELS

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of

Glasgow Caledonian University

for the degree of Master of Science in

WIRELESS COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES

Glasgow Caledonian University Page 1

Date: 09 September 2020

Glasgow Caledonian University Page 2

Glasgow Caledonian University Page 3

Glasgow Caledonian University Page 4

Figure 1 WiMAX FDD vs. TDD (Etemad & Lai, 2010)____________________________________21

Glasgow Caledonian University Page 5

Figure 33 to select minimum receiving threshold in dBm (ATDI -Advanced Topographic

Glasgow Caledonian University Page 6

Table 1 Comparison of WiMAX Versions (Source: Literature), (Andrews et al., 2007).....................20

Glasgow Caledonian University Page 7

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

Glasgow Caledonian University Page 8

 FSL Free Space Loss

Glasgow Caledonian University Page 9

 MPDU’s MAC protocol data unit

Glasgow Caledonian University Page 10

Glasgow Caledonian University Page 11

2.3.2. PATH LOSS................................................................................................................38

Glasgow Caledonian University Page 12

5.3.2. BEST RADIO PROPAGATION MODEL BASED ON RSSI IN RURAL

Glasgow Caledonian University Page 13

Glasgow Caledonian University Page 14

1.3. PROBLEM DESCRIPTION

Glasgow Caledonian University Page 15

1.4. PROJECT AIM AND OBJECTIVE

1.4.1. PROJECT AIM

1.4.2. PROJECT OBJECTIVE

 To perform a comprehensive literature survey about “Radio propagation models” for

Glasgow Caledonian University Page 16

1.5.2. WiMAX VERSIONS

1.5.2.1. IEEE 802.16 a (FWA)

 A single carrier PHY

1.5.2.2. IEEE 802.16 d (NOMADIC)

Glasgow Caledonian University Page 17

1.5.2.3. IEEE 802.16 e (MOBILITY)

Glasgow Caledonian University Page 18

1.5.2.4. IEEE 802.16m (VECHICULAR)

 Increased Spectral Efficiency and coverage

Glasgow Caledonian University Page 19

Parameters IEEE 802.16a IEEE 802.16d IEEE 802.16e IEEE 802.16m

Purpose Fixed Wireless Nomadic, Mobility Vehicular

Table 1 Comparison of WiMAX Versions (Source: Literature), [ CITATION Jef07 \l 2057 ]

1.5.3. WiMAX FDD vs. TDD

Glasgow Caledonian University Page 20

communication, the data transfer happens from BS to Mobile station.

Figure 1 WiMAX FDD vs. TDD[ CITATION Kam10 \l 2057 ]

Glasgow Caledonian University Page 21

1.5.4. LOS, NLOS and nLOS

1.5.5. SPECTRUM OF WiMAX

Glasgow Caledonian University Page 22

 λ is the wavelength expressed in metres

Glasgow Caledonian University Page 23

1.5.6. WHY RADIO PROPAGATION?

1.5.7. RADIO PLANNING TERRAINS

Glasgow Caledonian University Page 24

Figure 5: Urban terrain, Hong Kong