Automation in Construction 111 (2020) 103056

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Automation in Construction
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/autcon

Measuring rutting dimension and lateral position using 3D line scanning T

laser and inertial measuring unit
⁎
Wenting Luoa, Lexuan Liub, Lin Lia,
a
College of Transportation and Civil Engineering, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian Province 350108, PR China
b
School of Transportation, Southeast University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province 210096, PR China

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Pavement rutting caused by repeated traffic loads is a common type of structural damage to pavement. Rutting
Automatic measurement dimensions and lateral position are strongly related to traffic safety and ride comfort. However, in the field,
Rutting dimension rutting depth is usually measured by traditional methods, and rutting lateral position is ignored due to the
Rutting lateral position limitations of data sources and algorithms. This study provides an automatic method for rutting dimension and
Inertial measuring unit (IMU)
lateral position measurement using a 3D line scanning laser system and Inertial Measuring Unit (IMU). Rutting
3D line scanning laser system
dimensions (e.g., width, depth, depression area, wall slope and spacing between the inner and outer rutting) and
locations (e.g., lateral position and rutting deviation away from lane center line) are measured by fusing mul-
tivariate data (e.g., 2D pavement images, transverse profiles and IMU data). In this study, two straight road
sections located in Fuzhou, China, are chosen to validate the reliability and robustness of the proposed algo-
rithm. Findings indicate that the measurement results from the new algorithm are highly correlated with the
ground truths manually collected in the field. This study would benefit transportation agencies in traffic safety
analysis, ride comfort evaluation and structural damage prediction based on the continuous pavement rutting
dimension and its lateral positions.

1. Introduction long-term effects of traffic loads. Localization of pavement rutting is

Pavement rutting caused by repeated traffic loads is a common type
of structural damage to pavement, which is strongly related to road
service quality [1]. During rainy days, rutted areas of pavement can
accumulate rainwater, resulting in increased hydroplaning risk. In ad-
dition, rutting is a result of pavement elastic fatigue [2], and repeated
traffic loads on rutting areas cause serious structure damage [1–31] to
pavement [3]. Accordingly, automatic measurement and localization of
pavement rutting are critical for traffic safety analysis, road service
quality evaluation and structural damage prediction.
Rutting dimensions include depth, width, depression area, wall
slope and spacing between the inner and outer rutting. Rutting depth is
widely used to determine the severity of pavement structure damage
[4]. Rutting width and length are applied for the evaluation of pave-
ment distress [5]. Based on the measured rutting depth, depression area
and wall slope, the hydroplaning risk and service quality of rutting
pavements can be evaluated [6,7]. Therefore, the accurate measure-
ment of rutting dimension is important for pavement engineers.
The lateral positions of pavement rutting can be used to describe the
trajectories of most vehicles, since pavement rutting is a result of the
helpful for investigating vehicle wandering and identifying the ha-
zardous road sections. However, research focusing on rutting lateral
positions is rare.
Transportation agencies need accurate and continuous data con-
taining rutting dimensions and lateral locations to conduct pavement
safety analysis, carry out maintenance plans and improve pavement
design [8]. This study proposes an automatic method for measuring the
dimensions and locations of pavement rutting based on a 3D line
scanning laser system and Inertial Measuring Unit (IMU).
2. Literature review
2.1. Methods for rutting data collection
The manual straightedge method is inefficient and labor-intensive
for rutting measurement, so non-contact laser sensors mounted on a
survey vehicle are generally used for rutting data collection. Widely
used laser-based rutting measurement equipment includes the multi-
point laser system and the line scanning laser system [9].
The multi-point laser system is configured with several point lasers,

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: lilin@fafu.edu.cn (L. Li).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2019.103056
Received 23 June 2019; Received in revised form 22 November 2019; Accepted 8 December 2019
0926-5805/ © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
W. Luo, et al.
mounted on specific locations on a platform installed on the rear or the
front of a survey vehicle [10]. The system collects height values at
several points on the pavement, creating a transverse profile. Generally,
a transverse profile consists of 5, 9 or 13 points. The height values
measured at these specific positions are used to represent rutting shape,
and the height value measured within the wheel path is defined as the
rutting depth. However, the rutting width and depression area cannot
be measured using a transverse profile that is only composed of several
points. In addition, errors or large biases may be produced on rutting
depth measurement due to vehicle wandering [11,12]. Previous studies
show that rutting depths measured by the multi-point laser system are
significantly different from the “ground truth” based on manual mea-
surements [13,14].
The line scanning laser system collects height values of pavements
at > 1000 points per transverse profile. A profile consisting of > 1000
points can cover an entire lane with a high resolution [15,16], so each
transverse profile can be used to represent the actual rutting shape. A
profile with high resolution can eliminate the impacts of vehicle wan-
dering on maximum rut depth measurement [17]. Although the high-
resolution profile is suited for rutting dimension measurement, rutting
lateral position cannot be determined using only profiling data due to
the effects of survey vehicle wandering on data collection. In addition,
the high-resolution transverse profile contains lots of useless informa-
tion regarding the pavement surface, such as pavement texture [18,19].
Therefore, data filtering should be used before rutting measurement.
2.2. Methods for rutting dimension measurement
Edge and valley point detection is the first step in rutting dimension
measurement. Once the edge and valley points are determined, rutting
width, maximum rutting depth, depression area and wall slope can be
computed. Three methods, namely the straightedge method, the wire
line method and the enveloped method, are widely used for edge and
valley point detection [20].
The straightedge method uses a virtual straightedge with a specified
length (1.8 m or 2.0 m) to detect the edge points of the inner and outer
rutting [21]. However, it cannot accurately measure all the ruts due to
different rutting shapes. If the virtual straightedge is too short to cover
the rut, the measured rutting width and depth will be smaller than
ground truth. If the length of the virtual straightedge is greater than the
rutting width, the measured rutting width and depth might be greater
than ground truth. In addition, the existence of pavement center de-
pression would make the rutting depth measured using this method
smaller than ground truth.
The wire line method uses an imaginary line that stretches across
the entire lane. The wire line touches two peak points of a transverse
profile, and rutting depth is computed by the max value of the vertical
distance from the profile to wire line [20,22]. This method can elim-
inate the effects of center depression on rutting dimension measure-
ment, but cannot suppress the impacts of pavement swelling.
The enveloped method is a type of ergodic algorithm. A peak search
is conducted point by point along the profile [20,23]. The gradients of
the connection line between two adjacent points are calculated point by
points along the profile. When the maximum gradient of the traversed
points appears, the higher point is defined as the new peak point, and
the previous one is replaced. Rutting edges are determined by the cyclic
operation of the peak search. However, pavement swelling and center
depression still affect the accuracy of rutting dimension measurement
based on this method.
Apparently the above-mentioned three methods are unsuitable for
rutting edge determination and depth measurement due to the ex-
istence of pavement deformation, such as pavement swelling and center
depression. To eliminate the effects of pavement deformation on rutting
edge determination, a reference line according to undeformed pave-
ment surface should be established. In addition, cross slope would affect
rutting dimension measurement as well, when the slope of the collected
2
Automation in Construction 111 (2020) 103056
transverse profile is not consistent with the cross slope. Therefore, it is
necessary to conduct slope calibration of the profiling data before rut-
ting measurement.
2.3. Methods for rutting lateral position measurement
It is not possible to determine the lateral position of pavement
rutting using only the transverse profiling data collected by a survey
vehicle. The wheel wandering of the survey vehicle makes the profile
center deviate from the lane center line, so the rutting lateral position
on the lane cannot be retrieved. To overcome this issue, lane marking
should be first identified and then used for determining wheel wan-
dering [24]. In this study, 2D pavement images with lane markings are
utilized for lane offset measurement of the survey vehicle.
Hui used a 13-point laser system and two oblique laser cameras for
rutting measurement. The two oblique laser cameras were applied to
determine the lane offset of survey vehicles [10]. Although this method
reduces the effects of wheel wandering on rut depth measurement, the
measured errors caused by rutting wandering still exist.
Qiu presented a method for rutting measurement by integrating 2D
pavement images and continuous profiling data [25]. Based on the
identified lane markings, the inner lane area was extracted from the
profiling data. The left and right margins of the collected transverse
profiles were removed before rutting dimension measurement. How-
ever, rutting lateral position measurement was not investigated in this
study.
The present paper attempts to develop an automatic method for the
measurement of rutting dimensions and lateral position. Both 2D and
3D laser images are collected with a 3D laser imaging system, and ve-
hicle body roll angles are collected by an Inertial Measuring Unit (IMU).
In this paper the undeformed horizontal axis and cross slope of the
pavement are utilized to reconstruct the pavement surface, based on
which the impacts of pavement swelling and center depression on
rutting dimension measurement are eliminated. Moreover, 2D laser
images are used to identify lane marking and estimate the lane offset of
the survey vehicle. Due to the complete matching of the 2D and 3D
laser images, the locations of the lane markings on 2D images are
consistent with their locations on transverse profiles, and the rutting
lateral position on a lane can be determined. Two test sections are
chosen to validate the measurement results from the proposed method
with the ground truth manually collected in the field.
3. Data acquisition system
For rutting dimension and lateral position measurement, the full
lane data should be acquired first. In this study the Digital Highway
Data Vehicle (DHDV) is utilized. The DHDV was developed by WayLink
Systems Corporation with collaborations from the University of
Arkansas and Oklahoma State University and has evolved into a so-
phisticated system to conduct full lane data collection on roadways at
speeds up to 100 km/h. A 3D line scanning laser system and IMU are
integrated and synchronized into the DHDV. The 3D line scanning laser
system is mounted on the rear of the vehicle. The IMU is fixed in the
middle of vehicle floor, and a large monitor is used to display the col-
lected data in real time. The exterior and interior of the DHDV are
shown in Fig. 1.
3.1. 3D line scanning laser system
The 3D laser imaging system is able to acquire both 2D and 3D laser
imaging data from pavement surfaces through two separate sensors on
the left and right [26]. The working principles of the 3D line scanning
laser system are depicted in Fig. 2. The system is made up of two high-
resolution cameras and two set of lasers and is capable of constructing
4096 × 2048 images of full-lane-width pavement surface with com-
plete and continuous coverage. The resolution of the 3D laser image is
W. Luo, et al. Automation in Construction 111 (2020) 103056

3D Laser 2D Laser
IMU data
Images Images

Vehicle Body Transverse

Roll Angles Profile (Raw)

Noise Elimination Lane Marking

Identification
Slope Calibration
Lane Center Line
Feature Point (LCL) Detection
(FP) Searching

Transverse Profile Transverse Profile

(FP marked) (FP&LCL marked)

Rutting Rutting
Dimensions Lateral Position

Fig. 1. The interior and exterior of the survey vehicle. Fig. 3. Technical flowchart of rutting dimension and lateral position mea-
surement.

Fig. 4. Diagram of 3D laser image with pavement rutting.

Fig. 2. The camera and laser working principles.
about 0.3 mm in the vertical direction and 1 mm in the longitudinal and
transverse directions. The resolution of the 2D laser image is 1 mm in
both directions. Based on the high-power line scanning laser projection
system and custom optic filters, the DHDV can work at highway speeds
during daytime and nighttime and maintain image quality and con-
sistency. Transverse profiling data extracted from 3D laser images are
used for rutting dimension measurement, and 2D laser images are uti-
lized for rutting lateral position.
3.2. Inertial measuring unit (IMU)
The IMU is housed in a robust, rugged enclosure and easily in-
corporated into small vehicles, in which integrated accelerometers and
fiber-optic gyroscopes are used to generate stable, reliable and re-
peatable positioning data [27]. The IMU data mainly refers to Euler
angles, namely roll, pitch and yaw [28]. In particular, the measured
Euler angles correspond with the body roll angle of the survey vehicle.
In this study the IMU data is applied for pavement cross slope estima-
tion.
4. Methodology
slope and spacing between the left and right ruts. The 3D laser images
(as Fig. 4 shows) collected by the 3D laser imaging system are made up
of the continuous transverse profiles with a 1 mm interval in the
longitudinal direction, so the transverse profile can be extracted and
utilized for rutting dimension measurement. Fig. 5 illustrates the pro-
cedures of transverse profile processing using a sample transverse
profile collected in field.
4.1.1. Noise elimination
4.1.1.1. Elevation adjustment. To cover the entire lane, two separate
sensors mounted on the left and right sides of the survey vehicle are
applied for data collection. However, due to non-uniformity of laser
intensity, different lens distortion of the left and right cameras, and the
different physical installation locations of the two sensors, a large
difference in elevation on the left and right sides of the 3D image
appears, as Fig. 5(a) shows. Therefore, ensuring that the elevation data
have the smooth transition in the transverse direction is a critical
element of the data processing. To solve this issue, an algorithm is
developed, and its implementation is elaborated as follows.
Step 1: Extract the middle segment of the transverse profile by Eq.
(1), and calculate the height difference of two adjacent points on the
extracted middle segments by Eq. (2):
3n 3n 5n
S = f (xs , ys ), s = ⎡ ⎤, ⎡ ⎤ + 1, ⋯, ⎡ ⎤
⎣ 8 ⎦ ⎣ 8 ⎦ ⎣ 8 ⎦ (1)

In this study an automatic method for rutting dimension and lateral
position measurement is proposed based on 2D laser images, 3D laser
images and IMU data. The method's implementation is illustrated in
flowchart form in Fig. 3.
4.1. Automatic measurement of rutting dimensions
Rutting dimensions include width, depth, depression area, wall
Ms = ys − ys − 1 , (2)
where S is the middle segment of the transverse profile; f (x, y) is the
transverse profile; n is the number of points in the transverse profile;
and Ms is the height difference between two adjacent points.
Step 2: Detect the jump point on the extracted segment “S” by Eq.
(3), as Fig. 5(a) shows, and determine the adjustment parameter for
height values by Eq. (4):

3
W. Luo, et al. Automation in Construction 111 (2020) 103056

400 400
Raw Transverse Profiling Calibrated Transverse Profiling
375 Jumping Point 375

Y (mm)
Y (mm)

350 350

325 325

300 300

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
X (mm) X (mm)
(a) (b)
400
Smoothed Transverse Profiling 420
Smoothed Transverse Profiling
375 400 Inner and Outer Edge
Y (mm)

Y (mm)
350 380 Undeformed Horizontal Axis
360
325
340
300 320
300
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
X (mm) X (mm)
(c) (d)
80 Transverse Profiling Undeformed Horizontal Axis
Rotated Tranverse Profiling
40 Rotated Undeformed Horizontal Axis
Y (mm)

-40

-80

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000

X (mm)
(e)
Fig. 5. Transverse profile processing: (a) raw transverse profiling data; (b) elevation difference reduction; (c) smoothed transverse profile; (d) undeformed horizontal
axis determination; (e) transverse profile rotation.

⎧ f (x , y ), if M ≥ max(yl + yr ) − min(yl + yr ) Step 2: Smooth the profile data using a moving average filter with a
⎪ j j j s
2 large base length, with the width of the moving window determined by
S=
⎨ max(yl + yr ) − min(yl + yr ) Eq. (7):
⎪ fn (x n , yn ), if Ms <
⎩ 2 (3) ∑ [dij ]
r= ,
mk = yj − yj − 1 , n (7)
(4)
where r is the width of the moving window.
where fj(xj, yj) is the jump point on the extracted segment “S”; fn(xn, yn)
Step 3: Calculate the weights of points (xi) in the moving window by
are the points on the extracted segment “S” which is not defined as
Eq. (8). The constraint condition of the weight function is given in Eq.
jump point; l is a point on the left half of f(x, y), l = 1, 2, …, n/2; r is a
(9), and the fitted values are calculated by Eqs. (10) and (11):
point on right half of f(x, y), r = (n/2) + 1, (n/2) + 2, …, n; mk is the
adjustment parameter for height value; and k is the number of jumps. wk (x i ) = W (hi−1 (xk − x i )) (8)
Step 3: Make the profile section after jump “k” move up mk pixels;
the adjusted transverse profile is shown in Fig. 5(b). (1 − |x|3 )3, if |x| ≤ 1
W(x) = ⎧
⎨
⎩ 0, if |x| > 1 (9)
4.1.1.2. Data filtering. The presence of narrow dips or fine gravels on a n
  d 2
transverse profile would influence the results of rutting measurement. (βi1,⋯, βid ) = arg min ∑ j = 1 wij (yj − βi0 − βi1 x i −⋯−βid x i ) (10)
To eliminate the influences of the narrow dip and other factors, the
d
locally weighted regression scatter plot smoother (LOWESS) is used to 
yi = ∑k =1 βik xlk , (11)
smooth the transverse profile in this study. Fig. 5(c) shows the
transverse profile smoothed by LOWESS. The details of LOWESS are where hi is the rth largest value of dij, mm; W(x) is the weight function;
shown as follows: k is the base length of the moving window; and  yi is the fitted value.
Step 1: Model the profile data {xi, yi} by Eq. (5), and calculate the
distance between xi and xj by Eq. (6): 4.1.2. Slope calibration
Either an unbalanced distribution of mass or the centrifugal force
yi = βi0 + βi1 x i + ⋯+βid x id + εi (5) generated by horizontal curves may make the travelling survey vehicle
dij = |x i − x j|, have an inclination relative to the pavement surface. The slope of the
(6)
collected transverse profile represents the angle between the horizontal
where β is the coefficient of x; ε: random errors with independent dis- axis of the survey vehicle and the pavement surface, which is not
tribution; d is the constant value; and dij is the distance between xi and consistent with the pavement cross slope. To simulate the rutting
xj; i: i = 1,2, …,n; j: j = 1,2, …,n. measurement in the field, the transverse profile is rotated until its slope

4
W. Luo, et al.
is consistent with the pavement cross slope.
4.1.2.1. Undeformed horizontal axis determination. A horizontal axis of
the pavement transverse profile can be determined by linearly fitting a
transverse profile. However, the fitted line would deviate from the
actual pavement horizontal axis due to the presence of pavement
deformation (e.g., rutting, swelling and center depression). To
eliminate the influence of pavement deformation, the undeformed
horizontal axis is determined based on the edge sections (10 cm in
length) of the transverse profile, as Fig. 5(d) shows.
4.1.2.2. Cross slope measurement. The roll angles measured by the IMU
cannot be directly defined as pavement cross slope due to the
unavoidable tilt of the survey vehicle. Calibration is needed for cross
slope measurement. The angle γ between the pavement and the survey
vehicle equals the slope angle of the collected transverse profile, which
is obtained by Eq. (12) [29]. The “true” cross slope of the pavement can
be approximately determined based on two values: the tilt of vehicle
floor and the slope of road surface visualized by lasers, as Eq. (13)
shows [30]:
hL − hR ⎞
γ = arctan ⎛
⎝ L ⎠ (12)
Sc = tan (θ) + tan (γ ), (13)
where γ is the slope angle of transverse profile, degree; θ is the roll
angle measured by the IMU; L is the length of the transverse profile,
mm; hL is the height of the left edge of the transverse profile, mm; hR is
the height of the right edge of the transverse profile, mm; and Sc is the
pavement cross slope.
4.1.2.3. Transverse profile rotation. The transverse profile is kept
moving in the x-direction until its left edge coincides with the
coordinate origin. Subsequently, the transverse profile is kept rotating
around the coordinate origin until its slope coincides with a pavement
cross slope, as Fig. 5(e) shows. The rotated transverse profile is obtained
by Eqs. (14)–(16):
x ′ = x∙cos α + y∙sin α
(14)
y′ = −x∙sin α + y∙cos α (15)
α = γ − arctan (Sc ), (16)
where x′ is the x coordinate of the rotated transverse profile, mm; y′ is
the y coordinate of the rotated transverse profile, mm; and α is the
rotated angle, degree.
4.1.3. Feature point search
Feature points of the rutting (e.g., edge and valley points) are the
critical elements for rutting dimension measurement. Rutting, a type of
pavement deformation, is always formed with other types of pavement
deformation, such as pavement swelling and center depression. The
presence of pavement swelling and center deformation affects rutting
feature point detection. In this paper two feature point detection
methods are proposed based on two scenarios. It should be noted that
the undeformed horizontal axis is considered as the reference line for
rutting dimension measurement.
4.1.3.1. Scenario 1: rutting with pavement swelling. Valley point
detection: (1) mark the middle point of a transverse profile, as
Fig. 6(a) shows; (2) traverse all the points from the middle to the left
edge of the profile, and record the point with maximum vertical
distance to the undeformed horizontal axis, as Fig. 6(b) shows; (3)
similarly, traverse all the points from the middle to the right edge of the
profile, and record the point with maximum vertical distance to the
undeformed horizontal axis, as Fig. 6(b) shows; (4) define the detected
points as the valley points of the inner and outer ruts.
5
Automation in Construction 111 (2020) 103056
Edge point detection: (1) mark all the intersection points between
the transverse profile and the undeformed horizontal axis, as Fig. 6(c)
shows; (2) define the intersection points adjacent to the valley point as
the edge points of a rut, as Fig. 6(d) shows.
4.1.3.2. Scenario 2: rutting with pavement center depression. Valley point
detection: (1) mark the middle point of a transverse profile, as Fig. 7(a)
shows; (2) determine valley points (with maximum vertical distance to
the undeformed horizontal axis) of the inner and outer ruts by
traversing all the points from the middle to the left and right sides,
respectively, as shown in Fig. 7(b).
Edge point detection: (1) mark the intersection points between a
transverse profile and the undeformed horizontal axis, and define the
intersection points adjacent to valley point as the outer edge points of
ruts, as shown in Fig. 7(c); (2) define the point between two valley
points with minimum vertical distance to the undeformed horizontal
axis as the inner edge point of the left and right ruts, as Fig. 7(d) shows.
4.1.4. Rutting dimension measurement
Once the valley and edge points of the ruts are determined, the
rutting dimensions can be measured. In this paper rutting dimensions
mainly include rutting width, maximum depth, depression area, wall
slope and the spacing of the inner and outer ruts. Fig. 8 shows the
definitions of the measured rutting dimensions in this study. Rutting
width is defined as the projection distance of the inner and outer edge
points on the undeformed horizontal axis, as shown in Eq. (17). The
maximum rutting depth is defined as the vertical distance from the
valley point to the undeformed horizontal axis, as shown in Eq. (18).
Rutting depression area is calculated by Eq. (19). The wall of ruts is
defined as the profiling section between the valley point and edge
points, and the wall slope is defined as the slope of the fitting linear line
of the rutting walls. The spacing of the inner and outer ruts is defined as
the projection distance of the two valley points on the undeformed
horizontal axis, as Eq. (20) shows:
W = (xI − x O ) × Sc2 + 1 (17)
|Sc2 xV − Sc yV + 400 Sc2 + 1 |
D=
Sc Sc2 + 1 (18)
xO
A= ∑ (yi − y′ j )
i, j = x I (19)
Sp = (xV 1 − xV 2) × Sc2 + 1 , (20)
where W is rutting width, mm; xO is the x coordinate of the outer edge,
mm; xI is the x coordinate of the inner edge, mm; D is the maximum
rutting depth, mm; xV is the x coordinate of valley points (1 for inner
ruts; 2 for outer ruts), mm; yV is the y coordinate of the valley point,
mm; A is rutting depression area, mm2; y'j is the y coordinate of the jth
point on a transverse profile, mm; and Sp is the spacing between the
inner and outer ruts, mm.
4.2. Automatic measurement of rutting lateral position
Generally, pavement ruts are the result of the long-term and re-
peated actions of a large number of traffic loads. Therefore, the lateral
position of pavement rutting is helpful for understanding and evalu-
ating traffic trajectory and lane offset risk. However, the detected lat-
eral positions of ruts on a transverse profile do not represent their ac-
tual lateral positions on the lane, due to the survey vehicle's wheel
wandering during data collection. To solve this issue, the exactly mat-
ched 2D and 3D laser images are used for rutting positioning on a lane.
First, 2D pavement images are applied to determine the lane region
from a pavement transverse profile. Subsequently, the lateral positions
of ruts on a lane are obtained, and the deviation of ruts relative to lane
W. Luo, et al. Automation in Construction 111 (2020) 103056

Transverse Profiling Undeformed Horizontal Axis Middle Point

Valley Point Intersection Edge Point
0 0

Y (mm)
Y (mm)
-25 Pavement Swelling -25
-50 -50
-75 -75
-100 -100
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
X(mm) X(mm)
(a) (b)
0 0
Y (mm)

Y (mm)
-25 -25
-50 -50
-75 -75
-100 -100
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
X(mm) X(mm)
(c) (d)

Fig. 6. Feature point search for a rutting with pavement swelling: (a) middle point position; (b) valley point search; (c) intersection point detection; (d) edge point
determination.

Transverse Profiling Undeformed Horizontal Axis Middle Point

Valley Point Intersection Inner Edge Outer Edge
0 0

Y (mm)
Y (mm)

-25 Center Depression -25

-50 -50
-75 -75
-100 -100
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
X (mm) X (mm)
(a) (b)
0 0
Y (mm)
Y (mm)

-25 -25
-50 -50
-75 -75
-100 -100
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
X (mm) X (mm)
(c) (d)

Fig. 7. Feature point search for a rutting with center depression: (a) middle point position; (b) valley point search; (c) intersection point detection; (d) edge point
determination.

center line is computed. are exactly matched, the locations of their lane markings are fully
matched as well. Once lane markings are identified using 2D images,
their positions on a transverse profile (extracted from 3D images) can
4.2.1. Lane marking identification
also be determined. In this study lane marking identification is
Since 2D and 3D pavement images collected by the 3D laser system

Transverse Profiling Undeformed Horizontal Axis

Valley Point Edge Point Fitted Line of Rutting Wall
0 Rutting Maxim
Width um Ru
tting D
Wall epth
-25 Slop
e: -0
Y (mm)

. 0343
1 Rutting Depressed Area
Wall Slope: -0.00191 Width
-50
Depressed Area Wall
Spacin Slop
g of In e: -0
-75 ner an .031
d 9 Wall Slope: -0.00603
Outer
Ruts
-100
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
X (mm)
(a)
0 Rutting Maxim
Width um Ru Rutting
Wa tt ing De Width
ll S pth
-25 l op
e: - Depressed Area
Y (mm)

0.0
4 961
-50 Wall Slope: -0.00366
Wall
Depressed Area Slop
-75 Spacin e: -0
g of Inn .039 0084
er and 0.
Outer R 37 Wall Slope:
uts
-100
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
X (mm)
(b)
Fig. 8. Rutting dimension definition: (a) rutting with pavement swelling; (b) rutting with center deformation.

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W. Luo, et al. Automation in Construction 111 (2020) 103056

Fig. 9. Lane marking identification: (a) raw image; (b) binary image; (c) edge detection; (d) lane marking centerline determination.

implemented as follows: Streets,” [31] pavement lane width ranges from 3.5 m to 3.75 m. In this
study the collected laser images have a size of 2 m (length) by 4 m
4.2.1.1. 2D image binarization. In this study each 2D laser image has a (width); thus they can cover the entire lane width. It should be noted
size of 4096 pixels by 2048 pixels. One 2D image with lane markings is that lane markings may be painted as solid lines or dashed lines. One
shown in Fig. 9(a). Firstly, a Wiener filter is employed to smooth the short segment, or none, of the lane marking appears on an image when
image and suppress unwanted information. Subsequently, the Otsu the gap between dashed lines is captured in the image. In addition, the
method is used for image binarization, and the threshold is determined wandering of the survey vehicle also leads to lane markings being out of
by Eqs. (21) to (23). Fig. 9(b) shows a 2D image binarization result: the range of laser cameras. Therefore, three scenarios are given for lane
2
center line detection based on the captured lane markings.
t L−1
⎡ ⎛
t = Max ⎢w0 (t ) ∗ ⎜∑ iPi/ w0 − ∑ iPi ⎞⎟ + w1 (t )
⎢ ⎝ i=0 i=0 ⎠ 4.2.2.1. Scenario 1: left and right lane marking captured. When two
⎣
2 straight lane markings appear on a pavement image, lane width is
L−1 L−1
⎛ ⎤
∗ ⎜ ∑ iPi/ w1 − ∑ iPi ⎞⎟ ⎥ measured based on the left and right lane markings, and lane center line
⎝i=t+1 i=0 ⎠⎥ (21) is defined as the midline between the left and right lane markings, as
⎦
Fig. 10(a) shows. Sometimes lane markings are presented as slanted
t lines on pavement images, in which case the lane center line is
w0 = ∑ Pi determined by the two slanted lane markings and is also presented as
i=0 (22)
a slanted line, as Fig. 10(b) shows. When one lane marking is painted as
L−1 dashed lines and only a part of this lane marking is captured, first, the
w1 = ∑ Pi = 1 − w0, gap of this lane marking is filled based on the captured solid lines.
i=t+1 (23)
Subsequently, the lane center line is defined, as Fig. 10(c) shows.
where t is the threshold, ranged from 0 to L-1; L is the maximum
intensity value of a 2D image; Pi is the proportion of pixels with 4.2.2.2. Scenario 2: one lane marking captured. When only one lane
intensity value i in a 2D image; w0 is the proportion of background making appears on a pavement image, the lane center line is
pixels; and w1 is the proportion of foreground pixels. determined based on the location of the captured lane marking and
the measured lane width. As Fig. 11(a) shows, the captured lane
4.2.1.2. Lane marking detection. After image binarization, the lane marking is located on the left side and presented as straight line. The
marking regions can be distinguished from background. However, lane center line is defined as a straight line with the distance of a half
missing paint on lane markings or disconnected lane markings affect lane width to the right of the left lane marking. Sometimes the captured
lane marking edge detection results. Accordingly, dilation and erosion lane marking is presented as a slanted line, and the lane center line is
methods are used to patch up the worn or disconnected areas of lane also defined as a slanted line with the distance of a half lane width from
markings. Subsequently, the Canny edge detection algorithm is the captured lane marking, as Fig. 11(b) shows. For lane markings that
employed for edge detection of lane markings, and an example is are painted as dashed lines, if only a part of the lane marking is
shown in Fig. 9(c). In this study the center line of a lane marking is used captured, the gap is patched up first, and then the lane center line is
to define the interior area of a lane, as shown in Fig. 9(d). determined, as Fig. 11(c) shows.

4.2.2. Lane center line detection 4.2.2.3. Scenario 3: no lane marking captured. One laser image may not
Based on the book “A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and contain lane markings when the survey vehicle wanders too much

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W. Luo, et al. Automation in Construction 111 (2020) 103056

2000
Lane Width
1750

1500

Lane Center Line Lane Center Line

1250

Y (mm)
1000

750 Left Lane Marking Right Lane Marking

500 X (mm)

250

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
X (mm)
(a)
2000

1750

1500 Lane Center Line

1250
Y (mm)

1000

750

500 Left Lane Marking Right Lane Marking

250

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
X (mm)
(b)
2000

1750

1500 Lane Center Line

1250
Y (mm)

1000

750 Left Lane Marking Right Lane Marking

500

250

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
X (mm)
(c)
Fig. 10. Lane center line detection with (a) two straight lane markings; (b) two slanted lane markings; (c) two fragmentary lane markings.

during data collection or the gaps between two dashed lane markings
are captured. In this situation, lane marking endpoints of the previous
and next images are marked first, as Fig. 12 shows. Second, because
pavement images are continuously collected, the marked points are
used to determine the locations of the missing lane markings on the
current image. Finally, the lane center line for the current image is
determined, as Fig. 12 shows.
4.2.3. Rutting lateral position measurement
The lateral positions of pavement ruts on a lane on a pavement
image are determined according to the detected location of the lane
center line. The lateral positions of the valley points are computed by
Eq. (24). The center of the left and right ruts is termed the rutting
center. Mark the two projected points of valley points on the un-
deformed horizontal axis, and the rutting center is defined as the
midpoint between the two projected points, as Fig. 13 shows. Rutting
deviation is defined as the distance from the rutting center to the lane

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W. Luo, et al. Automation in Construction 111 (2020) 103056

2000

1750
1/2 Lane Width Lane Center Line
1500

1250

Y (mm)
1000 Left Lane Marking
750

500

250

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
X (mm)
(a)
2000

1750

1500 1/2 Lane Width

1250
Y (mm)

Lane Center Line

1000

750
Right Lane Marking
500

250

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
X (mm)
(b)
2000

1750

1500

1250 Lane Center Line

Y (mm)

1000 Left Lane Marking

750

500
1/2 Lane Width
250

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
X (mm)
(c)
Fig. 11. Lane center line detection with (a) one straight lane marking; (b) one slanted lane marking; (c) one fragmentary lane marking.

center line, which is calculated by Eq. (25): right rut), mm; xLC is the x coordinate of lane center line on a transverse
profile, mm; Sc is pavement cross slope, m/m; DEruts is rutting deviation,
PVi = (xVi − xLC ) × Sc2 + 1 (24) mm; and xvi is the x coordinate of rutting valley point on a transverse
profile (i = 1 for left rut, i = 2 for right rut), mm.
1
DEruts = ⎡ (xV1 + xV2) − xLC ⎤ × Sc2 + 1 ,
⎣2 ⎦ (25)

where Pvi is rutting lateral position (i = 1 for the left rut, i = 2 for the

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W. Luo, et al. Automation in Construction 111 (2020) 103056

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000

2000 2000

1750 1750
1/2 Lane Width
1500 1500

Lane Center Line Right Lane Marking

Last Image
1250 1250
Y (mm)
1000 1000
Lane Center Line
750 750

500 500

250 250

0
2000 0
2000

1750 1750

1500 1500

Current Image
Lane Center Line Lane Marking Endpoints
1250 1250
Y (mm)

Determination
1000 1000

750 750

500 500
1/2 Lane Width
250 250

2000
0 2000
0

1750 1750

1500 1500

1250 Lane Center Line 1250

Y (mm)

Next Image
1000 1000
Right Lane Marking
750 750

500 500

250 250

0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
X (mm)
Fig. 12. Lane center line detection without lane marking.

Transverse Profiling Undeformed Horizontal Axis Middle Point of Ruts

Valley Point Edge Point Lane Center Line Lane Marking
0
PVL
-20
Y (mm)

PVR
-40

-60

-80 Deviation of Ruts

-100
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
X (mm)
Fig. 13. Pavement rutting position.

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Fig. 14. Locations of two test sections.

5. Results and discussion Table 1

Test section description.
5.1. Test route description Feature Test site 1 Test site 2

To explore the reliability of the proposed method on rutting mea- Construction Service years (years) 6 6
Length (m) 968 1225
surement, two asphalt pavement sections were chosen as the test bed in
Lanes 4 4
this study. To reduce the influences of horizontal curves on rutting Survey lane Outer lane Outer LANE
wandering, two straight road sections were selected for rutting mea- Materials Pavement type Asphalt Asphalt
surement, as Fig. 14 shows. Test site 1 is located on Juyuan Road, Asphalt-aggregate ratio (%) 5 5
Fuzhou, China, and test site 2 is located on the Third Ring Expressway, Aggregate size (mm) 13 13
Air void (%) 23 23
Fuzhou, China. Detailed information for the two test sections is shown
Compressive modulus (MPa) 1500 1500
in Table 1. Traffic Traffic volume (veh/h) 2952 4524
Compose-passenger car (%) 92 8
Compose-heavy vehicle (%) 54 46
5.2. Automatically measured rutting dimensions Location Start point: latitude (deg) N 26.047015 N 26.060524
Start point: longitude (deg) E 119.241085 E 119.228835
It should be noted that 3D laser images have a resolution of 1 mm in End point: latitude (deg) N 26.046209 N 26.043674
the travelling direction. However, rutting dimension measurement with End point: longitude (deg) E 119.23173 E 119.232111
a 1 mm interval is not necessary since rutting is a type of macroscopic
distress, and the variation of rutting dimensions at a 1 mm interval is
width at test site 2 are greater than at test site 1. Heavy vehicles con-
not obvious. Therefore, the average values of rutting from 1000
tribute to a large proportion of traffic flow at test site 2, which leads to
transverse profiling samples are calculated and used for rutting di-
rutting with large widths. By contrast, passenger cars occupy the ma-
mension measurement in this study.
jority of traffic flow at test site 1, which leads to rutting with small
widths. Results show that at test site 1 the average width of left ruts is
5.2.1. Rutting width 844 mm, and the average width of right ruts is 372 mm; at test site 2,
Fig. 15(a) shows the automatically measured rutting widths at the the average width of left ruts is 1102 mm, and the average width of
two test sites. Fig. 15(b) shows their statistical results, including con- right ruts is 1399 mm. Findings indicate that wider rutting is produced
fidence intervals from 25% to 75%, median value, mean value and on the lanes where heavy vehicles occupy the majority of traffic flow. In
outliers. The composition of traffic flow is an important factor affecting addition, passenger cars tend to be more to the left of a centered-in-lane
rutting width. As Fig. 15 shows, the median and mean values of rutting

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W. Luo, et al. Automation in Construction 111 (2020) 103056

4000 4000
Left Rut on Test Site 1 Right Rut on Test Site 1

Rutting Width (mm)

Rutting Width (mm)

3000 3000

2000 2000

1000 1000

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000
4000 Mileage (m) 4000 Mileage (m)

Left Rut on Test Site 2 Right Rut on Test Site 2

Rutting Width (mm)

Rutting Width (mm)

3000 3000

2000 2000

1000 1000

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Mileage (m) Mileage (m)

(a)

3500
T1-L-W (25%~75%)
3000 T1-R-W (25%~75%)
Outlier
2500 2586
Median Line
Rutting Width (mm)

2000
Range

1500
1319.5
1000 997.5
902.5
Mean:843.6179
500 435
263 Mean:372.3768 222
0 0 0 58

-500
T1-L-W T1-R-W

3500
T2-L-W (25%~75%)
3000 T2-R-W (25%~75%)
Outlier
2500 Median Line
Rutting Width (mm)

2156
2000
Range

1678 1651.2
1500 Mean:1398.904 1515.2
1250.5 1298.7
1102
1000 Mean:1101.847 965
773.5
500 538.5

-500
T2-L-W T2-R-W

(b)
Fig. 15. Automatically measured rutting width: (a) original data; (b) statistical results.

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W. Luo, et al. Automation in Construction 111 (2020) 103056

80 80
Left Rut on Test Site 1 Right Rut on Test Site 1

Maximum Rutting Depth (mm)

Maximum Rutting Depth (mm)

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000
80 Mileage (m) 80 Mileage (m)
Maximum Rutting Depth (mm)

Maximum Rutting Depth (mm)

Left Rut on Test Site 2 Right Rut on Test Site 2
60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Mileage (m) Mileage (m)

(a)
70 70
T1-L-D (25%~75%) T2-L-D (25%~75%)
60 T1-R-D (25%~75%) 60 T2-R-D (25%~75%)
Outlier Outlier
50 Median Line 50 Median Line
Rutting Depth (mm)
Rutting Depth (mm)

43.78389
40 39.66567 40
Range

Range

35.20603
30 30
27.41852
Mean:18.7868 23.067
20 18.81773 20 20.45503 18.912
16.255 14.743
Mean:17.3796 Mean:8.9178 Mean:10.4494 12.67273
10 10 9.84711
7.38098
4.70754 3.7805
0.6265 2.28876
0 0 0 0 0

-10 -10
T1-L-D T1-R-D T2-L-D T2-R-D

(b)
Fig. 16. Automatically measured maximum rutting depth: (a) original data; (b) statistical results.

position while travelling, but heavy vehicles tend to be more to the are different. Normally, large traffic volume and heavy traffic loads
right of a centered-in-lane position while travelling. would cause deep pavement ruts. Results show that the average depths
of left and right ruts at test site 1 are 17 mm and 9 mm, respectively. For
test site 2, the average depths of left and right ruts are 10 mm and
5.2.2. Rutting depth
19 mm, respectively. Findings indicate that the deeper rutting is pro-
Fig. 16(a) shows the automatically measured rutting depths at the
duced on the lanes where heavy vehicles occupy the majority of traffic
two test sites. Fig. 16(b) shows their statistical results, including con-
flow. In addition, findings indicate that passenger cars tend to tilt to the
fidence intervals from 25% to 75%, median value, mean value and
left while travelling, but heavy vehicles tend to tilt to the right while
outliers. Traffic volume, traffic loads, pavement materials and pave-
travelling.
ment service years are the important factors affecting rutting depth. The
two test sites were constructed with the same materials in the same
year, but the traffic volume and traffic composition of the two test sites

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W. Luo, et al. Automation in Construction 111 (2020) 103056

50000 50000
Left Rut on Test Site 1 Right Rut on Test Site 1

Depressed Area (mm2)

Depressed Area (mm2)

40000 40000

30000 30000

20000 20000

10000 10000

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000
50000 Mileage (m) 50000 Mileage (m)

Left Rut on Test Site 2 Right Rut on Test Site 1

Depressed Area (mm2)

Depressed Area (mm2)

40000 40000

30000 30000

20000 20000

10000 10000

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Mileage (m) Mileage (m)

(a)

35000
T1-L-A (25%~75%) 35000 T2-L-A (25%~75%)
30000 T1-R-A (25%~75%) T2-R-A (25%~75%)
Outlier 30000 Outlier 30220.86267
Depressed Area (mm2)

Depressed Area (mm2)

25000 Median Line Median Line

25000
20000 19327.84663
20000
Range

Range

17922.1
15000
15000 15007.95833
13497.9
10000 Mean:13185.32
9138.48934 10000
7949.99051 8743.69
Mean:4844.985 Mean:6185.212 8254.26675
5000 5000 5744.10892
2877.80849
3708.31 3609.58231
Mean:2872.772 653.222
0 0 287.43132 0 29.0719 0 0 0

-5000 -5000
T1-L-A T1-R-A T2-L-A T2-R-A

(b)
Fig. 17. Automatically measured rutting depression area: (a) original data; (b) statistical results.

5.2.3. Rutting depression area rutting at test site 1 are 4845 mm2 and 2873 mm2, respectively. For test
Fig. 17(a) shows the automatically measured rutting depression site 2, the mean depression areas of left and right rutting are 6185 mm2
area at the two test sites. Fig. 17(b) shows their statistical results, in- and 13,185 mm2, respectively. Unbalanced wheel loads would make
cluding confidence intervals from 25% to 75%, median value, mean the left and right ruttings differ in deformation severity. The measured
value and outliers. Rutting depression area reflects the severity of pa- rutting depths at the two test sites imply that the left wheels of pas-
vement deformation, which depends on traffic volume, traffic loads, senger cars bear more weight than the right wheels while travelling, but
pavement materials and service years. As Fig. 17 shows, the average the right wheels of heavy vehicles bear more weight than the right
value of the rutting depression area at test site 2 is greater than that at wheels while travelling.
test site 1. Large traffic volume with a large proportion of heavy ve-
hicles at test site 2 causes a more serious pavement deformation than at 5.2.4. Rutting wall slope
test site 1. Results show that the mean depression areas of left and right Fig. 18(a) shows the automatically measured rutting wall slope at

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W. Luo, et al. Automation in Construction 111 (2020) 103056

Outer Wall of Left Rut (T1) Inner Wall of Left Rut (T1) Inner Wall of Right Rut (T1) Outer Wall of Right Rut (T1)
0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
Wall Slope (m/m)

Wall Slope (m/m)

Wall Slope (m/m)

Wall Slope (m/m)

0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

-0.1 -0.1 -0.1 -0.1

-0.2 -0.2 -0.2 -0.2

0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Mileage (m) Mileage (m) Mileage (m) Mileage (m)
0.2 Outer Wall of Left Rut (T2) 0.2 Inner Wall of Left Rut (T2) 0.2 Inner Wall of Right Rut (T2) 0.2 Outer Wall of Right Rut (T2)
Wall Slope (m/m)

Wall Slope (m/m)

Wall Slope (m/m)

Wall Slope (m/m)

0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

-0.1 -0.1 -0.1 -0.1

-0.2 -0.2 -0.2 -0.2

0 200 400 600 800 10001200 0 200 400 600 800 10001200 0 200 400 600 800 10001200 0 200 400 600 800 10001200
Mileage (m) Mileage (m) Mileage (m) Mileage (m)

(a)
0.16 T1-LO-S (25%~75%) T1-LI-S (25%~75%)
T1-RI-S (25%~75%) T1-RO-S (25%~75%)
0.14
Outlier Median Line
0.12
Wall Slope (m/m)

0.10
Range

0.08

0.06

0.04 Mean:-0.03324 Mean:-0.04431

0.02 Mean:0.02649
Mean:0.017597
0.00

-0.02

T1-LO-S T1-LI-S T1-RI-S T1-RO-S

0.25 T2-LO-S (25%~75%) T2-LI-S (25%~75%)

T2-RI-S (25%~75%) T2-RO-S (25%~75%)
Outlier Median Line
0.20
Wall Slope (m/m)

0.15
Range

0.10

Mean:-0.06259
0.05
Mean:-0.02002 Mean:0.017845
0.00 Mean:0.020918

-0.05
T2-LO-S T2-LI-S T2-RI-S T2-RO-S

(b)
Fig. 18. Automatically measured rutting wall slope: (a) original data; (b) statistical results.

the two test sites. Fig. 18(b) shows their statistical results, including 5.2.5. Spacing between inner and outer rutting
confidence intervals from 25% to 75%, median value, mean value and Fig. 19(a) shows the automatically measured spacing between left
outliers. Rutting wall slope is strongly related with traffic safety and and right rutting at the two test sites. Fig. 19(b) shows their statistical
ride comfort. results, including confidence intervals from 25% to 75%, median value,
As Fig. 18 shows, the measured inner wall slopes are greater than mean value and outliers. The mean values of rutting spacing at test site
the measured outer wall slopes at both test sites. This phenomenon may 1 and test site 2 are 1396 mm and 1578 mm, respectively. Vehicle size
be caused by the center area of a lane suffering wheel loads in higher and traffic trajectory are the important factors affecting rutting spacing.
frequency than the edge areas of a lane. Due to the different traffic flow composition at the two test sites, the
rutting spacings at test site 2 are greater than at test site 1.

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3000 3000
Test Site 1 Test Site 2
2500 2500

Spacing of Ruts (m)

Spacing of Ruts (m)

2000 2000

1500 1500

1000 1000

500 500

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Mileage (m) Mileage (m)

(a)

3000
T1-SP (25%~75%) T2-SP (25%~75%)
Outlier Median Line
2500
Spacing of Ruts (mm)

2190 2196
2000
Range

1729
1635
1500 1559
Mean:1395.729 1404 Mean:1584.35 1417
1217
1000 976

625
500

0
T1-SP T2-SP

(b)
Fig. 19. Automatically measured spacing between the inner and outer rutting: (a) original data; (b) statistical results.

5.3. Automatically measured rutting lateral positions the survey vehicle tends to drive on the right side of a lane at test site 1,
and on the left side of a lane at test site 2; and that the lateral deviations
The lateral positions of left and right rutting at the two test sites of the survey vehicle at the two straight test sections are not large.
were automatically measured based on the detected lane markings and
lane center line. 5.3.2. Rutting lateral position
Since pavement rutting is formed by the long-term and repeated
5.3.1. Detected lane markings and lane center line actions of traffic loads, the rutting trajectory is consistent with the
To suppress the influence of wheel wandering on rutting lateral trajectories of most vehicles. Accordingly, the rutting lateral positions
position measurement, the detected lane markings and lane center line of a lane can be used to describe the trajectories of most vehicles. In this
were utilized to measure the deviations of the survey vehicle. Fig. 20 study the lateral positions of rutting valley points on a lane are used to
shows the automatically measured lateral positions of lane marking and retrieve rutting trajectories. Fig. 21 shows the lateral distances from
lane center line on pavement images. The measured results show that rutting valley point to lane center line. The measurement results of two

Left Lane Marking Right Lane Marking Lane Center Line

4000 4000
of Lane Marking (mm)

of Lane Marking (mm)

Lateral Position

Lateral Position

3000 3000

2000 2000

1000 1000

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Mileage (m) Mileage (m)
Test Site 1 Test Site 2

Fig. 20. Identified lane markings and lane center line.

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Valley of Left Rut Valley of Right Rut Lane Center Line

2000 2000
1500 1500

of Valley Point (mm)

of Valley Point (mm)

Lateral Position
Lateral Position
1000 1000
500 500
0 0
-500 -500
-1000 -1000
-1500 -1500
-2000 -2000
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Mileage (m) Mileage (m)
Test Site 1 Test Site 2

Fig. 21. Automatically measured rutting lateral position.

1000 1000

Deviation of Ruts (mm)

Deviation of Ruts (mm)

750 750
500 500
250 250
0 0
-250 -250
-500 -500
-750 -750
-1000 -1000
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Mileage (m) Mileage (m)
Test Site 1 Test Site 2

(a)

Rutting Deviation-T1 (25%~75%)

1000
Rutting Deviation-T2 (25%~75%)
Outlier
Rutting Deviation (mm

500 Median Line

374
Range

79.5
0 Mean:-42.9429 -47 -8.5
-150.5

-374.01
-500 -481.5 -498.07
Mean:-478.568 -626.98

-1000 -992

Rutting Deviation-T1 Rutting Deviation-T2

(b)
Fig. 22. Automatically measured rutting deviations: (a) original data; (b) statistical results.

test sites imply that most vehicles tend to drive on the inner side of a pavement rutting is seen to shift to the left side of a centered-in-lane
lane on straight road sections. position. The mean values of measured rutting deviations at-test site 1
and test site 2 are −43 mm and −479 mm, respectively. The difference
of rutting deviations at the two test sites is mainly caused by the
5.3.3. Rutting deviation composition of traffic flow. The results imply that most vehicles,
The automatically measured pavement rutting deviations at the two especially heavy vehicles, tend to drive on the inner side of the lane.
test sites are shown in Fig. 22(a). Fig. 22(b) shows their statistical re-
sults, including confidence intervals from 25% to 75%, median value,
mean value and outliers. Positive deviation represents pavement rutting 5.4. Validation
shifting to the outer side of a lane; negative deviation represents pa-
vement rutting shifting to the inner side of a lane. According to the 5.4.1. Experiment design
detected locations of pavement ruts on two straight road sections, To verify the accuracy of the proposed method on rutting

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W. Luo, et al. Automation in Construction 111 (2020) 103056

dimensions and rutting lateral position measurement, a validation test Table 3

was conducted in this study. Rutting depth, rutting width and lateral Rutting depth comparison between manual and automated measurement.
position of rutting valley points were manually measured, and the Distance (km) T1-L (mm) T1-R (mm) T2-L (mm) T2-R (mm)
manually measured results are considered as the ground truth for
comparison and validation. It is difficult to measure rutting depression Auto Manu Auto Manu Auto Manu Auto Manu
area and wall slope using manual methods. However, manual mea-
0.10 29.7 31 2.4 4 10.8 9 4.5 3
surement cannot acquire continuous data; thus, in this study rutting 0.20 40.2 38 7.5 9 13.8 12 28.2 29
dimension and locations were manually measured with a 100 m in- 0.30 25.5 24 1.8 2 11.1 12 23.4 22
terval at the two test sites. The manual rutting measurement was con- 0.40 0.9 0 23.1 21 5.7 5 19.5 17
ducted using a straight scale, and was implemented with the following 0.50 17.7 20 0.3 0 17.4 16 36.6 33
0.60 12.3 14 1.2 2 19.8 19 18.6 21
five steps:
0.70 26.4 25 0.6 1 11.7 10 21.6 19
0.80 31.5 29 21.9 22 12.3 11 18 20
5.4.1.1. Edge point detection. We placed a 2 m straight scale cross 0.90 25.2 26 5.1 7 11.1 13 21.3 19
pavement lane and kept moving the ruler in a transverse direction until 1.00 / / / / 13.2 15 18.9 20
1.10 / / / / 1.5 2 13.5 15
it covered an entire rut. We marked the edges of the depression area 1.20 / / / / 14.4 13 19.8 17
and defined them as the rutting edges.

5.4.1.2. Rutting width measurement. We marked the positions of the method is accurate and reliable in rutting dimension and lateral posi-
rutting edges on the straight scale and computed the widths of the left tion measurement.
and right rutting.
6. Conclusions
5.4.1.3. Valley point detection. We ensured that the 2 m straight scale
covered the entire rut, and a 0.5 m straight needle perpendicular to the In this paper a new method is proposed for rutting dimension and
2 m straight scale was used to measure the distance from the scale to lateral position measurement. To validate the robustness of the new
the rutting bottom. We marked the deepest point in the rutting area and algorithm, two test sites are chosen as the test beds, and the auto-
defined it as the rutting valley point. matically measured results are compared with the ground truth col-
lected manually in field. Several findings are given as follows.
5.4.1.4. Rutting depth measurement. We measured the vertical distance Influences of pavement swelling, center deformation and vehicle
from the rutting valley point to the 2 m scale and defined it as the wandering on rutting dimension and lateral position measurement are
maximum rutting depth. efficiently suppressed using a series of processing techniques, such as
noise elimination, slope calibration, feature point search and lane
5.4.1.5. Rutting lateral position measurement. We measured the distance marking detection. The paired sample t-test is used to validate the ac-
from the lane center line to the rutting valley point, and defined it as curacy of the proposed method, and the findings indicate that the
the rutting lateral position. proposed method produces high accuracy in rutting dimension and
lateral position measurement compared with the ground truth.
5.4.2. Test results Impacts of traffic volume and traffic composition on rutting di-
Tables 2–4 show the manually and automatically measured results mension are investigated as well. Findings indicate that impacts of
at the same locations. The Paired sample t-test is used to determine traffic volume are not obvious when pavements are in short service
whether the differences between automatic and manual measurements years. Impacts of traffic composition are concluded as follows: (1) the
are significant. Generally, the two compared samples can be considered outer rutting is deeper and wider for traffic composition with a large
to have no significant difference if the significance coefficient is > 0.05. proportion of heavy vehicles; and (2) the inner rutting is deeper and
For rutting width measurements, the significance coefficient value of wider for traffic composition with a large proportion of passenger cars.
0.341 means there is no significant difference between the automatic This phenomenon implies that drivers of most passenger cars prefer to
measurements and the ground truth. Similarly, for rutting depth mea- shift to the left side of a lane, which leads to deeper and wider rutting at
surements and rutting lateral position measurements, their significance the left side of a lane, while the majority of drivers of heavy vehicles
coefficients are 0.243 and 0.700, respectively, which indicate that there prefer to shift to the right side of a lane, which leads to deeper and
is no significant difference between the automatic measurements and wider rutting at the right side of a lane.
the ground truth. It can be concluded that the proposed automatic The measured rutting lateral positions at the two test sites indicate
that the majority of vehicles' drivers prefer to shift to the inner side of a
Table 2 lane on straight road sections, and the deviations of heavy vehicles are
Rutting width comparison between manual and automated measurement. greater than those of passenger cars. Roadway alignment is a critical
Distance (km) T1-L (mm) T1-R (mm) T2-L (mm) T2-R (mm)
factor influencing wheel wandering; the investigation of wheel wan-
dering at horizontal curves would be a good subject for future research.
Auto Manu Auto Manu Auto Manu Auto Manu This study provides an effective, accurate and automatic method for
rutting dimension and lateral position measurement. The measured
0.10 805 916 146 203 1157 1304 434 421
rutting dimensions and lateral positions are helpful for traffic safety
0.20 1222 1043 419 514 1321 1256 1797 1541
0.30 1422 1355 186 255 1080 895 1416 1124 analysis, ride comfort evaluation and structural damage prediction,
0.40 67 0 262 226 958 1125 1815 1952 based on which pavement engineers may take remedial measures to
0.50 600 627 171 248 1384 1198 2029 1988 minimize traffic accidents.
0.60 1287 1128 174 147 1252 1385 1736 1785
0.70 833 903 65 112 1429 1341 929 1024
0.80 1182 1149 321 298 1261 1102 1583 1396 Conflict of interest statement
0.90 1367 1415 402 387 1258 1184 1768 1891
1.00 / / / / 1228 1189 1427 1396
The authors declare that we have no financial and personal re-
1.10 / / / / 305 214 1493 1585
1.20 / / / / 1294 1458 1673 1536 lationships with other people or organizations that can inappropriately
influence our work, there is no professional or other personal interest of

18
W. Luo, et al. Automation in Construction 111 (2020) 103056

Table 4
Rutting lateral position comparison between manual and automated measurement.
Distance (km) T1-L (mm) T1-R (mm) T2-L (mm) T2-R (mm)

Auto Manu Auto Manu Auto Manu Auto Manu

0.10 −606 −558 1092 954 −1260 −1141 341 445

0.20 −819 −936 539 741 −1362 −1236 −75 −21
0.30 −1079 −1254 668 584 −1259 −1452 −105 12
0.40 −755 −632 176 253 −1432 −1585 604 854
0.50 −673 −789 807 966 −1055 −1125 633 512
0.60 −556 −421 1304 1352 −1245 −1198 272 336
0.70 −677 −856 761 699 −1061 −1023 406 321
0.80 −754 −922 739 854 −1361 −1451 141 86
0.90 −698 −712 330 412 −1330 −1402 10 −33
1.00 / / / / −1313 −1105 312 458
1.10 / / / / −1084 −954 269 215
1.20 / / / / −1269 −1452 316 409

any nature or kind in any product, service and/or company that could
be construed as influencing the position presented in, or the review of,
the manuscript entitled “Automatic Measurement of Rutting Dimension
and Lateral Position Using 3D Line Scanning Laser System and Inertial
Measuring Unit (IMU)”.
Acknowledgments
The research has been supported and funded by the National Key
Research and Development Program of China (Grant No:
2018YFB1201601), Chinese National Natural Fund for Young Scholars
(Grant No: 51608123), Fujian Natural Science Foundations (Grant No:
2017J01682 & 2017J01475) and the Outstanding Young Scientific
Research Talent Program of Fujian Agricultural and Forestry University
(Grant No: XJQ2018007).
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