A.

The Speech Body

Structure and Direction

There are many forms that the body of your speech can take, but it should always have good structure.
Forexample, an informative speech will usually have three to four main points and a narrative speech
will usually follow a storyline. Even entertaining talks and “roasts” should have bothcohesion and
direction to help the audience follow along.

Audience

It is important to know your audience and speak to their level and (usually) their point of view. always
establish some common ground with the audience, even if your talk will be contrary to their beliefs. If

you are trying to persuade your audience, keep in mind that you will probably have more success
making small attitude changes than in altering someone’s convictions.

Since your opening and closing should be memorized, the body of the speech gives you the opportunity
to adapt your speech and ad-lib. Personalizing your talk by asking questions or talking directly to an
individual can help build a good rapport with the audience.

Facts and Support

When using facts in your speech, you should be prepared to support them with statistics, quotes,
displays, or some other measure of authority. It is often best to briefly mention the source Other ways
to enhance the points you make include illustrations, comparisons, analogies, and showing the
weaknesses, of opposition (in a persuasive speech).

Delivery

The body of your speech should almost never be written down verbatim. The exception is when you are

delivering information that must be conveyed precisely. When you first start speaking you may have the

temptation to write every word down, but this will generally deter greatly from your delivery and should
only be used as a last resort.

Notes and Outlines

The best way to stop using notes is to practice. You should first try to move from written speaking to
index cards, writing down key points, transitions, and areas where you have difficulty. If you need to
write the whole speech down, try highlighting the major areas and work toward only using the notes at
these areas. As you progress, you can learn to use a simple outline on a single card.
B. Speech Opening and Closing

TIPS FOR OPENING YOUR SPEECH

All speeches, no matter the time limit or formality, should have some kind of brief opening.

A good opening will always grab the audience’s attention, but shouldn’t necessarily “shock” the
audience. Upsetting your listeners usually deters them from your message, and this technique should
only be used in instances when it is essential to the speech.

Your opening sets the stage for the rest of your speech, so it should be strong. Memorize your opening,
even if the body is extemporaneous. Work with it while you rehearse to make it fit your needs, but don’t
stray from it when you give your speech, even if you think you have a better idea.

Good ways to open a speech:

• A startling fact

• An intriguing question

• A story

• A displayed object

Avoid opening your speech with:

• An apology

• A dull/commonplace observation

• A long or slow developing statement

• A trite question

• Unrelated information

TIPS FOR CLOSING YOUR SPEECH

All speeches, no matter the time limit or formality, should also have some kind of brief closing.

Good ways to close a speech:

• Summarize your points

• Relate back to your introduction

• Demonstrate what you talked about

• Appeal to the audience for action

Avoid closing your speech with:

• An abrupt ending

• New information

• Another viewpoint

• Phrases such as “And that’s all I have”

C. Preparing the Main Points

Know your topic but want to start dividing up your sections? Here are some tips for developing the main
points

of your presentation:

LIMIT THE AMOUNT

Have no more than 2-5 main points per project.

USE CAREFUL PHRASING

Phrase main points similarly for continuity and easy recognition, and use transitions.

BE CONCISE

Clarity and coherency are key when stating main points.

FIND BALANCE

Decide how much you want to elaborate on each main point, and don’t support one point with too
much or too little information.

ANALYZE THE AUDIENCE

Figure out who’s in your audience: experts, novices, etc. Then, phrase and choose material

Making Successful Transitions

Presentations often contain about 2-3 main points, each of which is supported by sub-points.
Transitions are important to establish flow and maintain consistency between previous and future
points.

2. To indicate agreement/similarity/addition/reinforce points:

Example: “Additionally, the effects of Global warming can be seen in…” OR “In the same fashion, this is
manifested through…” etc.

3. To oppose/contradict.

Example: “Although this objection is plausible, it still does not provide a better solution to reduce the
effects of

Global warming…” OR “nevertheless,” “in spite of,” etc.

4. To show purpose/cause.

Example: “As a result of this/therefore” OR“With this in mind…”

5. To provide examples/place emphasis.

Example: “To demonstrate the rapidness of the effects of Global warming, here is a graph showing the

increase from…”OR “specifically/in fact/for instance…”

6. To show consequences/results/effects.

Example: “Under these conditions, it is not surprising that…” OR “consequently/hence,” etc.

7. To conclude/signal conclusion.

Example: “In essence, the point of what we’ve discussed is that…” OR “in short/to
summarize/altogether,” etc.

E. Guidelines for Using PowerPoint in Presentations

Using Microsoft PowerPoint as a visual aid can vastly improve anyone’s presentation by combining the

elements of pictures, data, or text. These can help an audience follow the presenter and see with their
own

eyes the topics the presenter wants to speak about. Here are some guidelines for making an effective

PowerPoint:

1. Set aside some time to prepare your PowerPoint slides and to look at the options available to you.
You can

incorporate different backgrounds, fonts, layouts, graphs, pictures, transitions between slides, and
sound

effects into your PowerPoint slides. Take time to play with the options until you feel comfortable with
them
2. Get some practice setting up your PowerPoint on the classroom computer. Speak to your professor
about

access to the classroom for your practice session. Having a PowerPoint presentation and knowing how
to use

it are two different things. You need to be familiar with the system to be able to use it effectively.

3. Come a few minutes early the day of your presentation to make sure that all the equipment you need
and

have reserved ahead of time are in good working order. Also pull up any links you need in the
presentation.

Having the equipment, knowing that it works, and knowing HOW it works are three different things. You
need

to do all three when giving your presentation.

4. Back up your presentation. It's not a good idea to rely solely on sending your PowerPoint slides
to your own

e-mail address to retrieve it in the classroom; use resources like a Cloud, USB Drive, or Dropbox as well.

5. Limit how many slides you use. Remember the rule: there must be an optimal balance between using
it

merely as a backdrop and letting slides overwhelm your entire presentation on the other hand. To
achieve this

goal, you may want to limit the number of slides to around five or six for a ten minute speech. Hamilton
(1996)

suggests this rule of thumb for the maximum number of slides: Length of speech/2 + 1 = Maximum
number.

6. Refer to the slides when you need to, but don’t read directly word for word from the screen. Also,
remember

to use transition statements. Just because the new slide has a title, don’t assume that reading that title

constitutes a smooth transition into a new idea.

7. Try not to overwhelm the audience with too many visuals, words, and sounds. Each slide should
contain one
main idea, with bullet points rather than full sentences on the slide. A nice transition between slides
helps to

increase the look of professionalism, but when it gets overdone with sounds that are irrelevant and
noisy, the

effect is distracting. You want the slides to enhance rather than hinder the audience’s comprehension of
your

main points.

8. Feel free to incorporate other forms of visual aids too. Just because PowerPoint is required for a class

doesn’t mean you cannot use other visual aids, such as artifacts or the whiteboard. Research shows that
in

educational settings, use of different forms of audio visuals enhances retention. Again, think of a balance

between using only one form of visual aid and many forms. You don’t want to distract, but you DO want
to

create visual and sensory interest.

In summary, experimenting with PowerPoint is the best way to get your desired presentation. It is
versatile tool

anyone can use to enhance the message they wish to leave their audience with. Practice with your
PowerPoint

as much as possible and good luck!

F. Speech Basics

1. CONTENT

Introduction

• Attention Getter: Hook the audience from the beginning

• Establish Credibility: Give the audience a reason to believe you

• Thesis Statement/Hypothesis: Clearly state your main point

• Preview Statement: Verbally provide structure to the speech

Body

• Transition Statements: Link your ideas to make the speech flow

• Limit number of topics: Don’t overcomplicate your subject

• Balance time on each point: Give each point fairly equal attention

• Provide evidence/commentary: Boost your credibility as a speaker

Conclusion

• Transition into conclusion: Make the audience aware of the ending

• Tie back to introduction: Create cohesiveness with your speech

• Summary statement: Clearly express the “take-away” message

• Closing thoughts or “thank you”: Give a clear signal to end

Several Types of Speeches

• Informative: Provide unbiased factual information

• Persuasive: Attempts to convince the audience of something

• Commemorative: Recognizes the importance of something or someone

• Demonstrative: Shows a process, a “how-to” speech

• Special Occasion: Can be varied—toasts, panels, debates, etc.

2. DELIVERY

Types of Delivery

• Full Text/Manuscript: Write out the entire speech, and read it word for word

• Extemporaneous: Use a key word outline. It’s rehearsed but not memorized, comes across as

conversational, and is the most recommended for speeches

• Impromptu: Entirely made up on the spot with no prior planning or rehearsal

• Memorized: Entire speech is written out and completely memorized beforehand so no text is needed

when speaking

Delivery Tips

• Always make eye contact with your audience

• Be aware of your posture—stand up straight with a solid stance, don’t lock your knees, don’t use
excessive hand movement.

• Pace yourself, talk at a steady pace that is not too fast.

• Vary your tone—no one pays attention to a monotone voice

• SPEAK UP—project your voice so the audience can hear you.

3. VISUAL AIDS

Visuals should be your aid and not your crutch. Here are five common mistakes to avoid:

• Too Much Info: If you say it fully in your speech, don’t put it on the slide—avoid full sentences and go

for keywords for text. Consider a picture or single statistic instead, and keep it to one main point per
slide.

• Not Enough Visuals: Strong visuals = strong presentation. Do not use stock photos or clip art and pick

visuals that have good quality. Do not allow visuals make your text difficult to read.

4. COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION

Humans are wired to worry about their reputation; it is part of our biological makeup. Fear of public
speaking is

a threat reaction that produces the Fight or Flight reaction, which causes people to have speech anxiety.
It is

important to understand where this apprehension comes from in order to master it—it is an ancient
reaction

that happens to everyone. Biological chemical reactions are what cause you to feel “butterflies,” in your

stomach, makes your palms sweat, and turns your face red. To control your anxiety, keep perspective:
the

sensation you are feeling is a bodily reaction, difficult to control. Instead of stressing about it, focus on
what

you can control it.

• Look at a friend, someone who’s bored, or someone who is enthusiastic. One or the other may be

reassuring to you.

• Remind yourself that you’re awesome and that you are the professional when it comes to your
speech.
• Visualize success. Be positive, even though you are nervous.

• Focus on your posture: keep your knees unlocked, lightly grip the edge of the podium to stabilize

yourself, and stand up tall

• Don’t be a perfectionist—everyone is worried about their own speeches, they aren’t judging yours.

• Practice, practice, practice.

• Take a deep breath and begin.

Speaking anxiety is something that affects even the greatest speakers. Don’t expect it to ever fully go
away.

Instead, use these tips to know that you’re in control and that you can do a great job.

G. Speech Delivery

1. General Speaking Tips

• Extemporaneous: Use a key word outline. It’s rehearsed but not memorized, comes across as

conversational, and is the most recommended for speeches

• Impromptu: Entirely made up on the spot with no prior planning or rehearsal

• Memorized: Entire speech is written out and completely memorized beforehand so no text is needed

when speaking

Delivery Tips

• Always make eye contact with your audience

• Be aware of your posture—stand up straight with a solid stance, don’t lock your knees, don’t use

excessive hand movement.

• Pace yourself, talk at a steady pace that is not too fast.

• Vary your tone—no one pays attention to a monotone voice

• SPEAK UP—project your voice so the audience can hear you.

3. VISUAL AIDS

Visuals should be your aid and not your crutch. Here are five common mistakes to avoid:
• Too Much Info: If you say it fully in your speech, don’t put it on the slide—avoid full sentences and go

for keywords for text. Consider a picture or single statistic instead, and keep it to one main point per
slide.

• Not Enough Visuals:

• Low quality: Use coordinated templates or create your own. Avoid boring your audience with childish

• Too much going on: White space can be a good thing. Be mindful of the spacing and layout of your

• Lack of preparation: Most presentations suffer because not enough time goes into making them. Put

4. COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION

Humans are wired to worry about their reputation; it is part of our biological makeup. Fear of public
speaking is . Biological chemical reactions are what cause you to feel “butterflies,” in your

• Look at a friend, someone who’s bored, or someone who is enthusiastic

• Remind yourself that you’re awesome and that you are the professional when it comes to your

• Visualize success. Be positive, even though you are nervous.

• Focus on your posture: keep your knees unlocked, lightly grip the edge of the podium to stabilize

yourself, and stand up tall

• Don’t be a perfectionist—everyone is worried about their own speeches, they aren’t judging yours.

• Practice, practice, practice.

• Take a deep breath and begin.

Speaking anxiety is something that affects even the greatest speakers. Don’t expect it to ever fully go
away.

Instead, use these tips to know that you’re in control and that you can do a great job.

Use Visual Aids Carefully

When you use visual aids, consider the ethics of the visual images.

SUMMARY

Delivery is often viewed as synonymous with public speaking itself. Although delivery is only

one part of the speech-making process, it is a very important part. As you saw from Mi
DEBATE

I. Why Debate?

Debate is the activity that brings the art of reading, thinking and speaking together in one place. It is the

ability to conceive, articulate, and evaluate arguments remains not only the lifeblood of democracy and

society, but essential to the development of an engaged and ethical individual living in contemporary

technological democratic society.

1. Debate skills are essential to public life.

3. Debate activities create leaders.

II. What is Debating?

A debate is a structured argument. 

III. The Basic Debating Skills

A. Style

Style is the manner in which you communicate your arguments. 

B. Speed

It is vital to talk at a pace which is fast enough to sound intelligent and allow you time to say what you

C. Tone

Varying tone is what makes you sound interesting.  Listening to one tone for an entire presentation is
boring.

D. Volume

Speaking quite loudly is sometimes a necessity, but it is by no means necessary to shout through every
debate

E. Clarity

The ability to concisely and clearly express complex issues is what debating is all about.  The main reason

F. Use of notes and eye contact

Notes are essential, but they must be brief and well organized to be effective.  Of course, notes should
never
become obtrusive and damage your contact with the audience, nor should they ever be read from
verbatim.  Most

people sketch out the main headings of their speech, with brief notes under each. 

When writing notes for rebuttal during the debate, it is usually better to use a separate sheet of paper
so you can

take down the details of what the other speakers have said and then transfer a rough outline onto the
notes you

will actually be using. 

Eye contact with the audience is very important, but keep shifting your gaze. No one likes to be stared
at. 

IV. Content

Content is what you actually say in the debate. The arguments used to develop your own side’s case and
rebut

the opposite side’s. The final logistics of how long you will be debating, how many people will be in your

group, and how the debate will unfold (ie: which team speaks first etc.), will all be decided by your
tutorial

leader.

A. Case (argument)- the whole

Introduction - The case your group is making must be outlined in the introduction.  This involves stating
your main arguments and explaining the general thrust of your case.  This must be done briefly and
indicate the aspects of the subject to be discussed by each of the team members.

Conclusion - At the end, once everyone has spoken, it is useful to briefly summarize what your group has
said and why.

B. Case (argument)- the parts

Having outlined the whole of your argument, you must then begin to build a case (the parts).  You must
justify your

arguments with basic logic, worked examples, statistics, and quotes.  Debating is all about the strategy
of “proof”.
Proof, or evidence, supporting your assertion is what makes it an argument. There are a number of ways
of dividing

Think: “Can I argue that?”

C. Rebuttal – the parts

Arguments can be factually, morally or logically flawed. A team may also contradict one another or fail
to

complete the tasks they set themselves.  These are the basics of rebuttal and almost every argument can
be found

wanting in at least one of these respects. 

D. Rebuttal – the whole:

It is very important to have a good perspective of the debate and to identify what the key arguments
are.  There

are a number of things you should do to systematically break down a team’s case: 

1.  Ask yourself how the other side have approached the case. Is their methodology flawed?

2.  Consider what tasks the other side set themselves (if any) and whether they have in fact addressed
these. 

3.  Consider what the general emphasis of the case is and what assumptions it makes. Try to refute
these. 

4.  Take the main arguments and do the same thing. 

V. Debate Formats

A. Team Policy Debate

Team policy debate is the oldest, and still probably the most popular, format of debate practiced in
American high

schools. The proposition side is called the Affirmative or Aff, and the opposition side is called the
Negative or Neg. Each

side is a team composed of two debaters, so that there are four people participating in the debate (not
including the judge

and audience).
Speech: 1AC 1NC 2AC 2NC 1NR 1AR 2NR 2AR

Time: 8 min. 8 min. 8 min. 8 min. 4 min. 4 min. 4 min. 4 min.

Format.  A round of team policy debate consists of eight speeches.  The first four speeches are called
constructive speeches, because the teams are perceived as laying out their most important arguments
during these speeches.  The last

four speeches are called rebuttals, because the teams are expected to extend and apply arguments that
have already been

made, rather than make new arguments.  Here is a table of the eight speeches and their time limits: 

  

 (A stands for Affirmative, N for Negative, C for Constructive, R for Rebuttal.)

Two things are of interest in this structure.  First, the affirmative team both begins and ends the debate. 
Second, the

negative team has two speeches in a row:  the first negative rebuttal (1NR) immediately follows the
second negative

constructive (2NC). 

In general, the members of each team alternate giving speeches, so that the same person gives both the
1AC and the 1AR,

the same person gives the 2NC and the 2NR, etc.  Occasionally, the rules will allow a change in this
format.  For example,

affirmative teams will sometimes go "inside-outside" so that one person (usually the weaker
member) gives the 1AC and

the 2AR, while the other (stronger) debater gives the 2AC and the 1AR.

Usually, there is a 3-minute cross-examination period after each of the first four (constructive)
speeches.  The person who

does the cross-examining is the person who will not be giving the next speech for his side.  For instance,
the person who

will give the 2NC will cross-examine after the 1AC.  (An exception to this rule is made when the
affirmative team goes
"inside-outside.")  When team policy debate is done without cross-examination periods, the
speech times are often

extended to 10 minutes for constructives and 5 minutes for rebuttals.

Resolutions.  Resolutions in team policy debate are always of a policy nature, usually governmental
policy.  The

affirmative team almost always defends the resolution by means of a particular example, known as a
"case"; if they can

show the example (case) to be true, then the general proposition is also shown to be true. 

Team policy debate is focused on evidence gathering and organizational ability.  Persuasiveness is not
considered important -- or at least, not as important as covering ground and reading plenty of evidence. 
The best teams have huge file boxes with evidence on their own affirmative case and all the possible
cases they might have to oppose. There is very

little discussion of values such as freedom, justice, equality, etc.; usually, the ultimate criterion on any
issue is how many

dead bodies will result from taking or not taking a particular action.  This form of debate can be fun, it
encourages good

research and organizational skills, and it is good for getting novice debaters used to speaking in front of
people. 

B. Lincoln-Douglas Debate

Lincoln-Douglas (or L-D) debate began as a reaction to the excesses of team policy debate in high school.
The idea was to have a debate focused on discussing the merits of competing ethical values in a
persuasive manner. The famed debates between senatorial candidates Abraham Lincoln and Stephen A.
Douglas in the 1850s inspired the name and format for this style of debate. L -D is a one-on-one debate,
and as in team policy debate, the proposition andopposition teams are called the Affirmative (or Aff) and
the Negative (or Neg), respectively. Format.  A round of L-D debate consists of five speeches and two
cross-examination periods.  The speeches and their times are as follows: 

Speech: Affirmative

Constructive

Cross-Ex of Aff by Neg

Negative

Constructive
Cross-Ex of Neg by Aff

Affirmative

Rebuttal

Negative

Rebuttal

Affirmative

Rejoinder

Time: 6 min. 3 min. 7 min. 3 min. 4 min. 6 min. 3 min.

Notice that the Affirmative has more speeches than the Negative, but both have the same total speaking
time (13 minutes).

Resolutions.  Resolutions in L-D debate are usually stated as propositions of value.  Although the
propositions are

sometimes related to issues of policy, this is not always the case.  Typical resolutions include: 
"The spirit of the law ought

to take precedence over the letter of the law to enhance justice," "Cooperation is superior
to competition," "Violent

revolution is a just response to oppression," etc.  Unlike in team debate, the debaters are
expected to debate the

resolution as a whole, not just a particular example.

Style.  Evidence was considered important, but it was not the be-all-and-end-all that it is in team policy
debate.  The

emphasis was on speaking clearly, logically, and fluently. 

E. NDT Debate

NDT stands for National Debate Tournament. This is the oldest, and probably most popular, form of
debate at the

college level. I never did this kind of debate, so I will keep my description short: NDT is just like the team
policy debate

of high school, except more so. My understanding is that the format is exactly the same as in team
policy debate (4
constructive speeches, 4 rebuttals, 4 cross-examination periods, etc.). And the style is also the same:
huges quantities of

evidence read at high velocity, with little pretense of persuasion.

F. CEDA Debate

CEDA stands for Cross-Examination Debate Association. This is a newer form of college-level debate than
NDT,

and it was born as a reaction to NDT in the same way that Lincoln-Douglas debate was born as a reaction
to team policy

debate. CEDA is a two-on-two debate, with a structure very similar to that of NDT and team policy
debate. The

difference is in the style of resolution; while NDT resolutions are policy-oriented, this is not always the
case in CEDA. In

addition, CEDA was intended to be a values-driven debate.

G. Parliamentary Debate

Parliamentary debate is yet another form of debate that arose as a reaction against the excesses of NDT
and team policy debate. The emphasis in this form of debate is on persuasiveness, logic, and wit. Unlike
in other forms of debate, where the resolution is established well in advance of a tournament and is the
same for every round in the tournament, in Parliamentary debate the resolution is usually not
established until 10 minutes before the debate round begins, and there is

This form of debate is called "parliamentary" because of its vague resemblance to the
debates that take place in the

British parliament. The proposition team is called the "Government," and the opposition
team is called (appropriately) the "Opposition." The Government team consists of two
debaters, the Prime Minister (PM) and the Member of Government

(MG). The Opposition team also consists of two debaters, the Leader of the Opposition (LO) and the
Member of the

Opposition (MO).

Format. A round of parliamentary debate consists of six speeches: four constructive speeches and two
rebuttal

speeches. The speeches and their times are as follows:

Speech: Prime Minister Constructive (PMC) Leader of Opposition Constructive (LOC) Member of

Government Constructive (MG) Member of Opposition Constructive (MO) Leader of Opposition Rebuttal
(LOR)

Prime Minister Rebuttal (PMR)

Time: 7 min. 8 min. 8 min. 8 min. 4 min. 5 min.

Several things are notable about this structure. First, as in team policy and NDT debate, the proposition
(Government)

team -- specifically, the Prime Minister -- both begins and ends the debate. Second, again as in team
policy and NDT, the

Opposition team has a block of two speeches in a row (the MO followed by the LOR). Third, unlike in
team policy and

NDT, there are only two rebuttals instead of four. Consequently, two people in the debate (the PM and
the LO) have two

speeches each, while the other two (the MG and MO) have only one speech each.

There are no cross-examination periods in parliamentary debate. But there are various motions on
which the debaters can

rise during others' speeches. These points are:

1. Point of Information. During one person's speech, another debater (presumably from the
opposite team) rises from

his seat and says something like, "Point of information, sir?" The speaker has the option of
whether or not to accept the

point of information (it is usually good form to accept at least two points of information in a speech). If
he accepts the

point, the person who rose may ask a question of the speaker -- usually a rhetorical question designed
to throw him off.

The speaker then answers the question (or ignores it if he can't come up with a good answer) and
moves on with his

speech. There are two main rules for points of information: they may only be asked in constructive
speeches, not in

rebuttals; and they may not be asked during the first or last minute of any speech.
2. Point of Order. A debater rises on a point of order when he believes one of the rules of debate is
being broken. The

most common use of the point of order is to say that the speaker is bringing up a new argument in a
rebuttal speech, which

is not allowed. (The rebuttals are reserved for extending and applying old arguments.) The person
making the point of

order rises, says, "Point of order, argument X is a new argument." The judge makes a
judgment as to whether the point of

order is valid. If so, she says, "point well taken," and the speaker must quit making argument
X. If not, she says, "point

not well taken," and the speaker may continue with that argument if he wishes. The procedure is
similar for other points

of order.

3. Point of Personal Privilege. This rarely used motion has a couple of different uses. The most common
is to protest a

gross misrepresentation of one's statements or an attack on one's character. For example:

"Mr. Jones says he likes

lynching black people." "Point of personal privilege! I merely said sometimes the death
penalty is justified." As with

points of order, it is the job of the judge to rule the point well-taken or not-well-taken. A point of
personal privilege can

also be used to ask for a personal favor or exception from the judge.

Resolutions. In parliamentary debate, the resolution is usually in the form of a quotation or proverb
provided to the

debaters shortly before the round. Theoretically, the government team is supposed to come up with a
specific case that is

an example of the resolution, or at least in the spirit of the resolution. In practice, nobody really cares
whether the case

that the government team runs has anything to do with the resolution, so long as the prime minister
makes some small
pretense of linking the case to the resolution. For example, the resolution might be "Religion is the
opiate of the masses."

A good case to link to this resolution might be that "creation science" should not be taught
in public schools. A mediocre

link might be something about the drug war, inspired by the word "opiate." A lousy link
would go something like this:

"This resolution made us think about how people believe things that aren't true. For
example, some people think that rent

control is a good idea, but that's not true. So in this debate, the government will argue that rent
control should be

abolished." At most parliamentary debate tournaments, nobody would even blink an eye at that
link.

The upshot is that the government team has broad latitude to run almost any case they want. Although
theoretically the

government team is supposed to devise its case only after hearing the resolution, most often a team
already has an idea

what case it wants to run long before then.

There is also no requirement that the government run a public policy case. All that is required is that the
government team

must establish a topic that has two (or more) clashing sides and is debatable. Broadly speaking, there
are only three types

of cases that the government team cannot run:

1. A tautology. A tautological case is one that is immediately and logically true by construction. For
example, "Bill

Clinton is the best Democratic president since 1981" would be a tautology, since Bill is the only
Democrat to have

attained the presidency in the specified time period.

2. A truism. A truistic case is one that no moral person could possibly disagree with. For example,
"Infants should not
be skinned alive for entertainment purposes" would be a truism. Of course, the definition of
truistic is contentious,

because it is almost always possible to find someone who disagrees with a proposition, and what is
considered moral is

often culture-specific.

3. A specific-knowledge case. A specific-knowledge case is one that would require the opposition to
know more about a

topic than it could reasonably be expected to know. In general, debaters are expected to be familiar
with current events

and popular culture. If the case requires more particularistic information, the government must provide
all necessary

information in the first speech of the round. If the government fails to do so, then the case is deemed
specific-knowledge

and hence against the rules.

Style. Unlike CEDA, parliamentary debate has managed to preserve its emphasis on persuasion, logic,
and humor; this

success is most likely a result of eschewing excessive preparation and evidence. The spontaneity and
openness of the

format makes parliamentary debate free-wheeling and exciting, whereas other styles of debate can
become boring because

every debate round at a tournament revolves around the same topic. The downside is that in the
absence of any

evidentiary burden, debaters are free to spew utter nonsense, or even outright lies, without providing
any support for their

assertions. (The prohibition against specific knowledge fortunately helps to curb this problem.) All things
considered,

parliamentary is the most entertaining of any debate style I've found, and also the most conducive
to the development of

good rhetorical skills.

Variations. Parliamentary debate is actually a world-wide phenomenon, but the rules differ greatly from
country to
country.

H. Cross-Examination/Oregon-Oxford/Forensic

It traditional debate format used in elementary, governors debate, house debate rules, parliamentary
debate rules,

high school debate, youtube debate, presidential debate, colleges and all over the country.

2 sides. the Affirmative and the Negative. The Affirmative proves the validity of the issue or topic called
the

Proposition while the Negative disproves it. Each team has two speakers and one scribe. A Debate
Moderator

enforces the rules to ensure the debate’s smooth conduct.

Format - Three Speakers from each side

First Affirmative - Constructive Speech

First Negative - Interpellation of the first affirmative

Speaker

First Negative - Constructive Speech

First Affirmative - Interpellation of the first negative

speaker

Second Affirmative - Constructive Speech

Second Negative - Interpellation of the second

affirmative

Second Negative - Constructive

Second Affirmative - Interpellation of the second

negative

Third Affirmative - Constructive Speech

Third Negative - Interpellation of the third affirmative

Third Negative - Constructive Speech

Third Affirmative - Interpellation of the third negative

Rebuttal of the Team Captain of the Negative Side

Rebuttal of the Team Captain of the Affirmative Side

Duration

Constructive Speech: Minimum of five (5) and maximum of seven (7) minutes

Interpellation: Five (5) minutes

Rebuttal Speech: Three (3) minutes

Issues for Debate

A. Whether or not it is Necessary? (Necessity)

B. Whether or not it is Beneficial? (Beneficiality)

C. Whether or not it is practical? (Practicability)

Criteria for Judging

A. Evidence - 25%

B. Delivery - 30%

C. Interpellation - 30%

D. Rebuttal - 15%

The judges, based on their discretion, shall have the authority to determine who will be the Best
Speaker and Best

Debater. The winning team shall be determined by the majority decision of the Board of Judges.

Guides for Constructive Speech

Speech types of Constructive Speech may be:

1. Reading Method

2. Memory Method
3. Extemporaneous

4. Mix method of memory and conversational or dramatic

Poise, gestures, audience contact and voice projection are highly recommended.

Rules on Interpellation

1. Questions should primarily focused on arguments developed in the speech of your opponent.
However, matters relevant

and material to the proposition are admissible.

2. Questioner and opponent should treat each other with courtesy.

3. Both speakers stand and face the audience during the question or Interpellation period.

4. Once the questioning has begun, neither the questioner nor his opponent may consult a colleague.
Consultation should

be done before but as quietly as possible.

5. Questioners should ask brief and easily understandable question. Answers should equally be brief.
Categorical

questions answerable by yes or no is allowed, however, opponent if he choose, may qualify his answer
why yes or why

no.

6. Questioner may not cut off a reasonable and qualifying answer, but he may cut off a vervous response
with a statement

such as a “thank you” “that is enough information” or “your point is quite clear” or “I’m satisfied.”

7. A questioner should not comment on the response of his opponent.

8. Your opponent may refuse to answer ambiguous, irrelevant or loaded questions by asking the
questioner to rephrase or

reform his question.

Rules on Rebuttal Speech

A. Rebuttal speaker should point out clearly the fallacies committed by his opponent stating clearly what
particularly

statement or argument constitute said fallacy.

B. If not familiar with the fallacies of logic, the debater may counter arguments directly by stating what
arguments or

statement is incorrect or false.

Role of the Moderator

The moderator of the debate has the following duties:

1. To reveal the issue involve the debate;

2. To rule on points of clarification about the issues or questions and answers made during the
Interpellation; and

3. To see to it that the debate is orderly and follows the rules of parliamentary procedures.

Role of the Timer

1. To time the speakers and debaters accurately;

2. To give the speakers a one-minute warning with the ringing of the bell once before his/her time is up.

3. To prevent the debaters from exceeding the time allotted to them by ringing the bell twice.

Tips on Interpellation and Rebuttal

CROSS EXAMINATION

The cross-examination period of a debate is a time when the person who is not going to speak next in
the

constructives questions the person who has just finished speaking. Consider cross examination an
information

exchange period - it is not the time to role play lawyer.

Cross examination may serve six objectives:

1. To clarify points

2. To expose errors

3. To obtain admissions

4. To setup arguments

5. To save prep time

6. To show the judge how cool you are so they WANT to vote for you. 

Most debaters tend to ignore the value of good cross-examination. Remember, 30% of the entire debate
is spent in

cross-examination -- it should be a meaningful and essential part of the debate. If nothing else, debaters
tend to

underestimate the importance that cross-examination may have on the judge. Cross-examination will
indicate to the

judge