Who learns how much of what language under what conditions?

According to Baker (1993) the key question in the development of an L2 or even bilingualism is
Who learns how much of what language under what conditions? Some of the most important
factors in responding to the first part of the question who learns? Is influenced by individual learner
differences, including age, aptitude and motivation. Studies of the good language learner have
shown that successful learners are willing to make mistakes, are good at guessing and making
accurate predictions, look for patterns in language and have a lot of confidence (see Lightbown and
Spada 1993). The second part, how much of what language? is governed by factors such as the goal
of language learning, the curriculum and syllabus and the effect of tests. The goals may focus on the
development of communicative competence and positive attitudes to language learning and the
target culture. The final part, under what conditions? It refers to the situation and context under
which L2 is learnt.

Ellis (1985) suggests that there are three parts to the development of a second language. The first is
the sequence or general stages through which children move in L2 learning. According to the
author, there is a natural and almost unchanging sequence of development: moving from simple
vocabulary to basic syntax, then on to the structure of simple sentences, finally moving to more
complex sentences. The second part concerns to order of language that is acquired, which may
differ from child to child and classroom to classroom. The final part is the rate of development, the
speed of which may vary enormously from learner to learner.
HOW CHILDREN LEARN LANGUAGES?
The conditions refer to who is talking to whom, the environment of the interaction, the type of
classroom, and the kind of topics which are discussed. Situational factors and context are
particularly important here, as is the type of language input learners receive. Research has shown
that comprehensible input is a key factor, which is especially important when dealing with young
learners. This means, creating context where learners can easily understand what is being said
because of careful planning concerning the language level, the physical context or the use of
supporting visuals. A good way of providing highly contextualized activities can be the use of Total
Physical Response (TPR) where children perform physical actions in response to spoken statements.
Focus is mostly on communicative meaning. On the other hand, decontextualized pronunciation,
grammar or vocabulary drills, provide much lower levels of comprehensibility, especially for young
learners.

A point to note is that listening to comprehensible input does not always encourage intake, a term
that describes the process of actual learning when new language moves from the short-term to
long-term memory. Only when there has been intake is language actually learnt, what means that
the language has sifted, processed and organized.
What is different about teaching children?
If we learn a foreign language as adults, we often have a long-term goal, such as wanting to get a
better job where bilingual skills are important, or wanting to study further in the country of the
target language. These purposes are highly motivating and greatly increase our willingness to spend
long hours it takes to master another language. Young learners, on the other hand, are not yet in
control of their lives and still have a great deal to learn their own language, as well as learn another
one. At four, eight or twelve, children do not have specific foreign language needs. Young children
are different from older learners because children:

 Have a lot of physical energy and often need to be physically active

 Have a wide range of emotional needs
 Are emotionally excitable
 Are developing conceptually and are at the early stage of their schooling
 Are still developing literacy in their first language
 Learn more slowly and forget things quickly
 Tend to be self-oriented and preoccupied with their own world
 Get bored easily
 Are excellent mimics
 Can concentrate for surprisingly long time if they are interested
 Can be easily distracted but also very enthusiastic
HOW CHILDREN LEARN LANGUAGES?
Of course we must remember that chronological age is not always the same as development age.
An individual difference in learners, both within and across age bands, is especially marked at
primary level.