Chinese Journal of Aeronautics, (2015), 28(4): 1263–1272

Chinese Society of Aeronautics and Astronautics

& Beihang University
Chinese Journal of Aeronautics
cja@buaa.edu.cn
www.sciencedirect.com

Electrochemical machining of burn-resistant

Ti40 alloy
Xu Zhengyang *, Liu Jia, Zhu Dong, Qu Ningsong, Wu Xiaolong, Chen Xuezhen

College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 210016, China

Received 6 November 2014; revised 5 January 2015; accepted 12 March 2015

Available online 20 June 2015

KEYWORDS Abstract This study investigates the feasibility of using electrochemical machining (ECM) to pro-
Burn resistant; duce critical aeroengine components from a new burn-resistant titanium alloy (Ti40), thereby reduc-
Electrochemical machining; ing costs and improving efficiency relative to conventional mechanical machining. Through this, it
Material removal; is found that an aqueous mix of sodium chloride and potassium bromide provides the optimal elec-
Surface roughness; trolyte and that the surface quality of the Ti40 workpiece is improved by using a pulsed current of
Titanium alloys 1 kHz rather than a direct current. Furthermore, the quality of cavities produced by ECM and the
overall material removal rate are determined to be dependent on a combination of operating
voltage, electrolyte inlet pressure, cathode feeding rate and electrolyte concentration. By optimizing
these parameters, a surface roughness of 0.371 lm has been achieved in conjunction with a specific
removal rate of more than 3.1 mm3/AÆmin.
ª 2015 The Authors. Production and hosting by Elsevier Ltd. on behalf of CSAA & BUAA. This is an
open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction and has been shown to have excellent mechanical properties.3

The high strength-to-weight ratio and corrosion resistance of
titanium and its alloys have seen them widely applied across
a variety of industrial sectors, though the high material and
machining cost has resulted in aerospace applications being
the more prevalent.1,2 More recently, a new type of burn resis-
tant titanium (BuRTi) alloy, Ti40 (Ti-25V-15Cr-0.2 wt%Si),
was developed for use in aeroengine components by the
Northwest Nonferrous Metal Research Institute of China
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 25 84896304.
E-mail address: xuzhy@nuaa.edu.cn (Z. Xu).
Peer review under responsibility of Editorial Committee of CJA.
Production and hosting by Elsevier
However, this alloy’s high yield strength (940 MPa), tensile
strength (980 MPa) and yield ratio (0.959) mean that a high
cutting force is required for machining; with a thermal conduc-
tivity of only 5.6 W Æ m 1 Æ K 1, much of the heat generated by
cutting is concentrated in the vicinity of the cutting edge rather
than being carried away with the chips, thereby further
increasing the tool wear. To make matters worse, the chemical
properties of Ti40 alloy mean that the chips generated have a
strong affinity with the cutting tool, resulting in abrasion of the
tool rack face. Meanwhile, friction between the workpiece and
tool flank is also increased by the fact that the machined sur-
faces of Ti40 can easily rebound due to modulus of elasticity
of only 104 GPa. This ultimately results in a high tooling cost,
as well as a difficulty in achieving a high degree of machining
precision.
Past research into traditional mechanical machining meth-
ods has explored several different approaches to reducing tool

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cja.2015.05.007
1000-9361 ª 2015 The Authors. Production and hosting by Elsevier Ltd. on behalf of CSAA & BUAA.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
1264 Z. Xu et al.

wear and improving surface integrity through optimizing the 2. Methodology

cutting tool material, lubrication system or cutting parame-
ters.4,5 Studies into the milling of Ti40 with coated carbide 2.1. Experimental device design
tools have demonstrated that high cutting speeds(>60 m/min)
are not suitable for full-width machining of Ti40,6 with the
Two electrochemical machining apparatus were designed. The
high-speed-ball nose-end milling of BuRTi alloys resulting in
first of these (see Fig. 1) was designed to test the flat-plane elec-
a relatively short tool life, high workpiece surface roughness
trochemical machining of Ti40 and was fabricated from epoxy
(Ra) and poor surface integrity due to the presence of carbide
resin fixtures to ensure both sufficient strength and electrically
particles.7 This has led to the development of non-traditional
insulating properties. Into these fixtures were milled shallow
machining processes such as electrochemical machining
grooves measuring 1 mm deep and 20 mm wide to create an
(ECM), in which material is removed by anodic dissolution
electrolyte channel; lateral flow was appropriate in this situa-
during electrolysis. This eliminates tool wear and the depen-
tion as there is no change in the surface curvature.
dence on the mechanical properties of the material, creates
Cylindrical (B20 mm diameter) stainless steel cathode and
no residual stress or deformation in the work piece, and offers
Ti40 work piece were then installed, with the cylindrical shape
a material removal rate directly proportional to the current
being chosen so as to ensure a more reliable electrolyte seal and
applied. Many studies have focused on the ECM of difficult-
greater ease of processing. During operation the Ti40 work-
to-machine materials. The electrochemical machining charac-
piece is connected to the anode rod, which in turn is fixed to
teristics of nickel-base single-crystalline material LEK94 have
feeding axle and fed toward the cathode with certain velocity
been studied.8 The grid cathode method has been shown to
(V, as shown in Fig. 1).
simplify free face cathode design.9 Hybrid ECM methods,
The second apparatus was designed to allow the
including electrochemical grinding, laser assistant and vibra-
electrochemical machining of a square cavity in a
tion ECM,10–13 extend the scope of ECM applications.
50 mm · 25 mm · 20 mm Ti40 workpiece. For this, detachable
Modeling and simulation of ECM have been used to predict
square cathodes were fabricated to a size of 20 mm ·
machining results.14,15 The machining accuracy and stability
20 mm · 20 mm, onto which different outlet slot patterns were
of ECM can be improved by optimizing the flow field and feed
then machined so as to optimize the uniformity of the elec-
direction, by pulsating the electrolyte flow, or by using an aux-
trolyte flow from cathode outlet to the machining area. A sche-
iliary anode.16–20
matic and photograph of this device are provided in Fig. 2,
The high corrosion and chemical resistance of the oxide
while different outlet slot patterns are shown in Fig. 3.
layer generated by ECM has seen it already used with titanium
in biomedical applications.21 It has also been used with tita-
2.2. Experimental conditions
nium alloys such as TiAl and Ni–Ti shape memory alloy,22,23
with effective material removal rates Veff,Ti as high as
1.78 mm3/AÆmin having been achieved.24 The greater surface Since the low conductivity of the passive layer that is naturally
integrity afforded by ECM has also been shown to increase the formed on Ti40 directly affects the stability and continuity of
fatigue strength of titanium,25 as well as help prevent pitting ECM processing, especially given the high V concentration
corrosion in saturated ammonium bromide.26 However, in of this alloy, five different electrolytes were tested to determine
spite of some progresses being made in the optimization of which is the most effective in terms of machining quality.
ECM parameters for titanium alloys,27,28 there has so far been These were
very little attention given to the ECM of BuRTi alloys. This
paper therefore takes an experimental approach to determine (a) Sodium nitrate (NaNO3): a non-linear electrolyte with
the optimal electrolyte composition and machining parameters good machining accuracy.
for the ECM of Ti40 alloy, with the aim of applying this (b) Sodium chloride (NaCl): the most popular electrolyte
knowledge to electrochemically machine cavities in Ti40. for titanium alloys.

Fig. 1 Schematic of flat-plane ECM apparatus used and photograph of Ti40 workpiece.
Electrochemical machining of burn-resistant Ti40 alloy 1265

Fig. 2 Schematic and photograph of apparatus used for ECM of a square cavity in Ti40.

Fig. 3 Four cathode outlet slot patterns tested.

(c) A mixed solution of NaCl and NaNO3: for a given con-

Table 2 Parameters for flow field experiments.
centration, the conductivity of NaCl is greater than that
of NaNO3. Condition Value
(d) Potassium bromide KBr: has great activating ability and Voltage 30 V
is highly corrosive. Pulse power frequency 1 kHz
(e) Mixed solution of NaCl and KBr: compared with Cl, Br Pulse duty cycle 0.7
has a greater activating ability. Electrolyte 4%NaCl + 4%KBr
Temperature of electrolyte (35 ± 0.5) C
All experiments were conducted using the aforementioned Initial gap 0.3 mm
Inlet pressure 0.6 MPa
flat-plane ECM apparatus with feeding rates of 0.8, 1.0,
Feeding rate 1.0 mm/min
1.2 mm/min. The main parameters for each experiment are
given in Table 1.
The effect of using a pulsed or direct current (DC) power
supply on the surface quality achieved with ECM of Ti40
was also studied using a 4%NaCl + 4%KBr solution at a Table 3 Design scheme of experimental parameters and
temperature of 35 C and an inlet pressure of 0.6 MPa. levels.
The parameters used for the ECM of square cavities in Ti40 Levels A: voltage B: pressure C: feeding D: concentration
using various cathode outlet slot patterns are given in Table 2. (V) (MPa) rate (%)
Since the emphasis here was on improving the efficiency (mm/min)
while maintaining the surface quality, the voltage, electrolyte 1 30 0.6 0.9 4
2 34 0.75 1.2 6
3 38 0.9 1.5 8

Table 1 Parameters for experiments of different electrolytes.

Condition Value
pressure, concentration and feed rate were all selected as exper-
Workpiece material Ti40 imental parameters, and the impact of these four factors on the
Cathode material 1Cr18Ni9Ti stainless steel
balanced gap Db, roughness Ra of the cavity surface and mate-
Voltage 30 V
Inlet pressure 0.6 MPa
rial removal rate MRR was determined through orthogonal
Temperature of electrolyte (35 ± 0.5) C experiments. The experimental parameters and levels used
Initial gap 0.3 mm are shown in Table 3, with other experimental conditions as
Feeding rate 0.8, 1.0, 1.2 mm/min follows: temperature T = 40 C, a NaCl + KBr solution
electrolyte, a pulsed power duty cycle s = 0.7, a frequency
1266 Z. Xu et al.

Fig. 4 Ti40 surfaces after electrochemical machining in different electrolytes at different feed rates.

Fig. 5 Surface topographies of Ti40 after ECM in different electrolytes and 1.2 mm/min feed rate.
Electrochemical machining of burn-resistant Ti40 alloy
f = 1 kHz and a feeding distance of 8 mm. As the trial
involved four factors and three levels of experiments, an L9
(34) array was used, with each experiment carried out 3 times.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Electrolyte composition
Fig. 4 shows the electrochemically machined surfaces pro-
duced with different electrolytes and different feed rates:
Fig. 4(a)–(c) showing corresponding to 8%NaNO3, 4%
NaCl + 4%NaNO3 and 8%NaCl solution, respectively.
From the localized generation of a passive film on all of these
samples, it is evident that the activating ability of these elec-
trolyte solutions is not sufficiently strong enough. Moreover,
electrochemical dissolution of the surface is not continuous
and uniform, suggesting that there is also an uneven distribu-
tion of electrolyte. As result, the distribution of the inter-
electrode gap and electrolyte flow are also not uniform, which
leads to unstable machining and a poor surface roughness. In
contrast, the electrolyte solutions containing Br have good
activation, which accelerates the removal of the passive surface
film and helps ensure continuous electrochemical dissolution.
This ultimately results in a noticeably superior surface quality,
as can be seen in Fig. 4(d) and (e). The surface topography
data given in Fig. 5 shows similar results and confirms that
the 4%NaCl + 4%KBr and 8%KBr electrolyte solutions are
Table 4 Parameters and results for comparison of pulsed current and DC ECM of Ti40.
Power source Feed rate (mm/min)
DC 30 V 0.8
Pulsed current U = 30 V, f = 1 kHz, s = 0.7 0.8
Fig. 6 Ti40 surfaces after DC and pulsed current ECM machining.
Fig. 7 Surface finish of Ti40 after ECM at different pulse frequencies.
1267
the most effective of those tested. However, on the basis that
the NaCl + KBr solution results in less metal corrosion and
stray-current dissolution, it is considered as the best electrolyte
for the ECM of Ti40 and was therefore used in subsequent
testing.
3.2. Pulse current
The parameters and results of comparing pulsed and direct
current are shown in Table 4, from which it is clear that for
a given set of parameters, the balance current and balance
gap are smaller with a pulsed current. However, the current
density is improved from 0.876 A/mm2 of the direct current
to 1.091 A/mm2 of the pulse power. The electrochemical prod-
ucts could be removed adequately within the pulse interval
time, and the electrolyte conductivity could be kept relatively
constant. As a result, the processing is more stable and the bal-
ance gap between the cathode and the workpiece is smaller
when the feeding rate and dissolution rate are at equilibrium.
This results in a significantly better surface finish. The images
provided in Fig. 6 confirm this difference in surface finish, with
the smaller band gap indicating that pulsed-current ECM
creates more concentrated erosion.
In Fig. 7 it can be seen that increasing the frequency of
pulsed-current ECM results in an increase in the surface
roughness, which is likely due to the decrease in the electrolyte
updating time of a single pulse cycle. The conductivity of the
Current density (A/mm2) Balance gap (mm) Roughness (lm)
0.876 0.29 0.786
1.091 0.20 0.375
1268 Z. Xu et al.

electrolyte will become non-uniform because the products of

electrochemical machining such as hydroxide precipitate,
hydrogen bubbles, etc., are not cleared out of the machining
gap while there is the decrease in the electrolyte updating
time. Moreover, the dissolution of each area on the plane
is also uneven, thus resulting in a non-uniform machining
surface.
As shown in Fig. 8, increasing the duty cycle of ECM
results in an increase in the balance current; as a result, there
is an increase in surface roughness to 0.66 lm at a duty
cycle of 0.9. Similarly, the process becomes unstable at a duty
cycle of 0.5, and so a duty cycle range of 0.6–0.8 was selected.

3.3. Flow field

Based on numerical simulations of flow field, two different

outlet slot patterns of cathodes that could ensure stable elec-
trolyte flow are selected to investigate the effect of varying flow
field. The cathodes and work pieces are shown in Fig. 9, and
the 8 mm deep square cavities produced by these cathodes
are shown in Fig. 10. The fact that the undersurfaces of the
two work pieces are both bright and smooth indicates that
the ECM process was quite stable, and that the electrolyte in
the bottom machine gap was sufficient, uniform and consis-
tent. However, Fig. 10 shows that the side planes A and B of
the cavity machined by the cathode with 1st pattern slot are
flatter than those produced with the 2nd pattern slot. This is
considered to be a result of the 2nd pattern inducing a less uni-
form flow along the edges of the cavity, with the flow velocity
and electrochemical dissolution being slower in the middle of
each edge than at its ends, thus resulting in a concave shape Fig. 8 Balance current and surface with varying pulsed-current
to the cavity sides. duty cycle.

Fig. 9 Cathodes with different outlet slots and a Ti40 workpiece.

Fig. 10 Ti40 square cavities machined with different cathode outlet patterns.
Electrochemical machining of burn-resistant Ti40 alloy
3.4. Electrochemical machining of a cavity
The cavities machined under different parameters are shown in
Fig. 11, while Fig. 12 shows the influence of these parameters
on the machining gap. This demonstrates that while there is an
increase in the machining gap with increasing voltage and
electrolyte concentration, the gap decreases with increasing
feed rate. These results do not clarify the existence of any
relationship between the machining gap and pressure.
However, in general, when the pressure increased, the machin-
ing product could be removed completely and the machining
process became more stable, thus resulting in a smaller
machining gap.
Fig. 13 shows the influence of various ECM parameters on
the material removal rate MRR. This reveals that even though
pressure has minimal effect, there is a notable increase in the
MRR with increasing voltage and electrolyte concentration.
However, the greatest influence by far is increasing the feeding
Fig. 11 Cavities machined in Ti40 under different parameters.
1269
rate, which dramatically increases the MRR to more than
3 mm3/AÆmin.
The effect of various ECM parameters on the surface
roughness is shown in Fig. 14, though all experimental condi-
tions tested result in surface finish sufficient to meet design
requirements. Nevertheless, it should be noted that both volt-
age and feed rate have a much greater impact on the surface
roughness than pressure and concentration.
On the basis of the experimental results presented thus
far, the optimal processing parameters for the ECM of
Ti40 are considered to be a voltage of 38 V, pressure of
0.6 MPa, feed rate of 1.5 mm/min and an electrolyte concen-
tration of 8% (see Table 5). The cavity produced by these
ECM conditions is shown in Fig. 15, in which the balance
machining gap, Db, was measured as 0.26 mm, the
material removal rate was more than 3.1 mm3/AÆmin, and
the surface roughness at the bottom of the cavity was
0.371 lm.
1270 Z. Xu et al.

Fig. 12 Influence of machining parameters on end gap.

Fig. 13 Influence of machining parameters on MRR.

Fig. 14 Influence of machining parameters on surface roughness.

Electrochemical machining of burn-resistant Ti40 alloy 1271

Table 5 Optimized parameters for the cavity ECM of Ti40. References

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Xu Zhengyang is a professor in College of Mechanical and Electrical
Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics,
Nanjing, China. His area of research includes electrochemical
machining and hybrid machining, etc. He got the 12th Youth Science
and Technology Prize of Chinese Society of Aeronautics and
Astronautics in 2013.