Robotics and Computer Integrated Manufacturing 17 (2001) 99}106

Machining of aerospace titanium alloys

Farhad Nabhani*
School of Science & Technology, University of Teesside, Middlesbrough TS1 3BA, UK

Abstract

The performance of PCBN (AMBORITE*) and PCD (SYNDITE) has been compared with that of coated tungsten carbide tool
currently being used to machine titanium aerospace alloy. Tests con"rm that SYNDITE gives a better surface "nish, longer tool life
and more manageable swarf than other tools. In addition, the `quick-stopa technique establishes that, for all three cutting tools,
a layer is formed between the rake face and the underside of the emerging chip which has a fundamental e!ect on cutting and wear
mechanisms.  2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction 2. Experimental details and observations

Titanium is an attractive material to aerospace 2.1. Material specixcations

designers due to its unique combination of strength and
lightness. However, it poses considerable problems in
manufacturing because of its poor machinability [1}6].
Traditionally, high-speed steel and monolithic carbide
cutting tools have been employed and a relatively short
lifetime or the need for frequent cutter regrinding has
been accepted. More recently, there has been a move
towards the adoption of insert tooling based upon coated
carbide [7}16] systems. With the evolution of a number
of new cutting tool materials there is evidence to suggest
that the use of some of the ultra-hard materials, such as
those based on polycrystalline diamond or cubic boron
nitride [17}32], may be advantageous in the machining
of titanium alloys.
An experimental programme has been conducted to
explore the potential of such materials by means of ma-
chining trials and by the use of a `quick-stopa device. The
cutting tool materials examined were coated carbide,
speci"cation typical of those used by aerospace manufac-
turers to machine titanium alloys, a high-cubic boron
nitride content tool material (AMBORITE) and poly-
crystalline diamond (SYNDITE).
* Tel.: #44-01462-342-482; fax: #44-01642-342-401.
E-mail address: f.nabhani@tees.ac.uk (F. Nabhani).
0736-5845/01/$ - see front matter  2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 7 3 6 - 5 8 4 5 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 0 4 2 - 9
The workpiece material used throughout all these tests
was an as-rolled and annealed TA48 titanium alloy with
a nominal composition (in wt%) given as Al: 5; Mo: 4; Sn:
2}2, 5; Si: 6}7; Fe: 2.0 max; H: 0.015; O: 0.25; N: 0.05;
Ti: remainder. It had a Knoop hardness (1.0 kg load) of
425 kg/mm (4.17 Gpa) and a microstructure which con-
sisted of elongated alpha phase in a "ne dark-etching
beta matrix.
The coated carbidetool (KC850) had a substrate of
WC: 85.4: TiC: 2.5; Ta (Nb) C: 6.1; and Co: 6 wt% as the
binder phase for particles in the size range 2}8
m. The
coating consisted of TiC/TiC}N/TiN with the nitride as
the outermost surface layer. The Knoop hardness
of the surface coating was HK 2614 (25.61 Gpa) and

that of the substrate tungsten carbide was HK 1576

(15.45 Gpa).
The high CBN content tool material consisted of
particles of about 1}2
m in size each of which is sur-
rounded by a thin case of aluminium nitride and
dispersed in a matrix of aluminium diboride [33].
The HK hardness was approximately 3100 kg/mm
(30.1 Gpa). The polycrystalline diamond material
consisted of randomly orientated synthetic diamond
crystal 10
m in size bonded to a tungsten carbide sub-
strate. The hardness was typically in excess of 5000
HK (49 GPa).

100 F. Nabhani / Robotics and Computer Integrated Manufacturing 17 (2001) 99}106

2.2. Machining tests

A series of single-point turning tests were conducted

using a Churchill Computurn 290 CNC lathe, with all
three tool materials, at a surface speed of 75 m/min; a feed
rate of 0.25 mm/rev; a depth of cut of 1.0 mm and without
cutting #uid. These conditions were chosen to maximise
rake face temperature and to conserve the limited work-
piece material. They were also representative, apart from
the absence of a cutting #uid, of those used by aerospace
vehicle manufacturers.
The results of the tests are summarised in Figs. 1}3.
From Fig. 2 it can be seen that the average #ank face
wear of the PCBN and PCD tools was consistently less Fig. 1. Tool wear performance when cutting TA48 titanium alloy.
than that of the coated carbide tool. This was particularly
evident in the case of PCD, where the rate of wear was
lower than the carbide by at least a factor of two up to
"ve min cutting time, and thereafter still much lower. In
fact, when the rate of wear of the carbide tool accelerated
rapidly, the PCD wear rate was e!ectively unchanged.
Furthermore, the surface "nish of the workpiece
achieved with the ultra-hard materials was always better
than with coated carbide (Fig. 2) and in the case of PCD
remained at a very low level (2
m R max) throughout
the cutting trials. The performance of the polycrystalline
diamond material was not at the expense of the tool life,
which, as shown in Fig. 1, considerably exceeded that of
both the CBN and the coated carbide. Indeed, the tool
did not fail * according to the normal test criteria
Fig. 2. Average #ank wear vs. cutting time (min).
* even after 30 min, when cutting was stopped to con-
serve workpiece material.

2.3. Quick-stop tests

Following the above tests, which were conducted to

examine wear rate, a number of `quick-stopa tests were
carried out to enable detailed investigation of tool/work-
piece interaction.
The `quick-stopa device employs a pivoted tool holder
supported by a shear pin. When the desired cutting
conditions have been achieved, a captive bolt gun is used
to break the shear pin and thereby accelerate the tool in
it's holder away from the workpiece (see Fig. 4a). By this
means, the material removal process is e!ectively frozen Fig. 3. Average #ank wear vs. cutting time (min).
in time and the chip/workpiece interface can be sectioned
for detailed examination.
A feature of the quick-stop tests, with both the carbide moment of detachment, due to the action of the quick-
and the PCBN materials, was the fact that fracture obvi- stop device, reveals that the normally smooth surface
ously occurred within the bulk of the insert-well away is now very rough (Fig. 6b). The appearance of this
from the rake face * workpiece interface * leaving part region is consistent with tensile fracture of a strongly
of the cutting edge bonded to the underside of the chip adherent interface as the tool is accelerated away from
(Figs. 4}6). This clearly demonstrates the strength of the the workpiece. Further testimony to the strength of this
chip}tool interface bonding with titanium alloys. bonding is evident from energy dispersive X-ray (EDX)
In contrast, bulk fracture was less apparent in the case analysis in an electron microscope, which con"rmed that
of the PCD insert (Fig. 6a). However, a closer examina- transfer of the cutting tool material from the rake had
tion of the underside of the chip being formed at the occurred.
 F. Nabhani / Robotics and Computer Integrated Manufacturing 17 (2001) 99}106 101

Fig. 4. (a) The quick-stop device utilising a humane killer to disengage the tool from the workpiece rapidly leaving the #ow of metal in the direction of
chip #ow. (b) Section through `quick-stopa specimen showing part of coated carbide tool adhering to underside of chip (100;). (c) Close-up view of
Fig. 4(a) showing strong bonding at the interface showing alpha (
) grain elongated in the direction of chip #ow (200;).

Fig. 5. (a) Section through `quick-stopa specimen showing part of cubic boron nitride tool adhering to underside of chip (100;). (b) Close-up view of
Fig. 5(a) (200;).
102 F. Nabhani / Robotics and Computer Integrated Manufacturing 17 (2001) 99}106
Fig. 6. (a) Section through `Quick-stopa specimen showing fragment of polycrystalline diamond tool adhering to underside of chip. (b) Close-up view
of Fig. 6(a).
The maximum chip thickness (0.31 mm) is small com-
pared with workpiece materials such as plain carbon
steel, re#ecting the large shear plane angle and the small
chip/tool contact length observed [34]. As a result, the
maximum rake face temperature occurs close to the cut-
ting edge.
The general chip form was segmented with narrow
bands of intense shear, separated by relatively unde-
formed regions, in which the
phase is elongated in the
direction of the chip travel (see Figs. 4c and 5b). Thus, it
would appear that the primary shear is not continuous
but rather proceeds in discrete `burstsa of catastrophic
shear [35]. Freeman [36] working with commercially
pure titanium observed submicron alpha grains in the
shear bands, indicating that su$cient heat is generated
during the intense primary shear to promote dynamic
recrystallisation. During the short periods of intense
catastrophic shear, the chip is displaced across the sur-
face of the tool by plastic deformation within the #ow (or
secondary shear) zone. For a chip thickness of 0.31 mm at
a surface speed of 75 m/min, the e!ective chip velocity is
64 m/min [34], and if it is assumed that the bottom
surface of the chip is welded to the upper surface of the
stationary tool, the average values of strain and strain
rate within the #ow zone are of the order of 27 and
5.35;10\ s\, respectively. These conditions are quite
su$cient to raise local temperatures above 9003C and
give rise to dynamic recrystallisation, as indicated by the
presence of "ne grains within the #ow zone.
The sequence of events leading to cyclic chip formation
when machining titanium has been described by Koman-
duri and von Turkovich [37]. Based on their detailed
study of video tapes of low-speed machining within an
SEM, high-speed photography of machining under
workshop conditions and microscopic examination of
sections through chips. Insofar as the actual mechanism
chip formation is concerned, cutting speed appears to
have no signi"cant e!ect. However, it is an important
factor in determining tool temperature, tool-wear, and
secondary chip generation [38}41].
3. Discussion of failure and wear modules
A feature of the wear test conditions was the absence of
a well-de"ned built-up edge on the tool inserts. Neverthe-
less, the strongly adherent workpiece maintains an inti-
mate and sustained contact with the rake face through an
interfacial layer. The #ow zone where shear takes place to
form the base of a chip, exists at or within this layer.
Ideally, separation of material should occur on the
chip side of this interfacial layer so as to provide protec-
tion to the cutting tool. When this layer is detached with
the chip, as will inevitably happen from time to time, the
high adhesive forces are likely to result in the plucking
out of hard particles from the tool, causing it's surface to
become grooved and crater depth to increase. It is during
this part of the process that resistance to plastic deforma-
tion, at elevated temperatures, will be an important in-
trinsic property of the tool material. A similar process of
attrition and grooving wear will be developing on the
#ank face, leading to a deterioration in the machined
surface "nish. Ultimately, the combination of this crater
and #ank wear will undermine the integrity of the cutting
edge (Fig. 7) and, unsupported, it will then break away. In
this "nal stage, the fracture toughness of the cutting tool
material will be important.
When cutting the titanium alloy, the chemically va-
pour deposited coating was rapidly removed from the
carbide tools. In most cases, discrete fragments of the
 F. Nabhani / Robotics and Computer Integrated Manufacturing 17 (2001) 99}106 103

Fig. 7. (a) Carbide KC850 tool insert showing enlarged view of notch surface. (b) Smoothly worn crater surface evidence of di!usion/dissolution wear.

Fig. 8. (a) View of coated carbide tool with smooth rake face crater wear and remains of adherent metal layer. (b) Close-up views of rake face crater
wear showing smooth ridges with "ne scoring in direction of chip #ow.

coating were removed by a process of adhesive wear
similar to that reported with tools coated with hafnium
nitride [34]. However, as the cutting continued, a stage of
rapid but smoothly progressive coating wear was en-
tered, leading to exposure of the substrate (Fig. 8b).
Examination of the rake face of the tool shows a crater
within which are the remains of some of the metallic
surface layer (Fig. 8a). In other places, where this layer
has been removed, the surface is smoothly grooved as
though by plastic deformation. The pitch of the ridges on
these grooves is approximately 50
m * too large for
them to have been due to scoring by individual carbide
particles. Within these grooves, a close examination re-
vealed (Fig. 8b) the occurrence of progressive wear of the
carbide substrate on a "ne scale as indicated by the
parallel scoring in the direction of chip #ow. These "ner
score marks are most likely to have been caused by
plastic deformation as carbide particles are detached and
removed from the chip/tool interface [42]. However, it
should be noted that an alternative explanation is o!ered
by Trent [43], who refers to the likelihood of increased
chemical activity leading to etching of the tool material
under conditions of high strain such as that occur in the
#ow zone.
Turning now to the tests with polycrystalline high
cubic boron nitride (PCBN) content cutting tools,
Figs. 9a and 9b show the condition of the rake face of an
AMBORITE insert after cutting the titanium alloy for
104 F. Nabhani / Robotics and Computer Integrated Manufacturing 17 (2001) 99}106
Fig. 9. (a) Worn surface of #ank and rake face of cubic boron nitride tool. (b) Close-up view of rake face crater wear of cubic boron nitride tool
showing smoothly worn surface due to di!usion mechanism.
Fig. 10. Fragmentation of strongly adherent layer on the rake face of
a polycrystalline diamond tool.
3 min at the standard conditions. Although gross wear of
the insert has occurred due to fracture, it is still possible
to see clearly part of a smoothly worn crater on the rake
face. Such wear was also observable on the #ank face. It is
considered likely that subsequently, the combined e!ects
of the #ank and rake face wear give rise to an unsup-
ported cutting edge which breaks away.
As in the case of the other two materials, a strongly
adherent interfacial layer is formed on the top of the rake
face of the PCD tool (Fig. 10). However, in contrast,
signi"cant cratering was not developed. This may simply
re#ect a di!erence in the rate of wear rather than the
mechanism * leading to failure of the carbide and
PCBN tools in 9 and 12 min, respectively whilst the PCD
Fig. 11. Comparison of machining swarf produced with PCD, CBN
and coated carbide tools.
tool has not failed even after 30 min. It is possible that
di!usion across the interface results in the formation of
a titanium carbide layer which would then protect the
tool forming a barrier to further di!usion and loss of tool
material in the chip. Some support for this contention
can be obtained from the observation that the graphite
crucibles are able to withstand attack by liquid titanium
carbide which is formed on the surface of the crucible
[44]. In any event, it should be emphasised that the low
wear rate of PCD is not apparently at the expense of
other machining parameters since the workpiece surface
"nish was always signi"cantly better than with the other
tool materials (Fig. 3). The nature of the swarf produced
is also markedly di!erent, as illustrated in Fig. 11. Fig. 12
shows formation of a smooth surface "nish generated by
PCD tool while machining aerospace titanium alloys.
 F. Nabhani / Robotics and Computer Integrated Manufacturing 17 (2001) 99}106
Fig. 12. Turning aerospace alloys using polycrystalline diamond tool.
The process of wear leading to formation of craters is
thought to involve dissolution of material from the tool
by di!usion into the adjacent zones of the chip and the
workpiece [45]. A simple model relating the factors in-
volved in the dissolution}di!usion process has been de-
scribed recently by Dearnley [46]. The most important of
these factors is the solubility limit of the tool material in
the workpiece, which determines the magnitude of the
concentration gradient in the shear zone, and hence the
chip/workpiece at temperatures above 7003C provides
an ideal environment for di!usion of the tool material
atoms across the tool/chip and the tool/workpiece
interfaces [34].
4. Summary and conclusions
This has been but a preliminary investigation and it is
appreciated that subtle changes in machining conditions
can have signi"cant e!ects on both the quality of the
machined "nish and the wear of the tool. Nevertheless,
under the conditions prevailing in this investigation,
a number of conclusions may be justi"ed.
The thin chips produced when machining titanium
alloys, combined with the narrow #ow shear zone and
short chip/tool contact lengths, result in higher temper-
atures closer to the cutting edge of the tool than with
other workpiece materials.
The characteristic sawtooth formation of the swarf
with titanium alloys is probably the result of discrete
bursts of catastrophic shear occurring in the primary
shear zone.
The predominant tool wear mechanism is one of the
di!usion and dissolution exacerbated by higher than
normal local temperatures as a result of the poor thermal
conductivity of the workpiece material. Most tool mater-
ials will either rapidly dissolve or chemically react with
the workpiece, but in the work reported here a coherent
105
metallic layer was observed to form on the rake face. The
thickness of this layer is most likely determined by the
balance between the rate of di!usion of the tool material
through the layer and its rate of dissolution in the work-
piece. Furthermore, the stability of the protective layer
will strongly in#uence the wear rate of a particular
cutting tool material. The wear observed on the tool
materials tested probably resulted from a combination
of dissolution/di!usion and attrition processes, the for-
mer producing smoothly worn surfaces and the latter
more irregular surfaces associated with scoring by de-
tached tool particles adhering to the underside of the
chip.
Failure of carbide tools was the result of plastic defor-
mation under compressive stress in the presence of high
temperatures generated close to the cutting edge. De-
formed carbide particles were observed to be carried o!
in a streamer attached to the underside of the chip,
demonstrating the intimacy and strength of the bond
between workpiece and tool. The presence of coated
layers on the carbide tools appears to have had no
bene"cial e!ect on their performance, since those layers
are rapidly removed leaving the tungsten carbide
substrate vulnerable to cratering.
Whilst the wear mechanisms were the same for carbide
tools and PCBN, the wear rate of PCBN was consistently
lower than that of both coated and uncoated carbide
tools, and the workpiece surface "nish was better. The
lower wear rate of PCBN is most probably due less to its
greater hardness and melting point than to its lower
chemical reactivity with the titanium alloy workpiece.
Based on the results obtained, PCD would appear to
be the most functionally satisfactory commercially avail-
able cutting tool material for machining titanium alloys.
Of the tool material tested, SYNDITE PCD had the
lowest wear rate and produced the best workpiece
surface "nish.
The results of this investigation illustrate the complex-
ity of the wear mechanisms in metal cutting and, whilst
resistance to plastic deformation and fracture of the cut-
ting tool material is predictable, underline the import-
ance of chemical reactions which determine the nature of
the interface formed between the tool and the chip. For
this reason, we should not anticipate the development of
an ultimate, ubiquitous, cutting tool material but rather
select an optimum candidate for a given workpiece. Cer-
tainly, we may conclude that it is desirable to adjust
conditions so as to form a stable interfacial layer which
both protects the rake face and which is easily sheared to
form a smooth chip.
In any event, the "nal selection of cutting tool material
will always be based on a compromise between several
aspects of performance and cost. Both PCBN and PCD
are currently more expensive than coated carbide inserts
but in applications where surface "nish and infre-
quent tool changes are important considerations, these
106 F. Nabhani / Robotics and Computer Integrated Manufacturing 17 (2001) 99}106
ultra-hard materials are being increasingly employed.
Their attractiveness will increase as wider usage brings
economies of scale to their manufacture and experience
breeds con"dence in their reliability.
Acknowledgements
The author is grateful to De Beers Industrial Diamond
Division (Pty) Ltd. for providing cutting tools inserts.
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