Science of the Total Environment 697 (2019) 134139

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Science of the Total Environment

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/scitotenv

Bioplastics: Missing link in the era of Microplastics

V.C. Shruti a, Gurusamy Kutralam-Muniasamy b,⁎
a
Centro Mexicano para la Producción más Limpia (CMP+L), Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN), Av. Acueducto s/n, Col. Barrio la Laguna Ticomán, Del Gustavo A. Madero, C.P. 07340
México, D.F., Mexico
b
Department of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Ciudad de México, Mexico

H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T

• Current understanding of microplastics

(MPs) from biodegradable plastics is
summarized.
• The generation of MPs from
polyhydroxyalkanoate films is demon-
strated.
• We identified missing interdisciplinary
links based on the available scientific
evidences of biodegradable MPs.
• It is worth (re)examining the funda-
mental issues of MPs and revisiting
them in the context of biodegradable
MPs.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Concerns about microplastics (MPs) environmental behavior and accumulation are growing at global scale and
Received 28 June 2019 meanwhile, the attention to employ bioplastics for replacing conventional plastics is increasing. The research pri-
Received in revised form 11 August 2019 ority for a better understanding of the fate and potential impacts of MPs from bioplastics is of utmost importance.
Accepted 26 August 2019
However, the investigations on the effects of bioplastics in terms of MPs are still limited and largely unknown. In
Available online 29 August 2019
this discussion, the current knowledge of MPs is timely highlighted to incorporate biodegradable MPs in the on-
Editor: Damia Barcelo going researches. Recent studies have identified that some biodegradable MPs exhibit same effect as conven-
tional type MPs. Furthermore, we performed a simple degradation experiment and found that
Keywords: polyhydroxyalkanoate films formed MPs in water environment alike other biodegradable and conventional plas-
Microplastics tics sharing common research interests. In an effort to promote investigations, we recommend the knowledge
Nanoplastics gaps identified on bioplastics MPs: understanding the timeframe of disintegration and degradation of developing
Biodegradable plastics bioplastics; ensuring degradability and less persistence; promoting toxicity tests and potential effects on a wide
Degradation variety of organisms; promoting attempts to assess the impacts on ecosystems; evaluating the interaction of mi-
Polyhydroxyalkanoate
croorganisms and MPs; working towards identifying novel disposal and collection methods from public to ease
Cupriavidus necator H16
recycling and degradation processes.
© 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mgurusamy@cinvestav.mx (G. Kutralam-Muniasamy).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134139
0048-9697/© 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
2 V.C. Shruti, G. Kutralam-Muniasamy / Science of the Total Environment 697 (2019) 134139
1. Introduction to the problem
Recent advances in environmental sciences, microbiology, genetics
and toxicology opened the chances to investigate the occurrence and
potential effects of microplastics (plastic fragments with dimension of
b5 mm; MPs) in different trophic levels and environment (Koelmans
et al., 2019; Alimba and Faggio, 2019; Sun et al., 2018; Barboza et al.,
2018). Our current understanding of potential effects of MPs stems pri-
marily from studying conventional plastics (e.g. polypropylene (PP),
polystyrene (PS), polyethylene (PE), polyethylene terephthalate
(PET)). Many reviews published between 2018 and 2019 have exten-
sively accounted about it (Wang et al., 2019; Prata et al., 2019;
Botterell et al., 2019). MPs ingestion by organisms not only cause phys-
ical injury and inflammatory but also provides a feasible route for intro-
duction of various environmental contaminants (endogenous plastic
additives, metals, persistent organic pollutants, polycyclic aromatic hy-
drocarbons, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, polychlorinated biphe-
nyls and pathogenic microorganisms) into the food web (Hahladakis
et al., 2018; O'Donovan et al., 2018; Worm et al., 2017; Alimi et al.,
2018). Several toxic effects of MPs have been documented like disrup-
tion of biological processes, gastrointestinal irritation, alteration of the
microbiome, lipid metabolism, and oxidative stress (de Sá et al., 2018;
Germanov et al., 2018; Galloway and Lewis, 2016). These evidences
raise concerns as transfer of toxic substances via MPs ingestion, inhala-
tion and dermal sorption result in their subsequent bioaccumulation
and biomagnification and ultimately, posing risk to the human health.
Currently, the heightened concern surrounding plastic pollution has
seen the rise of biodegradable or bioplastics (e.g. polyhydroxyalkanoate
(PHA), polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB), polyglycolide, polycaprolactone
(PCL), polybutylene adipate-co-terephthalate (PBAT), polybutylene
succinate, polylactic acid (PLA), starch-based blends and others)
representing roughly 1% of the 335 million tonnes of plastic produced
annually (PlasticsEurope, 2017; Bioplastics Market Data, 2018).
Table 1 comprehensively summarizes the typical characteristics of bio-
degradable polymers including physical properties, polymer types, pro-
duction sources and transmission routes into environment. Among
them, PLA and starch blends are the main drivers of this growth in the
field of bioplastics, accounting for nearly 10.3 and 18.2% of the global
production capacity (Fig. 1a; Bioplastics Market Data, 2018). It is esti-
mated that global bioplastics production capacity will increase from
2.11 million tonnes in 2018 to approximately 2.62 million tonnes in
2023 (European Commission, 2017). Bioplastics are being used in an in-
creasing number of markets, from packaging, catering products, con-
sumer electronics, automotive, agriculture/horticulture, toys, textiles
in tissue engineering and medicine and a number of other segments
(Fig. 1b).
Today, there is a bioplastic alternative for almost every conventional
plastic and its corresponding application. As production of bioplastics is
increasing, it is likely that their contribution to plastic waste will in-
crease and become comparable to that of the conventional plastics. Bio-
degradable polymers require a controlled fate in order to kickstart the
expected biodegradation process and as a result, it is nearly impossible
to control and ensure the complete degradation of even potentially de-
gradable plastic materials. Subsequently, when they are disposed of in
an uncontrolled fashion, they will accumulate in the environment and
fragment into smaller pieces (MPs and NPs). These MPs have proven
to display diverse impacts over ingested organisms, ecosystem func-
tioning and vectors to contaminants similar to those of conventional
MPs (Straub et al., 2017; Green, 2016; Green et al., 2015; González-
Pleiter et al., 2019; Zuo et al., 2019). The research priority for a better un-
derstanding of the fate of MPs and nano-plastics (NPs) from bioplastics
in different environmental compartments is of utmost importance. Nev-
ertheless, the exploration and knowledge of MPs from bioplastics is very
limited and often not discussed elsewhere. Given the recent growth of
bioplastics, there exists a knowledge gap on the effects of bioplastics-
based MPs which seeks attention in this field. Hence, this paper aims
to promote bioplastics researches in the direction of MPs. Thereby, we
provide the recent advances and discuss possible degradation pathways
of bioplastics, demonstrate the generation of MPs from bioplastics (PHA
films) under laboratory conditions in water medium, and define the
missing links, challenges and recommendations related to it.
2. Evidences that MPs from bioplastics do instigate risks
We conducted an unstructured literature review using PubMed,
Google Scholar, Nature's database, and Science Direct, employing the
keywords “biodegradable microplastics and bioplastics microplastics”.
The information in every article was tabulated and summarized in
Table 2.
2.1. Potential effects of biodegradable MPs on organisms
Since 2015, researches have been conducted to study the effects of
biodegradable MPs. Majority of researches evaluated MPs ingestion or
ecotoxicological effects in freshwater and marine habitats. The potential
effects of MPs have been experimentally characterized for limited types
of bioplastics (PHB and PLA) on organisms. The studies of Green et al.,
2015 and Green et al., 2016 brought the first evidence on the adverse ef-
fects of bioplastics MPs on diversity and benthic communities' growth
abundance. The high concentrations of PLA induced stress and elevated
respiration rates in the flat oyster Ostrea edulis and similar results have
been evidenced for respiration rates of Arenicola marina L., in response
to high doses of PLA in sandy sediments (Green, 2016). These findings
are crucial as they indicate that the induced stress might influence the
health status and the behaviors of A. marina L., including feeding behav-
ior and reworking of sediments, with negative effects on the ecological
processes (Green et al., 2016). The exposure of PHB and
polymethylmethylacrylate (petroleum-based polymer) MPs have re-
sulted in the reduction of assimilation efficiency in Gammarus fossarum
(Straub et al., 2017). Another study dealt with the effects of exposure to
PLA and PS microplastics in the crustacean Daphnia magna. PS treated
daphnids were observed with the high mortality, decreased feeding
rate and reproductive output, while PLA treated daphnids did not
show any significant effects (Vasilakis, 2017).
These studies evidence that the exposure of organisms to conven-
tional and biodegradable MPs have shown similar effects posing very
minor or large difference in their impact levels. Furthermore, the in-
duced changes can affect both individual fitness within wild population
and ecological processes.
3. Biodegradable MPs as vectors for chemical contaminants
Due to particle size, strong hydrophobicity, high stability and mobil-
ity, MPs have shown strong sorption and enrichment tendency towards
hydrophobic organic compounds, PAHs, PCBs, polybrominated diphenyl
ethers as well as nonylphenol ethoxylate (Hartmann et al., 2017). In our
search, there was only one article that investigated the sorption charac-
teristics with biodegradable MPs (Zuo et al., 2019). In this study, the
sorption and desorption behaviors of phenanthrene (organic pollutant)
on biodegradable PBAT were investigated and compared with two types
of conventional plastics (PE and PS). Authors found that the sorption
and desorption capacities of PBAT were higher than those of the other
types of MPs. The higher sorption and desorption capacities were
mainly dependent on the abundance of rubbery subfraction for PBAT
microplastics. The observed results showed that biodegradable MPs
act as strong vectors of phenanthrene compared to conventional MPs.
4. Coated MPs
Generally, coated plastics mainly refer to particles coated with poly-
mers or whose composition has a polymer content of ≥1% w/w
(European Commission, 2017). Biodegradable films and coatings
 V.C. Shruti, G. Kutralam-Muniasamy / Science of the Total Environment 697 (2019) 134139
represent an interesting alternative to conventional plastic materials as
they prevent liquid absorption or freezer burn in food products, or oth-
erwise enhance product performance. Several biopolymers including
PHB, PLA, starch have been exploited to develop materials for eco-
friendly purposes. The potential uses for such biopolymeric materials
are food packaging, textiles coatings, paper coatings (milk and juice car-
tons, hot and cold paper drinking cups, frozen food containers, and
plastic-lined paper bags), cosmetics, paint, lamination coating, and agri-
culture seed coatings. The growing epidemic use of these biodegradable
plastics has led to concerns about what happens to the plastic coatings
on these products after reaching the environment, since they break
down into smaller fragments as MPs and NPs. Among the diverse field
applications, the use of bioplastics-based MPs fragments has been ex-
tensively recognized in agricultural field which we have briefly pre-
sented below.
4.1. Coated MPs in agriculture
Bioplastics have been evaluated for application of microbial biocon-
trol agents to agricultural and horticultural crops. The recent advances
on the use of bioplastics-based seed coatings applications for delivering
various biocontrol strains and herbicides/insecticides to soil are shown
in Table 2. In these studies, the seeds (e.g. corn, canola and pine) were
covered by a thin layer of a polymeric matrix impregnated with one
or more formulations that include pesticides and growth promoting or-
ganisms. The seed coating agents, currently used in the literature, were
mostly starch based and derived from renewable sources. The effective-
ness of bioplastics seed coatings did not affect germination or seedling
growth in none of the case studies (Table 2). The potential of bioplastic
seed coatings was demonstrated in soil colonization, reduction of afla-
toxin contamination, rapid vegetative growth and curing plant injuries.
In addition, seeds coated with bioplastic matrix released less dust dur-
ing abrasive handling than seeds coated with a commercial seed coating
(Accinelli et al., 2015, 2016, 2018). Despite their advances, Accinelli
et al., 2019 investigated the degradation of seed coatings made up of
bioplastics MPs fragments in soil. Authors found that biodegradable
plastic formulation degraded completely within a shorter period of
time than commercial polymer mixture and further, the degradation
rate was unaffected when other substances were impregnated. Even,
degradation was more rapid when spores of the plant growth-
promoting bacterium, Bacillus subtilis, were incorporated into the
bioplastic MPs. This is due to the fact that the bioplastic matrix may
serve as a food source of microorganisms facilitating their initial growth
stages. All these studies evidence that bioplastics coatings can be a suit-
able substitute of commercial coatings for biocontrol applications with
desirable degradation properties leading to less persistent in the envi-
ronment. As the coatings-based applications in this primary sector is ex-
pected to become much larger, more extensive studies are needed to
assess the impact of different bioplastic compositions in diverse vegeta-
tive soils and crops.
5. Ecotoxicological studies related to bioplastics
Few studies that have assessed the ecotoxicity of bioplastics in com-
bination with degradation experiments are presented in Table 2. In
many studies, bioplastics didn't exhibit any significant adverse effects
on the selected organisms. Quite recently, González-Pleiter et al.
(2019) studied the toxic effect of PHB-NPs towards three organisms
(Anabaena sp. PCC7120, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii D., (strain CCAP
11/32A mt +) and D. magna). Authors found that PHB-NPs significantly
decreased cellular growth and altered relevant physiological parame-
ters in Anabaena sp. PCC7120 and C. reinhardtii D., whereas PHB-NPs in-
duced a significant immobilization of the organisms in D. magna.
Furthermore, intracellular ROS (Reactive Oxygen Species) levels were
significantly increased and severe membrane damage was observed in
all organisms as a result of exposure to the PHB-NPs.
3
It is previously believed that biodegradable plastics would yield less
harmful consequences than conventional plastics. But the experimental
results are contradictory, regardless the types and sizes of biodegrad-
able MPs used, as shown in Table 2. This critical analysis indicated that
biodegradable MPs can exhibit similar characteristics and cause analo-
gous effects as those of conventional MPs. Nonetheless, available litera-
ture evidences are inadequate to account the presence of biodegradable
MPs in biota collected during field sampling. This can partly be due to
limited applications of bioplastics in the consumer products worldwide.
Also, there is a lack of studies to demonstrate the possible relevancy of
MPs to bioplastics. Only few studies have demonstrated the fragmenta-
tion of biodegradable plastics (PLA) and microplastics (PHB) in the for-
mation of MPs and NPs in water environments under abiotic conditions
(Lambert and Wagner, 2016; González-Pleiter et al., 2019) (Table 2).
Nevertheless, MPs are not part of many recent studies that showed
bioplastics degradation in different environments including marine
water, sea water and fresh water (Bagheri et al., 2017; Nazareth et al.,
2019). Given this issue, we briefly highlight below how bioplastics
would be affected in the process of degradation.
6. A possible route towards MPs and NPs
Degradation of plastic materials is largely accompanied by disinte-
gration or fragmentation altering the chemical and/or physical structure
of the polymer chain, which in turn leads to a decrease in the molecular
weight of the polymer (Goel, 2017; Singh and Sharma, 2008) (Fig. 2a).
Variety of mechanisms such as physical (abrasive forces, heating/
cooling, freezing/thawing, wetting/drying), chemical (oxidation and
hydrolysis), thermal and photo-oxidation (UV light) can cause fragmen-
tation of plastics which may proceed by random scission or specific scis-
sion (Klein et al., 2018). In addition, a numerous type of microbial
enzymes (i.e. depolymerase, lipase, cutinase, hydrolase, protease, lignin
modifying enzymes) participate in the scissioning of polymers to their
respective oligomers, dimers, and easily metabolizable monomers
(Haider et al., 2019). Under natural environmental conditions, degrada-
tion can occur by any of the above mechanisms alone or in combination
with one another. Once the large complex polymers are completely
fragmented, living organisms use the final product (monomer) as its
major carbon and energy source for growth. The underlying enzymatic
pathways related to mineralize natural and conventional polymers
were sorted using KEGG (Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes)
pathway maps and illustrated in Fig. 2b. The comprehensive analysis re-
vealed that monomers entering into cellular metabolic processes (such
as the Krebs cycle), generate energy and turn into water, carbon dioxide,
biomass and other basic products of biotic decomposition through var-
ious metabolic and enzymatic mechanisms (Haider et al., 2019).
Though the numerous reaction mechanisms and pathways are get-
ting clear, several environmental factors and the characteristics inher-
ent to the nature of the plastic material that hinder the degradation
rate of plastic materials (either non-biodegradable or biodegradable)
(Thakur et al., 2018; Goel, 2017) are described as follows: -.
6.1. Environmental factors (temperature, moisture, acidic nature etc.)
Plastics degradation requires adequate temperature conditions as it
induces the structural changes in the polymer which takes place at
their glass transition temperature and favors microbial growth and en-
zymatic activity (Table 1). Generally, the seasonal variation and the sub-
sequent changes in environment temperature highly impact on the
plastics degradation rate. Also, environmental temperature is lower
than the melting point of thermoplastic polymers. In case of PLA poly-
mers, temperatures above the glass transition temperature of the plastic
(Tg = 55–62 °C) are usually required for the onset of degradation mak-
ing the degradation process difficult at ambient temperatures (Wierckx
et al., 2018). Another major pathway of degradation is hydrolysis. Water
and moisture play an important role for biodegradation as water is
 4
Table 1
General characteristics and thermo-mechanical properties of commonly available bioplastics.

V.C. Shruti, G. Kutralam-Muniasamy / Science of the Total Environment 697 (2019) 134139
Bioplastics Group Backbone Examples of Producers Types and examples Consumer products Tg Tm (°C) Tc Crystallinity Elongation Tensile Density
commonly used (country) (°C) (°C) (%) at break strength (g/mL)
catalysts (%) (MPa)

Polylactic acid Bio-based Lactic acid Tin octoate BASF Racemic PLLA (Poly-L-lactic Acid), Regular Plastic films, bottles, 55–62 157–170 93 0–40 4 61–66 1.2
homopolymer (Germany), PLLA (Poly-L-lactic Acid), PDLLA and biodegradable
Natureworks (Poly-DL-lactic Acid), copolymer (e.g. P medical devices (e.g.
(USA), Total (LA-HB)), blends (e.g. PLA/starch) screws, pins, rods) and
Corbion plates metal and paint
(Thailand) coatings
Polyhydroxyalkanoates Bio-based 3-Hydroxy-fatty – Danimer Copolymer (e.g. P Bags, bottles, 5 174 71 60 10 35 1.23
(PHA)a polymer acids, Scientific (3-hydroxybutyrate-3-hydroxyvalerate), P disposable items, items
2-hydroxy-fatty (formerly (3-hydroxybutyrate-3-hydrpoxyhexanoate)), of personal hygiene,
acids, Meridian, blends (e.g. PLA/PHB), composites (e.g. degradable diapers,
4-hydro-fatty USA), Yield wood-PHA) films, coatings on
acids and 10 Bioscience paper, encapsulation of
5-hydroxy-fatty (Spain), fertilizers and food
acids Biopol (USA), packaging
Metabolix in.
(USA),
Biocycle
(Brasil),
ENMAT
(China)
Polybutylene succinate Fossil based Succinic acid Titanium, zirconium, Showa Denko Copolymer (e.g. P(BS-LA), P(BS-BAT)), blends Food packaging, coffee -32 115 70 34–45 560 34 1.26
(PBS) copolymer Butanediol tin or germanium (Japan), (e.g. PBS/PCL) capsules, disposables,
Mitsubishi agriculture fibres,
chemical nonwovens
(Japan), industrial/automotive,
Succinity mulch film, plant pots,
(joint venture hygiene products (e.g.
of BASF and diapers), fishing nets
Corbion, and lines, wood-plastic
Germany) composites,
Polyethylene succinate Fossil based Succinic acid Titanium Succinity Blends (e.g. PES/polyethylene oxide (PEO)) composites with −10 103–106 48 – – – 1.3–1.41
(PES) copolymer Ethylene glycol tetraisopropoxide (joint venture natural fibres
of BASF and
Corbion,
Germany)
Polybutylene succinate Fossil based Succinic acid Titanium Succinity Blends (e.g. PBSA/PLA) −46 96 62 20–30 807 66 1.23
adipate (PBSA) random Butanediol (joint venture
copolymer Adipate of BASF and
Corbion,
Germany)
 Polyglycolic acid (PGA) Fossil based α-hydroxyacetic Stannous chloride Kurekha Copolymer (e.g. P(GA-LA), P(GA-CL), P Subcutaneous sutures, 35–40 228 80 30–52 1 50 1.5
homopolymer acid dihydrate or trialkyl Corporation (GA-HB)) intracutaneous
aluminum, (Japan) closures, abdominal
organometallic and thoracic surgeries,
compounds and implantable medical
Lewis acids devices (anastomosis
rings, pins, rods, plates
and screws)
Polycaprolactone (PCL) Fossil based ε-Caprolactone Stannous octoate Ethicon Copolymer (e.g. P(GA-CL)), blends (e.g. Food packaging, −60 59–64 25 56 450 and 25 and 1.145
homopolymer (USA) PLA/PCL, PBS/PCL) medical devices 1100 33
Polybutylene adipate Fossil based 1,4-Butanediol Tetrabutoxytitanium BASF Copolymer (e.g. P(LA-BAT), P(BS-BAT)) Cling wrap for food −30 110–120 – – N500 36–45 1.26
terephthalate random and adipic acid (Germany), packaging,
(PBAT) copolymer and the polymer Biopolymer compostable plastic
of dimethyl Technologies bags for gardening and
terephthalate AG agricultural use, and as
with water resistant

V.C. Shruti, G. Kutralam-Muniasamy / Science of the Total Environment 697 (2019) 134139
1,4-butanediol. coatings for other
materials, as in paper
cups
Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) Fossil based Polyvinyl acetate Ethanol Eastman Copolymer, blends (e.g. TPS/PVA, PVA/PLA, Plastic films, surgical 88 220 186 2.6 62.4 77.4 1.19
homopolymer Chemical PVA/PEO) and composites (e.g. PVA/clay) sponges, tissue
Company adhesion barriers,
(USA), E.I du cartilage replacements,
Pont de hydrophilic coatings
Nemours and (catheters, leads, etc.)
Company
(USA)
Cellulose based Bio-based Cellulose Acetic acid Eastman Blends (e.g. cellulose/chitosan, Cigarette filters, Varies with respect to the blends
Chemical cellulose/starch, cellulose/polyacrylonitrile, hygiene products,
Company cellulose/PVA, cellulose/PCL), Cellulose clothing, cosmetics
(USA), acetate and coatings
Deutsche
Celluloid
Fabrik,
Eilenburg,
Germany
Thermoplastic starch Bio-based e.g. Corn starch, – Novamont Blends (e.g. TPS/PLA, TPS/PCL, TPS/PVA, Plastics, coatings, food
(TPS) potato starch, (Italy) TPS/cellulose) packaging
wheat starch

Common transmission routes into environment: waste water discharge, solid waste, through sewage onto agricultural land, during construction period, emission of product into water, soil after demolition of buildings into environment (water, soil)
and atmospheric fallout.
a
Thermomechanical properties of PHB homopolymer is given.

5
6 V.C. Shruti, G. Kutralam-Muniasamy / Science of the Total Environment 697 (2019) 134139

Fig. 1. (a) Global production capacities of biodegradable plastics in 2018 (data derived from European Bioplastics; polyethylene (PE), polyethylene terephthalate (PET),
polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA), polybutylene adipate-co-terephthalate (PBAT), polybutylene succinate (PBS), polylactic acid (PLA), polyamide (PA) and polytrimethylene terephthalate
(PTT)). (b) Global production capacities of biodegradable plastics by market segment in 2018 (data derived from European Bioplastics).

Table 2
Summary of recent studies dealing with biodegradable microplastics.

Ecotoxicological studies

System Organism Order Plastics Concentration Size (avg. Exposure Effects References
diameter period
range)

Freshwater Gammarus Amphipod Polyhydroxybutyrate 10 to 100,000 32–250 μm 1 day Reduction of assimilation Straub et al., 2017
fossarum (PHB), petroleum-based particles efficiency/digestive constraints
polymethylmethacrylate individual−1
Marine Cymodocea Alismatales Novamont biobags 0.48 ± 0.04 g 14 cm × 14 180 days Alters sediment geochemistry and Balestri et al., 2017
nodosa and (vegetable oils and corn cm; 20 μm promote spatial aggregation of seagrass
Zostera starch) of
noltei thicknesses
Marine Arenicola Capitellida Polylactic acid (PLA), 0.02, 0.2, 2% – 31 days Metabolic activity is increased Green et al., 2016
marina L. polyethylene (PE), wet sediment
polyvinylchloride (PVC) weight
Marine Ostrea Ostreoida PLA, PE 0.8 μg/L – 80 0.6–363 60 days Alter assemblages by reducing abundances Green et al., 2015
edulis μg/L μm in benthic fauna
0.48–316
μm
Marine A. marina Capitellida Biodegradable plastic 10 bags 38 × 46 cm 63 days Creates anoxic conditions within the Green, 2016
L. bags manufactured from and 65 μm sediment along with reduced primary
corn starch thicknesses productivity and organic matter,
significantly lower abundances of infaunal
invertebrates

Ecotoxicological studies

Bioplastics Polymer Preparation Quantity of Medium Incubation Test system Effects References
source material

Starch blend Mater-Bi Powdered mulch 10 g/800 g Aerobic 528 days Nitrification test based No inhibition of Bettas Ardisson
DF04P film agricultural soil on ISO14238 nitrification, microbial et al., 2014
growth as consequence
of polymer
degradation
 V.C. Shruti, G. Kutralam-Muniasamy / Science of the Total Environment 697 (2019) 134139 7

Table 2 (continued)

Ecotoxicological studies

Bioplastics Polymer Preparation Quantity of Medium Incubation Test system Effects References
source material

Mater-Bi Powdered films 10 g/800 g Soil aqueous 180 days Acute and chronic No potential adverse Sforzini et al.,
DF04P, extracts bioassays (bacteria, effects 2016
EF04P, protozoa, algae, plants,
AF05S0 crustaceans and
earthworms)
PLA – PLA, 50 g/300 g Compost 76 days Allium cepa Potential cytotoxic and Palsikowski
nanocomposites of aqueous extracts (phytotoxicity, genotoxic effects upon et al., 2018
PLA and cytotoxicity, PLA degradation (not
organoclays genotoxicity and for the organoclays)
Cloisite 20A and mutagenicity)
Cloisite 30B
– Plastic films 1cm2, 0.3 mm Soil aqueous 420 days Allium cepa No potential adverse Palsikowski
thickness extracts (phytotoxicity, effects et al., 2018
cytotoxicity,
genotoxicity and
mutagenicity)
– Plastic films 3 ∗ 3 cm2 Agricultural soil 84 days Microbial activity and Negative effects on the Adhikari et al.,
nitrogen circulation activities of both 2016
activity ammonium and nitrate
oxidizing bacteria
Polybutylene Ecoflex Plastic films 0.3 mm Soil aqueous 420 days Allium cepa No potential adverse Palsikowski
adipate thickness, 1 cm2 extracts (phytotoxicity, effects et al., 2018
terephthalate cytotoxicity,
(PBAT) genotoxicity and
mutagenicity)
PBAT Ecoflex Polymer granules 350 mg/80 mL Aqueous 21 days Termomonospora fusca, No adverse effects Witt et al., 2001
(100–250 μm) medium luminescence bacteria
(light emission),
Daphnia magna
(mobility)
PBAT Ecoflex Polymer granules 1000 mg/kg Sandy soil 4 periods: Plant growth tests No adverse effects Rychter et al.,
(2 ∗ 20 mm2) 120, 300, 2010
480, 660
days
Polybutylene Plastic films (3 ∗ 3 – Agricultural soil 84 days Nitrogen circulation No adverse effects Adhikari et al.,
succinate (PBS) cm2) activity 2016
PBS blends PBS-starch Plastic films (3 ∗ 3 – Agricultural soil 84 days Nitrogen circulation No adverse effects Adhikari et al.,
cm2) activity 2016
Modified – Biocomposites 100 mg/L Aqueous 48 days Luminescent bacteria No adverse effects Rudnik et al.,
starch-cellulose sieved trough 0.25 medium (light emission) 2007
fibre mm and 0.75 mm
composites
PHB Bacterial PHB nano-plastics – Aqueous 2 days Anabaena sp. PCC7120, Growth reduction, González-Pleiter
origin (75–200 nm) medium Chlamydomonas increase of et al., 2019
reinhardtii Dangeard, intracellular ROS
Daphnia magna levels, severe
membrane damage

Adsorption properties

Country Organic Characteristics Microplastics Concentration Size (avg. Exposure Results References
pollutant diameter period
range)

China Phenanthrene Polyaromatic hydrocarbon PBAT 10 mg 2338 ± 3 days High adsorption properties than Zuo et al., 2019
found at extremely high 486 μm conventional microplastics and
concentrations on 2628 ± carbonaceous geosorbents, Cu2+ions had no
microplastics 623 μm significant effect on sorption

Aging experiment

Technique Source Product Plastics Concentration Conditions Exposure Results References

origin period

Immersion Demineralized water – PLA, polystyrene, PE, 1 × 1 cm2 Continuous exposure to UV 7, 14, 28, Formation of Lambert and
polyethylene light (340–420 nm) 56, 84, microplastics in the Wagner, 2016
terephthalate Temperature = 30 °C 120 days range of 30 nm - 60
μm
20 mL sterilized MilliQ Bacterial PHB microplastics 25, 50 and Temperature = 28 °C 3 days Formation of González-Pleiter
water buffered with 2 mM origin 100 mg/L Constant shaking (135 nanoplastics in the et al., 2019
of phosphate (pH 7.0) rpm) and irradiation (ca. range of 75–200 nm
65 μmol photons m−2 s−1)
Sea water Canada PLA, PE, Starch, PP, 2.5 g in 15 L Temperature = 30 °C 180 days Not all biodegradable Nazareth et al.,
USA PLA, ethylene vinyl Constant aeration plastics are 100% 2019
Brazil acetate and additives degradable
8 V.C. Shruti, G. Kutralam-Muniasamy / Science of the Total Environment 697 (2019) 134139

Agriculture coatings

Agronomic Seed coating Organism Other biocontrol Incubation Effects References

species bioplastic agents
granular
formulation

Corn and Starch based Trichoderma – 21 days Enhanced shoot and root lengths in seeds coated with T. Accinelli et al., 2016
canola bioplastic harzianum harzianum-containing bioplastic than in uncoated seeds,
(plant-growth reduced dust-off from bioplastic-coated seeds compared to
promoting fungus) seeds coated with a commercial polymer
Corn and Starch based Trichoderma Imidacloprid 21 days No negative effect on the seed growth or germination, Accinelli et al., 2016
canola bioplastic harzianum (insecticide) and reduced aflatoxin contamination and seed dust-off release
(plant-growth metalaxyl-M
promoting fungus) (fungicide)
Corn Starch based Aspergillus flavus – 80 days Effective in delivering adherent biocontrol, 4-fold increase in Accinelli et al., 2015
recycled NRRL 30797 recovered non-aflatoxigenic A. flavus
bioplastic
Soybean Starch based Beauveria bassiana, – 7 days Reduction of plant injury higher than 50% Accinelli et al., 2015
bioplastic type Trichoderma
PE01S harzianum
Corn and Starch based Bacillus subtilis QST Imidacloprid 21 days No negative effects on germination or seedling growth, Accinelli et al., 2018
canola liquid bioplastic 713 (insecticide) and greater elongation of corn and canola seedlings, reduced
(growth-promoting pyraclostrobin dust-off from bioplastic-coated seeds
bacterium) (fungicide)
Pinus radiata Chitosan Propolis ethanolic 30 days No-negative effects on germination, significantly enhanced Silva-Castro et al.,
D. Don and (CMMW 60–130 extract survival rates against Fusarium circinatum 2018
Pinus kDa and CLMW
sylvestris L. 20 kDa)
Corn Mater-Bi_(MB) A. flavus NRRL – 7–10 days Controlled aflatoxin concentration and decreased Accinelli et al., 2012
type PE01S 30797 indigenous aflatoxigenic isolates
Corn Mater-Bi_(MB) A. flavus NRRL – 60 days Controlled aflatoxin concentration and decreased Accinelli et al., 2009
type PE01S 30797 indigenous aflatoxigenic isolates
Pesta
(wheat-based
starch)
Corn Mater-Bi_(MB) A. flavus NRRL – 90 days Reduction of aflatoxin contamination Accinelli et al., 2014
type PE01S 30797 and A. flavus
NRRL 21882

necessary for growth and reproduction of microorganisms. Moreover,
polymer degradation in water environments starts with water uptake,
followed by random cleavage of the ester bonds in the polymer chain.
In this regard, hydrolysis rate is greatly influenced by parameters like
temperature, pH and time. For instance, degradability of PLA and PCL
in neutral and acidic conditions is slow and high in basic conditions
(Elsawy et al., 2017). Depending on the environmental medium (soil,
freshwater and marine; aerobic and anaerobic environments), the
abundance of active microbial communities and their concentration
are crucial in biodegradation.
6.2. Polymer characteristics (molecular weight, crystallinity, co-polymer
composition etc.)
Apart from abiotic and biotic factors, the polymer characteristics it-
self influences the rate of degradation in the environment. Molecular
weight of the polymer accelerates or decelerates the degradation pro-
cess. Polymer with high molecular weight has a decreased degradabil-
ity, as lesser will be flexibility of the polymer and greater will be the
polymer's glass transition temperature (Adhikari et al., 2016; Tabasi
and Ajji, 2015). It is also noted that enzymatic hydrolysis initially occurs
in the amorphous regions and the rate of enzymatic degradation de-
creases with increasing crystallinity. Other substances such as additives
and plasticizers if added in plastics during synthesis also have a consid-
erable effect on the degradation rate. Furthermore, the surface chemis-
try and charge of the plastics would influence the microbial colonization
and further the biodegradation process. The rate of polymer degrada-
tion may vary depending on the functional units in the polymer chain:
- (1) more hydrophilic repeat units, 2) more hydrophilic, acidic end
groups, 3) reactive hydrophilic group in the backbone, 4) aromatic
monomers in the polymer main chain and 5) co-polymer and composite
composition. At last, polymer size is also important as polymers with a
shorter chain, more amorphous part, and less complex formula are
more susceptible to biodegradation by microorganisms. Microorgan-
isms use different modii operandi to cleave polymers. As mentioned ear-
lier, microbes secrete enzymes to hydrolyze ester bonds in the polymer
and only acts upon specific functional groups that can be processed.
Moreover, enzymatic hydrolysis of polymers also depends on the pro-
portion of L and D forms of monomers. Enzymes in nature being D-
specific, they cannot act upon the L-monomers in the polymer and con-
sequently, resulting in the fragment. Hence, there is a high possibility
that bio-fragmentation of plastics may occur as a result of enzyme spec-
ificities in nature.
Taking together, the complete breakdown of bioplastics happens
only under the optimized conditions including temperature, pH and
so on. Therefore, in natural conditions, the biodegradation is very slow
process which does not favor an immediate entry into the degradation
cycles of the living organisms allowing un-degraded plastics to persist
in the environment for long time. Given the fragmentation of larger
pieces of bioplastics is inevitable and a fundamental route for degrada-
tion, there is a high possibility of bioplastics forming fragments of vari-
ous sizes (meso, macro, micro and nano) and shapes in environments
during degradation (Lambert and Wagner, 2016; Kubowicz and Booth,
2017; Haider et al., 2019).
7. A simple lab experiment shows directions
Here, we test the formation of MPs by performing a rapid degrada-
tion experiment on PHA films in two different waters of Mexico (tap
water [pH:8.3] and drinking water [pH:6.8]) at laboratory conditions.
PHAs are prominent in various products in the fields of film packing
for foods, agriculture, medicine, consumer electronics, disposable bags,
mulch film, shampoo bottles, detergents and automotive (Khosravi-
Darania and Bucci, 2015; Amelia et al., 2019). Until now, studies related
to PHAs degradation in the aspect of MPs have been largely overlooked.
 V.C. Shruti, G. Kutralam-Muniasamy / Science of the Total Environment 697 (2019) 134139
Fig. 2. Illustration of plastics degradation and related metabolic pathways of biodegradation. (a) Main physical, chemical and biological factors responsible for the degradation of polymers. Any change in the polymer under the influence of these
factors results in the reduction of molecular weight of the polymer. (b). Schematic overview of the basic metabolic pathways and possible mineralization of monomers into CO2 and H2O under aerobic conditions. The intermediates such as
fumarate, succinate and acetyl CoA can enter immediately into Krebs cycle where they are further metabolized. Arrows indicate metabolic flows. Rather than encouraging that the conventional plastics are completely biodegradable, only the
available mineralization pathways are presented here.

9
10 V.C. Shruti, G. Kutralam-Muniasamy / Science of the Total Environment 697 (2019) 134139

The homo-polyester PHB material, synthesized from Cupriavidus
necator H16, was kindly provided by Dr. Fermin Perez-Guevara (DBB,
CINVESTAV-IPN) and used in this study. The PHB films were prepared
by dispersing the polymer into chloroform using a high-speed shear
mixer for 30 min at 6000 rpm. The polymer solutions were cast onto
glass Petri dishes, and films were obtained without additives after sol-
vent evaporation at room temperature. The PHB-films were kept at
room temperature in dry conditions for 1 day before transferring
them to respective aqueous mediums. 0.1 g of PHB films was taken
and immersed in 25 mL of each water. They were kept at room temper-
ature (23 °C ± 4°) in open flasks without agitation for 30 days. Firstly,
from macroscopic level identification, visible fragments of plastics
were observed as shown in Fig. 3. Later, microscopic (Nikon
epifluorescence microscope H6000L) observations showed the pres-
ence of plastic debris confirming the fragmentation of films in both
water samples (Fig. 3a–f). Filamentous fungi and bacteria that thrive
upon the polymers for carbon energy were immensely found, enhanc-
ing polymer breakdown, in all water-samples (Haider et al., 2019).
Moreover, a rapid screening of water samples for MPs using Nile red
(250 mg/L of acetone) (Maes et al., 2017) identified the fluoresced plas-
tic particles (Fig. 3g–j). From these initial tests, it is obvious that the PHB
films present MPs upon degradation.
To obtain MPs for scanning electron microscope (SEM) observation,
water-samples were filtered through a nitrocellulose filter paper (0.2
μm pore size) with a vacuum pump and air dried in the laboratory.
The experiment was carried out in laminar flow cabinet taking control
measures as previously reported (Shruti et al., 2019). The collected
MPs were studied for shape, size and surface characteristics using
Field Emission-SEM. MPs were found in a wide range of shapes like
film, irregular and pits (Fig. 3k–n). The primary degradation morphol-
ogy of MPs was deep cracks, fractures and pits as seen in Fig. 3o. The
bulk degradation was observed on almost entire MPs surface that pre-
dominantly involves simple hydrolysis of main chain ester bonds by
the enzymes secreted by organisms. SEM images of PHB MPs showed
rich microbial community developing on their surface. The polymer
degrading filamentous fungi organisms were found attached on the sur-
face of MPs (Fig. 3n and p). The collected MPs ranged in size from 25 μm
to 1 mm similar to conventional plastics (Fig. 3). It is important to men-
tion here that the shown MPs were only the resulting products of partial
degradation of a single polymer film (0.1 g). To the best of our knowl-
edge, these first state-of-the-proof findings demonstrate that the shred-
ding of larger items of PHB in water environment leads to relatively
rapid formation of macro (b5 mm), micro (100–1600 μm) and nano
(b50 μm) plastics. Conventional MPs ingested by fishes and other organ-
isms (collected from field) in environmental conditions are similar in
range to those reported in this study (Carbery et al., 2018; de Sá et al.,
2018; Barboza et al., 2018). If so, the newly generated MPs from
bioplastics in different sizes and shapes, by ending up in the environ-
ment, have high availability and pose risks to wider range of organisms.
However, microplastics originated experimentally from the fragmenta-
tion of the bioplastics tested may undergo further degradation faster
than fragments originating from conventional plastic polymers. In this
sense, microplastics formed from bioplastics may be less persistent in
the environment which requires additional studies. Moreover, the
cracks present in the biodegradable MPs can also contribute in the en-
richment of organic pollutants on their surfaces (Wardrop et al., 2016).

Fig. 3. Images of microplastics formed in water environment under laboratory conditions from PHB films produced by C. necator H16. Microscopic images of PHB microplastics obtained in
tap water (a–c) and drinking water (d–f) after 30 days of experiment. (g–j) Fluorescent staining of microplastics particles using Nile red under a Nikon epifluorescence microscope H6000L
provided with a G-2A excitation filter (510–560 nm) and a 590 nm barrier filter. Two images of the same spot are shown: Bright-field [left (40×)], Nile red staining fluorescence [right]. The
red fluorescence indicates plastic particles. (k–p) SEM images of PHB microplastics particles. (k–m) Irregularly shaped plastic particle; it suggests a degradation fragment. (n) PHB
microplastic fragment shows organisms adhered on its surface. (o) Pits on the PHB microplastic. The higher magnification of SEM image showing surface cracks and pits. (p) It
represents numbers of fragments and films in varying sizes caused by degradation of a larger PHB film.
 V.C. Shruti, G. Kutralam-Muniasamy / Science of the Total Environment 697 (2019) 134139
Overall, this lab experiment serves as a first look towards under-
standing the degradation of biobased polymers in the generation of
MPs at laboratory conditions. Our results also supported the notion
that MPs are common feature and innate property of both conventional
plastics (e.g. PE, PET) and biodegradable plastics (this study; Lambert
and Wagner, 2016; Kubowicz and Booth, 2017; González-Pleiter et al.,
2019). These results also remind that plastics pollution can only be di-
minished via bioplastics, but MPs contamination will remain at large.
8. Missing links, challenges and recommendations
Currently, we are living at the era of MPs. With the switch towards
bioplastics' replacement for most conventional plastics, MPs contami-
nation originating from bioplastics is just around the corner. Recent
years have witnessed an increased attention towards bioplastics MPs
and the potential effects found in those studies are alarming and must
be recognized in the research community. One of the most interesting
questions in MPs researches is that how closer we are moving towards
the management of plastic contamination. Understanding the effects
and differences among and between the MPs types (conventional and
bioplastics) can offer important considerations for future implications.
As bioplastics are becoming representative in MPs investigation, it is
our vision to bring together these MPs in a common framework that
would allow us to assess the contribution of the MPs in the environment
and health impacts. While considering the immense collective knowl-
edge of conventional MPs, bioplastics MPs are either broadly neglected
or at growing stage. Here, we point out important links and concerns
that may provide pioneering insights, however, require direct and rigor-
ous investigations, as follows:
Knowledge gap 1. The disintegration and degradation behavior
of bioplastics to MPs and NPs are less documented. The disintegration
and degradation data are fundamental in defining the behavior of any
biodegradable product in a certain environment and important starting
point for improving the research of microplastics. Frequently, studies
attempting to address the degradation behavior of bioplastics have
not been tested for MPs formation (Bagheri et al., 2017; Nazareth
et al., 2019). As mentioned previously, only two researches have dem-
onstrated how abiotic factors affect the degradation of bioplastics into
MPs and NPs in mineralized water (Lambert and Wagner, 2016;
González-Pleiter et al., 2019) (Table 2). However, with the available
studies, it is very hard finding sufficient data to estimate the degradation
of bioplastics in diverse compartments.
Recommendations: In order to obtain a better understanding of this
issue, we need as a first priority, more elaboration on studies to develop
better estimates of the bioplastic's fragmentation (i.e. blends, copoly-
mers) in a broad range of environmental conditions. Existing quantita-
tive methods like nanoparticle tracking analysis and Coulter Counter
techniques will be helpful to measure the amounts of MPs generated
during degradation and to study the aging of plastic debris within the
continuum of size categories (from macroscopic, to micrometric down
to the nanoscale) generated by the degradation of a single polymer film.
Knowledge gap 2. Studies to demonstrate less persistence and en-
suring degradability of bioplastics in environmental conditions are
of immediate interest. As is often quoted in the recent studies,
bioplastics may undergo degradation faster than fragments originating
from conventional plastic polymers and less persistent in the environ-
ment. It is ambitious enough to guarantee no biodegradable polymer
fragments will persist in the environment. Surprisingly, the slow de-
gradability of bioplastics in sea water environment have been noted
(CalRecycle, 2012; Bagheri et al., 2017; Sashiwa et al., 2018;
Morohoshi et al., 2018) and, in some cases, non-degradability of
bioplastics has been observed too (Nazareth et al., 2019). It arises seri-
ous concerns about their persistence and degradability nature in envi-
ronment. There are some unique challenges associated with effects
research as persistence is governed by various factors such as
11
aggregation, environment, plastics properties that warrant additional
consideration.
Recommendations: Laboratory studies to investigate the interplay of
physical, chemical and biological factors over the degradation of
bioplastics are recommended.
Knowledge gap 3. It is too early to claim threatening statuses
over biodegradable MPs as the literature suffers from less data.
Only handful of studies have identified effects of biodegradable MPs
using a smaller number of bioplastics types on very limited aquatic
and freshwater organisms (Table 2). It is underlined here that the po-
tential effects of biodegradable MPs are not tested and unknown on
range of animals of commercial interest that are consumed by humans
as food (e.g. Clupea harengus, Decapterus macrosoma, Decapterus
muroadsi, Engraulis japonicas, Gadus morhua, Micromesistius poutassou,
Sardinella longiceps, Sardina pilchardus, Sprattus sprattus, Scomberomorus
cavalla, Scomber japonicas, and Scomber scombrus etc.). Under these cir-
cumstances, we are in a difficult position to pinpoint more specific
threats that biodegradable MPs might develop for organisms' and eco-
system health. Hence, a broader picture is needed by testing the poten-
tial effects of biodegradable MPs on different organisms that will allow
us to assess and integrate a dimension on the implications for human
food security, food safety and health.
Knowledge gap 4. The role of biodegradable MPs in shaping the
nature and conduct of health research is lacking. Emerging evidences
suggest that human exposure to MPs and NPs is possible via inhalation
(air, atmospheric fallout), ingestion (seafood, processed foods, sugar,
salt, beverages etc.) and dermal contact (face wash, cosmetics). In the
same time, aquatic organisms and other species, including humans,
can absorb MPs that are either excreted or absorbed in certain types of
body tissue. Alarmingly, recent study has identified MPs of various
types (PP, PET, PS, PE, polycarbonate, polyvinylchloride, polyamide
and polyurethane) in human stool (faeces) by assessing 8 individuals
living in the following countries: United Kingdom, Netherlands, Italy,
Austria, Poland, Finland, Russia and Japan; 100% of the tested individuals
showed positive for microplastics in stool (Liebmann et al., 2018).
Moreover, an in vitro study assessed the toxicity of PP MPs (~20 μm
and 25–200 μm) in human derived cells and revealed that higher con-
centrations can stimulate the immune system and enhance potential
hypersensitivity via an increase in the levels of cytokines and histamines
in PBMCs, Raw 264.7 and HMC-1 cells (Hwang et al., 2019). Another
study with cerebral and epithelial human cells evidenced the potential
of MPs (10 μm) and NPs (40–250 nm) to cause cytotoxic effects at cell
level in terms of oxidative stress (Schirinzi et al., 2017), emphasizing
need of studies to investigate the possible consequences for human
health. Given the non-toxic and biocompatible nature of bioplastics,
the monomeric units of PHAs and PLA have revealed no effects on the
overall shape, physiology, growth, and cytotoxicity of target and sur-
rounding (Ali and Jamil, 2016); there is no clear evidence for effects of
increased concentration and for different cell lines. However, it is im-
portant to take into account that PHB-NPs exerted diverse effects on
the organisms of different habitats (freshwater, soil) (González-Pleiter
et al., 2019). Thus, several uncertainties exist in the biodegradable
MPs and NPs toxicity outcome studies.
Recommendations for 3 and 4: The available literature can benefit by
including studies dealing with tracking of biodegradable MPs upon in-
gestion, mortality, reproductive impairment, neurotoxicity, biotransfor-
mation of enzymes, genotoxicity, oxidative stress and damage,
cytotoxicity on wider range of organisms and human cell lines. It is
worth to start focusing investigations on the chemical and microbiolog-
ical hazards and risks associated with ingested bioplastics MPs and to
evaluate the intake and translocation of these particles in organisms in-
cluding humans. Further, monitoring the presence of bioplastics MPs in
food web and food chain is critical.
Knowledge gap 5. It is difficult to determine the relative contri-
bution of risks associated to biodegradable MPs based on their
size, shape, surface chemistry and type. Taking into account the
12 V.C. Shruti, G. Kutralam-Muniasamy / Science of the Total Environment 697 (2019) 134139
information available from literature, it is understood that MPs can dis-
play distinctive effects on different organisms based on their concentra-
tion level, size, shape and type (de Sá et al., 2018). While this problem
has been acknowledged by many authors in MPs field, unfortunately,
the actual knowledge on biodegradable MPs is less studied and incom-
plete. A serious consideration on biodegradable MPs from this point of
view may enhance our understanding on their potential effects.
Recommendations: Certainly, extensive laboratory studies will be
needed to document the toxicity of microplastics, including their con-
centrations in the environment, polymer type, size, shape, surface
chemistry and charge. However, the (eco)toxicological characterization
of every conceivable future exposure scenario is impossible, and so is
proving the absence of risk. To start implementing, we can take benefit
of the experiences on conventional MPs as a reference to gather re-
quired information on biodegradable MPs. In this regard, a well outlined
12 basic principles of sound ecotoxicology can be considered during ex-
perimental design (Harris et al., 2014).
Knowledge gap 6. The risk potential of biofilm coated MPs is ter-
rifying and far from our understanding. As seen in Fig. 3, polymer
degrading bacteria and fungi often colonize on the surface of the MPs
forming plastisphere or biofilms. The resulting density increase may
lead the particles sink to the seafloor and could attract invertebrates ca-
pable of grazing on plastic inhabitants. The potential of biofilm coated
MPs have been identified in two different aspects. (1) Disease vectors:
A recently performed lab experiment has brought the first proof that
biofilm coated MPs could act as a disease vector of pathogens (Rotjan
et al., 2019). Authors found that the interactive effects of MPs and
their microbial load are lethal on individual organisms as a consequence
of MPs ingestion. (2) Metal accumulation: Another study showed that
biofilms can significantly facilitate accumulation of metals on MPs
(Richard et al., 2019).
What about the future? Our fundamental focus on this subject is
about the composition and abundance of microbial populations on
MPs. More environmentally realistic, one cannot necessarily expect
the same microbiome between the conventional and biodegradable
MPs. Because, it is well known that the abundance of microbiome
changes on the basis of available substrate and microbial population of
given environment. For example, microbial communities colonizing PP
marine debris were dominated by the genus Vibrio (Dang et al., 2007),
an opportunistic pathogenic bacterium; bacterial colonization of
polyvinylchloride was dominated by Rhodobacterales (Zettler et al.,
2013), a group of potentially opportunistic pathogens. In soil environ-
ment, the fungal isolates of genus Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium,
Verticillium, Aureobasidium were found to dominate and degrade the
polyester polymers (PHA, PLA) more rapidly when compared to bacte-
ria (genus: Bacillus, Paenibacillus, Streptomyces, Rhodococcus, Pseudomo-
nas) (Volovaa et al., 2015). Moreover, in sea water, bacterial strains
belonging to the families Rhodobacteraceae, Rhodospirillaceae,
Oceanospirillaceae and Alteromonadaceae were found to dominate on
the bioplastic films (Morohoshi et al., 2018). When looking from the
perspective of the biodegradable MPs, we do not know how organisms
respond or not respond to the microbial load they carry; how much
(un)certainty do we expect to such exposure? Given the excretion na-
ture of MPs by organisms, there is a high possibility of either ending
up in the environment or uptake again by other organisms. As far as
the environmental durability of major biodegradable MPs is not
known, it is tempting to investigate about their ability for repeated up-
take and bioaccumulation of metals/other contaminants, followed by
their subsequent release.
Recommendations: We can apply the same approach from the recent
practices to assess biofilm coated biodegradable MPs. The tests can be
performed on the region-specific commercial organisms to gain better
understanding of the microbial load that was grown on biodegradable
MPs from the marine environment (where the organism is taken).
This assessment of MPs on disease susceptibility in the marine environ-
ment can offer additional insight into potential mechanisms.
Knowledge gap 7. The (eco)toxicological characterization studies
have been focused primarily on individual MPs types without ac-
counting for the influence of the heterogeneous population of
MPs. In the real-world environmental settings, it is expected that mix-
ture of plastic particles in different forms and composition have been ac-
cumulating and easily been accessed by living organisms. Evidently,
many organisms, collected from field, have found ingested with a mix-
ture of MPs (de Sá et al., 2018). So far, most studies had evaluated
MPs impacts by exposing organisms to a single type of conventional
MPs under lab conditions. The available reports do not guarantee
much how the heterogeneity within the MPs exposure may pose risks
on the individual. Hence, evaluation studies involving mixed popula-
tions of MPs (either conventional, bioplastics or types of both) must
be included.
Recommendations: The highly standardized exposure approaches
within the MPs field can be adapted using the environmentally accept-
able concentration of MPs. The assessments should be able to describe
the quantitative relationship between microplastic exposure and toxic
effects. In this regard, it is recommended to track and estimate the
ingested and excreted MPs to have a global idea on the contribution of
the individual MPs.
Knowledge gap 8. The up-to-date information on the behavioral
effects of biodegradable MPs is relatively unknown. The behavior,
fate, and loading of biodegradable MPs and NPs in the terrestrial envi-
ronment are not fully recognized yet. Based on the scientific evidence
available, there is no sufficient meaningful knowledge of biodegradable
MPs for following aspects: - sorption, desorption and leaching charac-
teristics (i.e. metals, genetic material, chemical contaminants), aggrega-
tion behavior; different surface functionalities in MPs and their
potential to enhance the transport of other pollutants.
Recommendations: A series of tests that have been employed on con-
ventional plastics must be conducted with bioplastics in future. A rela-
tive assessment on the potential ecological interactions of
biodegradable MPs versus well-studied chemicals (endogenous plastic
additives, metals, persistent organic pollutants, PAHs, dichlorodiphenyl-
trichloroethane, polychlorinated biphenyls) will expand our fundamen-
tal understanding of the environmental processes and conditions that
affect different types of NPs and MPs in the transport of these contami-
nants present in soils. Continuing this path will certainly guide our fu-
ture to look solutions for environmental and sustainability issues.
With those being said, we believe that the research field of biode-
gradable MPs is in its infancy and bioplastics deserve a missing link sta-
tus in MPs field. It is worth (re)examining the fundamental issues of
MPs and revisiting them in the context of biodegradable MPs. The future
efforts would bring valuable information providing basis for environ-
mental research and shaping the current MPs perception.
9. Social aspects
Concern 1: Based on the risks and concerns of MPs, by 2018, United
States and British government have raised ban on products
like i.e., microbeads, in personal care products and EU
raised ban on oxo-biodegradable plastics. Nonetheless,
bioplastics MPs (i.e. cellulose acetate, irregular, 300–400
μm, 0.1 t; PLA, sphere/irregular, b315 μm, 0.485 t) are
being added intentionally or unintentionally in various
products including coatings, paints, floor coatings, polymer
cement, paper making and polishing agents (European
Commission, 2017). It is assumed that MPs could possibly
be emitted into the environment with the use and disposal
of these products. These MPs may pose a significant risk to
our soils, freshwater and marine environments, wildlife,
and ultimately, human populations. However, the dynamic
nature of coated MPs is not reflected in most studies. In
terms of outcomes, understanding the exposure and their
potential risks require immediate attention. In addition,
 V.C. Shruti, G. Kutralam-Muniasamy / Science of the Total Environment 697 (2019) 134139
governments must consider the exposure levels of these
MPs in policy options to steer future developments.
Concern 2: All that glitters is not gold; More likely, plastics claiming as
“biodegradable” are not necessarily 100% degradable. Re-
cent studies have tested the degradability nature of some
commercially available biodegradable plastics in diverse
environments and found undegraded under time scale to
which those claims relate (Nazareth et al., 2019; Napper
and Thompson, 2019). This alerts researchers to assess
and have an in-depth understanding on the environmental
degradability performance of available and the upcoming
biodegradable plastics. These measures would help us to
predict the persistence of commercial biodegradable plas-
tics in the environment and further, develop strict control
for achieving a sustainable environment.
Concern 3: Biodegradable plastics can be recycled by degradation to
generate petrochemical products (organic fuels). However,
bioplastics face several challenges before they get recycled.
When bioplastics are not discarded properly, they are diffi-
cult to isolate from mixed plastic waste that contain other
recyclable (PE, PP, PET) and non-recyclable plastics. As a
consequence, the bioplastics ending up in this entire lot
could possibly be left unrecycled and actually harmful.
The consumers could be more careless about the proper
disposal of products made of bioplastics (often more ex-
pensive). The awareness must be created to customers, so
that they can have an understanding of their own in the
context of bioplastics and their disposable nature enabling
them to select appropriate methods for proper discard of
bioplastics. Creative ideas should be generated like collec-
tive vending machines in super markets and metro stations
to facilitate the collection and many installations should be
encouraged. A well-managed collection of bioplastics could
pave way for the reduction of plastic waste pollution and
make them economically beneficial.
10. Conclusion
Since the growth and demand of bioplastics are increasing in the
plastics industry, further research within MPs context is regarded as
necessary. In this concern, the identified possible gaps would bring
novel insights over biodegradable MPs in different environmental and
health aspects. Also, our study demonstrated that apart from the biode-
gradability, the formation of MPs is inevitable in bioplastics. Accord-
ingly, more efforts need to be taken to explore the degradation of
diverse bioplastics to MPs contamination. We hope that researchers
will integrate bioplastics into a broader context, which will help future
research and unify the existent literature. Addressing the concerns in
the coming years will enlighten our understanding of the real impacts
of these micro-contaminants on the environment.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financialinterestsor personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
VCS thanks CONACYT project no. 274276 “Fase I De La Remediación
de Áreas Contaminadas Con Hidrocarburos En La Refinería Gral. Lázaro
Cárdenas” for posdoctoral fellowship. Authors thank Dr. Fermin Pérez-
Guevara (DBB, CINVESTAV-IPN) for his valuable suggestions in this
work, Joel Alba Flores (DBB, CINVESTAV-IPN) for his help in the experi-
ments, Jorge Roque de la Puente (LANE, CINVESTAV-IPN) for his
13
assistance in FESEM imaging and Juan Corona Hernandez (DBB,
CINVESTAV-IPN) for his assistance in the artworks of this paper.
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