Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 2795–2800

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Energy Conversion and Management

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Effects of inlet relative humidity and inlet temperature on the performance

of counterflow wet cooling tower based on exergy analysis
Thirapong Muangnoi a, Wanchai Asvapoositkul b,*, Somchai Wongwises b
a
The Joint Graduate School of Energy and Environment, King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi, Bangmod, Thungkru, Bangkok 10140, Thailand
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi, Bangmod, Thungkru, Bangkok 10140, Thailand

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The purpose of this study is to analyze the influence of the ambient temperature and humidity on the
Received 21 January 2007 performance of a counterflow wet cooling tower according to the second law, exergy analysis, of thermo-
Received in revised form 23 August 2007 dynamics. First, the properties of water and air flow through the tower were predicted and validated by
Accepted 24 March 2008
the experiment. Exergy analysis then has been carried out for investigating the cooling tower perfor-
Available online 6 May 2008
mance with various inlet air conditions, relative humidity and dry bulb temperature, while the water side
condition is kept constant. According to the analysis in this paper, the similar result in terms of required
Keywords:
dry air flow rate, exergy change of water and that of air, exergy destruction and second law efficiency
Exergy analysis
Wet cooling tower
were obtained for the various inlet air conditions. The exergy change of water Dxw is higher than that
Exergy change of air Dxair, since Dxw is the available energy of water to supply to air throughout the tower while Dxair
Second law efficiency is the available energy of air to recover or utilize that supplied by water. It reveals that Dxair is dominated
by the exergy change of air due to evaporative heat transfer. In addition, it gives a clearer explanation of
the cooling tower performance and gives clear trends for optimization.
Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction effective measure of the potential of system to impact the environ-

Wet cooling tower is essentially a semi-enclosed evaporative
cooling device [1] undergoing a psychrometric process which is
considered as a control-volume system. The working fluids are
water and moist air. The cooling tower utilizes the modes of evap-
orative heat and mass transfer and convective heat transfer to cool
warm water to approach the inlet wet bulb temperature, by mean
of direct contact between water droplets falling from top and the
countercurrent moist air stream.
The analyses of thermal systems such as cooling tower are gen-
erally based on the concept of the first law of thermodynamics. The
energy conservation has been used to determine the amount of en-
ergy transfer between system and environment. The idea is that
energy cannot be created or destroyed. On the other hand, energy
entering is conserved until leaving the system. However, the en-
ergy analysis alone provides no information of energy transfer
from the best possible. It shows only a quantity of energy transfer.
Thus, it is insufficient to indicate some aspects of energy utilization
and, thus, may be misleading. On the contrary, the second law of
thermodynamics gives a powerful concept of exergy to fulfill of
this incompleteness. Exergy is a measure of the usefulness, quality
or potential of energy to cause change, and it appears to be an
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +662 470 9338; fax: +662 470 9111.
E-mail address: wanchai.asv@kmutt.ac.th (W. Asvapoositkul).
ment [2].
Bejan [3] indicated a method of exergy analysis when the pro-
cess or system undergoes a control-volume pyschrometric process.
It is noted that total exergy is determined as the sum of thermome-
chanical exergy and chemical exergy where the latter is a major
component of total exergy involving mixture, such as moist air at
different temperature and composition [4]. Shukuya and Hamm-
ache [5] informed that thermomechanical exergy and chemical
exergy play an important role in assessing the true thermodynam-
ics merit of psychrometric process application. Furthermore, they
outlined the determination of exergy of moist air and water exist-
ing in psychrometric process. Lu et al. [6] investigated an exergy
change of one cooling tower with ozonation system from various
inlet dry bulb temperatures with fixed inlet humidity. An analysis
assumed a saturated exit air, and the result showed that the exergy
change increased as the increase of inlet dry bulb temperature.
However, the analysis neglected chemical exergy component.
Chengqin et al. [7] gave the principles of exergy analysis for evalu-
ating HVAC system, with a suggestion of dead state selection in the
calculation. Liley [8] tabulated the exergy of moist air for various
temperature and pressure. Qureshi and Zubair [9] summarized
an analytical framework of exergy and the analysis of cooling
tower performance based on second law efficiency. The analysis
of second law efficiency varies for two inlet parameters; inlet
wet bulb temperature and inlet water temperature. The results

0196-8904/$ - see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2008.03.019
2796 T. Muangnoi et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 2795–2800

Nomenclature

a air/water interfacial area per unit volume of tower, m2/ DXw exergy of water, kW
m3
A tower cross sectional area, m2 Greek symbols
cpa specific heat of dry air at constant pressure, kJ/kg K q air density, kg/m3
cpv specific heat of water vapor at constant pressure, kJ/kg K x humidity ratio, kgw/kga
cpw specific heat of water at constant pressure, kJ/kg K xs,w saturated humidity ratio evaluated at Tw, kgw/kga
G dry air mass flow rate, kg/s h relative humidity, %
h enthalpy, kJ/kg w specific exergy, kJ/kg
hf,w enthalpy of saturated liquid water evaluated at Tw, kJ/kg wtm specific thermomechanical exergy, kJ/kg
hg,w enthalpy of saturated water vapor evaluated at Tw, kJ/kg wch specific chemical exergy, kJ/kg
H tower height, m
Ka tower characteristic, kg/m3 s Subscripts
L water mass flow rate, kg/s 0 restricted dead state
Lef Lewis factor (unity) 00 environment
P pressure, kPa air moist air
R gas constant, kJ/kg K conv convective heat transfer
s entropy, kJ/kg K evap evaporative heat transfer
sf,w entropy of water, kJ/kg K exp experiment
T temperature, °C e exit
Tdb dry bulb temperature, °C i inlet
Twb wet bulb temperature, °C pred prediction
Xdes exergy destruction, kW req require
DXair exergy of air, kW w water

showed that as the inlet wet bulb temperature increases, the sec- It can be noted that thermomechanical exergy is the exergy that
ond law efficiency increases. On the other hand, the second law change from actual state to restricted dead state and chemical exer-
efficiency decreases as the increase of inlet water temperature. In gy is such that change from restricted dead state to environmental
addition, they studied the effect of variation in the dead state state. Thus,
and found that it does not significantly affect to the second law X
n
efficiency. Recently, Muangnoi et al. [10] studied on the perfor- w  ðh  h0 Þ  T 0 ðs  s0 Þ þ xk ðlk;0  lk;00 Þ; ð2Þ
mance of counterflow wet cooling tower via exergy through the k¼1

tower height. They illustrated exergy of water, and exergy of moist where xk is the mole fraction of substance k in the mixture, and sub-
air partly expressed in term of exergy of convective heat transfer scripts ‘‘0” and ‘‘00” represent the restricted dead state and environ-
and evaporative heat transfer. It can be noted from the results that mental state, respectively. In wet cooling tower, the working fluids
exergy of moist air is dominated by that of evaporative heat trans- involved are only water and moist air. On the basis of Eq. (2), it can
fer, and it plays an important role in recovering exergy supplied by be written the specific exergy equation of water ww when consider-
water. ing as an incompressible fluid as [11]
Accordingly, a study on the effect of cooling tower performance
through exergy in various inlet air conditions when the water side ww ¼ ðhf;w  hf;0 Þ þ mf;T ðP  P sat;T Þ  T 0 ðsf;w  sf;0 Þ  Rv T 0 ln h0 ð3Þ
condition was specified does not exist. This is important because Practically, the second term on the right hand side of Eq. (3) is usu-
when the water condition, especially the required exit water tem- ally neglected when comparing with RvT0lnh0. So, the exergy equa-
perature, is given; it is difficult to approach that temperature if the tion of water Xw is eventually become
inlet air condition exists inconsistently or off-designs. One way to
achieve such water condition, the inlet air flow rate should vari- X w ¼ L½ðhf;w  hf;0 Þ  T 0 ðsf;w  sf;0 Þ  Rv T 0 ln h0 : ð4Þ
able. So, it is also good to conduct the exergy analysis in consider-
For the moist air, it is considered as an ideal gas mixture which
ation the efficiency of such operating conditions.
consists of dry air and water vapor. Writing for the specific exergy
The objective of this paper is to indicate the variation in exergy
equation of moist air wair is given as [5]
change of water and air under various inlet air conditions, also  
with the corresponding second law efficiency and exergy destruc- T P
wair ¼ ðcpa  xcpv Þ T  T 0  T 0 ln þ ð1 þ 1:608xÞRa T 0 ln
tion when the condition of water side is fixed. This study is useful T0 P0
 
for determining the operating point of cooling tower in various in- ð1 þ 1:608x00 Þ x
þ Ra T 0 ð1 þ 1:608xÞ ln þ 1:608x ln :
let air conditions performing thermodynamically valuable. ð1 þ 1:608x0 Þ x00
ð5Þ
2. Analytical framework of exergy
It is considered that no pressure change throughout the tower
(P = P0). So, the exergy of moist air Xair can be finally written as
At steady state condition when the effects of kinetic and poten-
tial energy are neglected, the specific exergy which consists partly   
T
of thermomechanical exergy and partly of chemical exergy can be X air ¼ G ðcpa  xcpv Þ T  T 0  T 0 ln
T0
generally written as  
ð1 þ 1:608x00 Þ x
þRa T 0 ð1 þ 1:608xÞ ln þ 1:608x ln ð6Þ
w ¼ wtm þ wch ; ð1Þ ð1 þ 1:608x0 Þ x00
 T. Muangnoi et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 2795–2800 2797

For the case of a steady-flow system, the exergy transfer to the L

dT w ¼ ðdh  hf;w dxÞ: ð11Þ
system is equal to the exergy transfer from it plus the exergy Gcpw
destruction within the system. When the process is considered to
The above equations, Eqs. (9)–(11), are iteratively solved from
undergo an adiabatic process with no work interaction, the exergy
bottom to top of the tower. Since Le and G are two unknown
destruction represents the loss potential of air to recover the exer-
parameters. The initial values of these couple are assumed. The
gy carried by water, Eq. (7). The exergy balance is as follow [10]:
iterative calculation of these parameters will be end when the
ðX w;i þ X air;i Þ ¼ ðX w;e þ X air;e Þ þ X des change of Li between the given value and the calculating value is
|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl} |fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl} |{z}
Total exergy Total exergy Destroyed small.
entering leaving exergy
4. Experimental apparatus and procedure
or can be written as:
X des ¼ ðX w;i  X w;e Þ þ ðX air;i  X air;e Þ ð7Þ A schematic diagram of an experimental apparatus carrying out
in this study is shown in Fig. 1. The experimental unit consists of
where (Xw,i  Xw,e) is considered as the change of supplied exergy, cooling tower, circulating pipe, storage tank with heater, and col-
and (Xair,i  Xair,e) is the change of recovered exergy along the cool- lecting data devices. The tested cooling tower is a mechanical
ing tower. draft-counterflow type where the fill height is 0.50 m, the cross
The second law efficiency, gQ , indicated how well of the effi- sectional area is 0.196 m2, and the Ka-value is 2.383 kg/m3 s.
ciency the process has is defined as Hot water is pumped from the storage tank which is heated by
X air;e þ X air;i heaters and controlled by temperature controller, passes through
gQ ¼ : ð8Þ
X w;i  X w;e the pipe and enters cooling tower at top. Water flow rate is ad-
justed by flow control valve installed next to the pump where its
3. Mathematical formulation for wet cooling tower value is read by flow meter. Cooled water exits the tower at bottom
and recirculates to the storage tank throughout the test duration.
The purpose of formulating mathematical model is to find the Moist air is induced by fan and enters from bottom, flowing pass
properties of water and moist air through the cooling tower for fill at the middle, and is finally discharged to the atmosphere at
using in the exergy analysis. The model is based on the basis of top of the tower. The flow rate is alternatively measured by ane-
heat and mass transfer where the main assumptions enclosed in mometer for air velocity with known tower cross sectional area.
the formulation and the detail calculation are found in [10,12]. Humidity ratio and dry bulb temperature distributing inside the
At steady state condition, the change of moist air enthalpy and tower are measured via hygrometer (psychrometer) in which its
humidity ratio respect to the discrete height of the tower dH is gi- measuring tip is protected from contacting water. Also, water tem-
ven by peratures distributing inside the tower are measured by thermo-
couples. The specifications of the measuring devices are listed in
dh KaA
¼ ½Lef cpa ðT w  TÞ þ hg;w ðxs;w  xÞ; ð9Þ Table 1.
dH G Before doing the experiment, water which was collected in stor-
dx KaA
¼ ðxs;w  xÞ: ð10Þ age tank was heated to the desired temperature. Flow control valve
dH G
was adjusted and the water flow rate was measured. Air velocity
It is also obtained the change of water temperature to the discrete was measured at the air inlet. During the experiment, water was
height of tower as uniformly distributed from nozzles to the fill, while air was flown

Air exit

A = 0.196 m2
Tdb, RH Tw

Temp. Controller Hygrometer H = 0.50 m

Tdb, RH Tw
Flow meter

Hot water
Pump Valve

Anemometer
Heater Water inlet Air inlet

Water exit

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of experimental unit.

2798 T. Muangnoi et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 2795–2800

Table 1
Measuring devices specifications

Device Type Accuracy Operating range Working fluid

Thermocouple Type-K ±0.3 °C 0–200 °C Water
Flow meter Rotameter 2% of reading value 10–75 L/min Water
Anemometer Vane 2% of reading value 0.4–30.0 m/s Air
Hygrometer Handheld 3%RH and ±0.8 °C 0–100%RH and 20 to 60 °C Air

upwards. Water temperatures and air conditions were measured
after adequate time taken for steady state operating condition.
The measurements were the distributed dry bulb temperatures
Tdb, relative humidity /, and water temperatures Tw.
In this study, the tower fill height was divided into equally 10
portions. Thus, the positions for collecting data were as follow:
0.00, 0.06, 0.11, 0.17, 0.22, 0.28, 0.33, 0.39, 0.44, and 0.50 m. The
experimental condition was performed at Li = 0.167 kg/s,
G = 0.186 kg/s, Tw,i = 35.5 °C, Tw,e = 29.7 °C, and Tdb,i = 32.4 °C with
/i = 70%.
5. Results and discussion
Set of the results from the experimental measurements was
used to compare those of the prediction from mathematical model.
They were graphically plotted versus the tower height and shown
in Fig. 2. The predicted values are represented in the line styles.
As can be seen from the figure, Tw decreases continuously as it
flows downwards to the bottom. Air which flows upwards initially
decreases its Tdb and then slightly increases after the intersection
point of Tw and Tdb. Before the intersection point, the lesser Tw than
Tdb indicates the convective heat flow from air to water. At the
intersection point, there is no convective heat flows. Nevertheless,
it flows in opposite direction when Tw is greater than Tdb after the
intersection point. Besides, it knows that the water thermal energy
is removed by both convective and evaporative heat transfer
mechanism in air, and the total heat transfer is dominated by evap-
orative heat transfer [10,13]. The effect from evaporative one can
be indicated in term of humidity or Twb. From the figure, the
humidity and wet bulb temperature increase continuously from
bottom to top. It should be noted that Twb always less than Tw.
Thus, heat still flows from water into air even though at the inter-
section point. From the results given by mathematical model, it can
be noted that most of data of water temperatures, dry bulb tem-
peratures, and relative humidity are fall within 10% of the experi-
ment. Also, those of wet bulb temperatures are fall within 15% of
the experiment.
In practice, the main function of cooling tower is to cool the
warm water carrying waste heat from any processes to the re-
quired temperature. This can be achieved if the inlet air can re-
move that heat adequately, the enthalpy can calculate from
energy balance. However, it is difficult to low the water to that
temperature, because the inlet air condition usually fluctuates
and off-designs. For wet cooling tower, the direct contact air plays
an important role in the success of heat transfer of water. The inlet
relative humidity and dry bulb temperature are determined to be
the dominant parameters to define the inlet air condition. Thus,
the variation of these parameters for the fixed water side condition
is emphasized to study, when the required dry air flow rate Greq is
allowed to be an independent parameter. The effects of these vari-
ations on the second law efficiency, exergy destruction, and exergy
change of water and air are performed. The input fixed condition of
water as appear in the experiment is used, and the values of inlet
air around the experimental condition are varied. Table 2 shows
the varied results of the inlet and exit air conditions. The ambient
condition used for exergy analysis are at T0 = 25 °C, P0 = 1 atm, and
x00 = 0.01603 kgw/kga (/ = 80%).
Figs. 3–5 illustrate the variations of the required dry air flow
rate Greq, exergy change of water and air (DXw and DXair), exergy
destruction Xdes and second law efficiency gP as a function of inlet
relative humidity /i from 40% to 72% while Tdb,i is fixed. From
Fig. 3, Greq gradually increases at low /i and dramatically increases
as /i greater than 65%. The increment of Greq can be attributed to
the energy balance of water and air throughout the cooling tower.
Fig. 4 shows the exergy change of water and air. Exergy change of
water is the potential that water can supply to air throughout the
tower; on the contrary, exergy change of air is the potential that air
can utilize such supply by water throughout the tower. There are
two kinds of exergy change in air: exergy change of air via convec-
tive heat transfer DXair,conv, indicating by dry bulb temperature, and

Table 2
The variation of air conditions

Inlet air condition Exit air condition Required dry

air flow rate
Tdb,i (°C) /i (%) Twb,i (°C) Tdb,e (°C) /e (%) Twb,e (°C) Greq (kg/s)
32.40 40.0 21.91 34.30 98.5 34.08 0.0726
32.40 45.0 22.97 34.08 98.0 33.78 0.0806
32.40 50.0 23.98 33.82 97.2 33.41 0.0914
32.40 55.0 24.96 33.51 96.0 32.92 0.1073
32.40 60.0 25.90 33.14 94.1 32.27 0.1271
32.40 65.0 26.81 32.73 90.8 31.36 0.1725
32.40 70.0 27.69 32.36 84.2 29.99 0.3750
32.40 72.0 28.00 32.30 79.7 29.20 0.7400
27.00 70.0 22.77 33.83 100 33.83 0.0788
28.00 70.0 23.68 33.58 99.6 33.52 0.0877
29.00 70.0 24.59 33.28 98.2 33.02 0.1004
30.00 70.0 25.50 32.49 97.4 32.11 0.1205
31.00 70.0 26.41 32.58 94.6 31.79 0.1580
32.00 70.0 27.32 32.33 88.6 30.64 0.2685
33.00 70.0 28.12 32.88 73.0 28.65 2.1100

Constant input data: Li = 0.167 kg/s, Tw,i = 35.5 °C, Tw,e = 29.7 °C, Ka = 2.383 kg/m3s,
Fig. 2. The plots of predicted and experimental results throughout cooling tower. A = 0.196 m2, H = 0.5 m, and Lef = 1.0.
 T. Muangnoi et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 2795–2800
Fig. 3. Dry air flow rate required to the variation of inlet relative humidity.
Fig. 4. Exergy change of water and air to the variation of inlet relative humidity.
Fig. 5. Second law efficiency and exergy destruction to the variation of inlet relative
humidity.
exergy change of air via evaporative heat transfer DXair,evap, indicat-
ing by humidity [10]. Their exergy are represented on the first and
the second terms on the right hand side of Eq. (6), respectively.
DXair,evap increases is due to the increments of exergy of air via
evaporative heat transfer at the inlet and exit. The increment of
2799
such exergy at the inlet is directly caused by the increments of /i
and Greq. At the exit, the continuous reduction of /e; however, gives
the increment of such exergy by the help of Greq increased. Never-
theless, after /i = 64% the decrement of /e has an important effect
to cause DXair,evap slightly decreases even though Greq increases
sharply. DXair,conv gradually decreases when /i increases. The rea-
son can be attributed to the continuous decrement of the exit air
temperature Tdb,e. The exit air temperature is lower than that of in-
let temperature when /i is greater than about 70%. In this case, it is
important to note that the potential of air due to convective heat
transfer throughout the tower loses to water instead. From these
reasons, it is found that DXair is maximized to 91.8 W at /i = 64%.
For the water side, although the water condition is kept constant,
DXw is slightly increased as increasing /i. This caused from the
increment of Greq, the more the Greq, the more the water mass
evaporates into air. In Fig. 5, these factors combined result that
gP maximize to 60.61%, and the exergy destruction is minimized
to 59.6 W at the inlet humidity of 60%.
Figs. 6–8 show the variations of the required dry air flow rate
Greq, exergy change of water and air (DXw and DXair), exergy
destruction Xdes and second law efficiency gP as a function of inlet
dry bulb temperature Tdb,i from 27 to 33 °C while /i is fixed,
respectively. The attributions for the graphs are similar to those
variations of inlet relative humidity. In Fig. 6, the increment of Greq
is dramatically rises as Tdb,i greater than 32 °C. From Fig. 7, DXair,evap
maximizes to 88.9 W at Tdb,i = 31.5 °C, but DXair,conv turns to lose its
Fig. 6. Dry air flow rate required to the variation of inlet dry bulb temperature.
Fig. 7. Exergy change of water and air to the variation of inlet dry bulb temperature.
2800 T. Muangnoi et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 2795–2800
Fig. 8. Second law efficiency and exergy destruction to the variation of inlet dry
bulb temperature.
potential to water when Tdb,i greater 32.3 °C. The effects of DXair,evap
and DXair,conv cause DXair to maximize 95.3 W at Tdb,i = 30 °C. For
the water side, the increment of Greq still affects to rises the exergy
change of water as increasing Tdb,i. In Fig. 8, it can be also resulted
from the factors combined that gP is maximized to 64.39%, and the
exergy destruction is minimized to 52.7 W at the inlet dry bulb
temperature of 30 °C. In addition, it is also clearly concluded from
the variations of /i and Tdb,i that DXair (DXair = DXair,evap + DXair,conv)
is dominated by DXair,evap.
6. Conclusions
The exergy analysis is used to determine the usefulness of water
can supply to air, the utilization of air can harvest form water, the
opportunity of air which is destroyed to recover such potential
from water, and the overall efficiency throughout cooling tower.
On the other hand, there are exergy change of water, exergy
change of air, exergy destruction, and second law efficiency,
respectively. The properties of water and air essentially using in
the analysis are given by the mathematical model which have been
validated by the experiment. The variation of two parameters in
air, relative humidity and dry bulb temperature, when the water
side condition is kept constant are simulated so that to study the
characteristics of exergy schemes of water and air. The outcomes
of their simulations show the similar result. Neither of the low in-
let relative humidity and temperature nor the high exit relative
humidity and temperature provide a great efficiency usually
understanding in the energy analysis. There is only specific condi-
tion that gives the optimum efficiency analyzing by exergy. In
addition, the advantage of this study is that an energy analysis
alone can not indicate what the value of /i or Tdb,i give the best per-
formance, because the total energy transfer throughout the tower
is constant, determine from the energy balance.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the financial support provided by the
Joint Graduate School of Energy and Environment (JGSEE), King
Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi, and Thailand Re-
search Fund through the Royal Golden Jubilee Ph.D. Program
(Grant No. IUG50K0017). It is appreciated to Thai Cooling Tower
Company for the dedicatory cooling tower to use in this study.
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